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TRAVELS 

IN 

SOUTH-EASTERN  ASIA, 


EMBRACING 


HINDUSTAN,    MALAYA,    SIAM,    AND    CHINA; 


WITH    NOTICES    OF 


NUMEROUS   MISSIONARY   STATIONS, 

AND    A    FULL    ACCOUNT    OF 

THE    BURMAN    EMPIRE; 

WITH 

DISSERTATIONS,  TABLES, 

ETC. 

y 

BY  HOWARD^MALCOM. 

Homo  sum  ;  hmnani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto." Terence. 

SECOND    EDITION. 
TWO    V  O  L  U  31  E  S    IN    ONE. 

VOL.   I. 


BOSTON: 
GOULD,  KENDALL,  AND    LINCOLN. 

SOLD     BY     BOOKSELLERS     GENERALLY     THROUGHOUT     THE 
UNITED     STATES. 

1839. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839, 
By  Gould,  Kendall,  and  Lincoln, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


STEREOTYPED    AT  THE 
BOSTON   TYPE    AND   STEREOTYPE   FOUNDRY. 


PREFACE. 


The  only  aim  of  the  following  pages  is  utility. 
Had  a  place  been  sought  among  admired  travellers,  I 
should  have  given  more  descriptions,  incidents,  and 
delineations  of  private  character ;  and  fewer  facts, 
opinions,  and  reflections ;  which  would  at  once  have 
saved  labor,  and  rendered  me  less  vulnerable. 

Honest  intentions,  diligent  inquiries,  and  fortunate 
opportunities,  will  not  secure  a  traveller  from  errors, 
even  in  Europe  or  America,  where,  in  every  place,  we 
meet  persons  of  veracity,  and  free  to  impart  informa- 
tion. In  the  East,  the  case  is  much  worse.  The 
foreigner,  dreaded  for  his  power,  and  abhorred  for 
his  religion,  excites  both  civil  and  religious  jealousy. 
His  manners  often  displease,  by  the  omission  of  forms 
of  which  he  may  be  ignorant,  or  to  which  he  cannot 
succumb.  He  is  met  with  taciturnity,  or  wilful  mis- 
representation; and  if  he  escape  these,  he  will  gene- 
rally encounter  ignorance.  If  he  be  so  happy  as  to 
find  both  intelligence  and  communicativeness,  the  want 
of  books,  maps,  charts,  and  statistics,  renders  the  infor- 
mation of  natives  merely  local,  and  often  conflicting. 
Added  to  all,  his  interpreter  may  be  unskilful.     If  he 


PREFACE. 


depends  upon  resident  foreigners,  their  arrival  may 
have  been  recent,  or  their  opportunities  small,  or  their 
inquiries  negligent,  or  the  statements  of  one  may  be 
flatly  contradicted  by  those  of  another.  All  these 
embarrassments  have  met  me  by  turns,  so  that  fre- 
quently, after  laborious  and  continued  inquiries,  I  have 
been  compelled  to  lay  aside  the  whole  mass  of  notes,  in 
the  utter  inability  to  decide  whom  to  believe.  I  pre- 
ferred silence,  and  apparent  deficiency,  to  questionable 
statements. 

My  advantages  have,  nevertheless,  been  great.  I 
was  sent  out,  as  the  deputy  and  representative  of  one 
of  the  great  American  Missionary  Societies,  to  examine 
into,  and  with  the  missionaries  adjust,  many  points  not 
easily  settled  by  correspondence ;  to  compare  the  various 
modes  of  operation  in  different  missions  ;  to  survey  the 
field  ;  to  compare  the  claims  of  proposed  new  stations ; 
to  comfort,  encourage,  and  strengthen  the  missionaries 
in  their  arduous  work  ;  and  to  gather  details  on  every 
point  where  the  Board  lacked  information.  Such  a 
mission  gave  me  confidence,  in  the  eyes  of  all  classes, 
wherever  I  went ;  and  toleration  in  making  investiga- 
tions, which  might  otherwise  have  been  deemed 
impertinent.  The  time  spent  at  each  place,  was  suffi- 
cient for  deliberate  inquiries,  from  various  sources. 
In  most  places,  I  found  missionaries  and  civilians, 
who  had  lived  long  on  the  spot,  and  who  gave  me  the 
fruits  of  mature  and  extended  observations.  My  inter- 
preters were  in  general  not  only  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  language,  but  in  the  habit  of  familiar  inter- 
course with  the  people,  and  possessing  their  confidence. 


PREFACE. 


Before  leaving  a  place,  I  generally  submitted  my  notes 
to  several  persons  for  a  careful  revision.  If,  therefore, 
I  should  be  convicted  of  errors,  they  are  such  as  the 
best  informed  persons  on  the  spot  have  fallen  into,  and 
as  my  reader  would  have  imbibed,  had  he  been  in  my 
place.  Some  errors  may  be  charged  to  me,  through 
mistake  of  the  objector ;  for  often,  when  I  read  my 
notes  in  various  places,  gentlemen  dissented  from  some 
statements  with  great  confidence,  the  correctness  of 
which  they  admitted  on  further  examination  ;  which 
examination  they  would  not  have  made,  had  I  not 
quoted  some  influential  name  as  my  informer. 

It  is,  of  course,  out  of  the  question  to  quote  authori- 
ties in  a  work  not  drawn  from  books.  To  have  filled 
the  margin  with  names  would  have  been  to  violate 
propriety,  while  it  could  not  add  to  the  reader's  con- 
fidence to  quote  persons  wholly  unknown  to  him. 
In  every  part  of  the  work  I  have  studiously  sought 
brevity,  lest,  by  diminishing  its  circulation,  my  great 
object  should  be  defeated.  Voluminous  communica- 
tions in  relation  to  my  official  doings,  inquiries,  and 
conclusions,  are  in  possession  of  the  Board,  which  will 
not  be  withheld  from  the  examination  of  proper  appli- 
cants. 

Conversations  with  heathen,  converted  and  uncon- 
verted, often  deeply  interesting,  are  omitted,  because 
they  occur  so  abundantly  in  the  printed  commu- 
nications of  missionaries.  Descriptions,  adventures, 
and  scenery,  as  well  as  geographical,  commercial, 
and  political  memoranda,  are  inserted  only  so  far  as 
comported  with  the  precise  object  in  view.  To  have 
1  * 


PREFACE. 


abstained  wholly  from  such  observations,  would  have 
been  to  withhold  facts  necessary  to  a  proper  knowledge 
of  the  countries  to  which  our  friends  extend  their 
benevolence;  beside  which,  many  of  the  friends  of 
missions  have  access  to  but  few  books;  and  some  will 
be  indebted  to  these  pages,  for  most  of  their  information 
on  the  subjects  which  are  introduced. 

All  works  on  the  East  differ  from  each  other  in  the 
orthography  of  names,  and  few  are  even  consistent 
with  themselves.  Some  seem  to  take  pride  in  a  new 
oithography  of  old  terms;  and  no  two  have  the  same 
system  as  to  new  ones.  This  difficulty  cannot  be 
surmounted,  till  some  mode  of  Romanizing  foreign 
languages  becomes  universal.  Words  which  have 
acquired  an  established  spelling,  I  have  so  given. 
Others  are  written  as  directed  by  some  one  skilled  in 
that  particular  language.  When  no  aid  was  at  hand, 
they  are  given  just  as  they  sounded  to  my  ears,  from 
the  lips  of  natives. 

Every  one  is  embarrassed,  in  reading  works  on  India, 
by  meeting  terms  not  found  either  in  dictionaries  or 
encyclopedias.  An  explanation  given  in  the  margin, 
when  the  term  first  occurs,  cannot  be  always  recollect- 
ed, and  the  note  is  not  easily  found  again.  To  avoid 
this  disadvantage,  I  have  thrown  together  the  necessary 
explanations  in  a  glossary.  Some  terms,  not  used  by 
me,  but  often  occurring  in  Oriental  works,  are  added, 
to  make  it  more  useful. 

The  map  has  been  constructed  with  great  care.  On 
arriving  in  India,  an  outline  was  drawn  on  a  very  large 
scale  ;  and,  as  local  surveys  or  narratives  of  recent  jour- 


PREFACE. 


neys  came  to  hand,  corrections  were  continually  made. 
My  own  tours,  and  conversations  with  missionaries,  and 
other  gentlemen,  furnished  more.  At  the  surveyor- 
general's  office  in  Calcutta,  I  was  allowed  an  inspection 
of  various  recent  unpublished  maps  and  charts  of  Farther 
India.  The  omission  of  unimportant  towns,  and  un- 
certain rivers  and  mountains,  makes  some  parts  of  it 
look  meagre ;  but  confusion  is  thus  avoided  without 
diminishing  the  amount  of  general  information.  A 
slight  comparison  with  other  maps  of  these  regions,  will 
show  that  the  corrections  are  so  important  and  numer- 
ous, as  to  entitle  it  to  be  called  an  original  map. 

Deeming  it  indispensable  that  a  book  of  travels,  in  a 
region  so  unknown,  should  contain  numerous  pictorial 
illustrations,  I  applied  myself  from  the  beginning  to 
making  sketches  at  every  opportunity.  A  large  number 
of  these  are  inserted,  and  constitute  an  entirely  new 
contribution  to  our  stock  of  Oriental  pictures.  These 
and  the  map  considerably  augment  the  cost  of  the 
book,  but  it  is  hoped  not  so  much  as  its  value.  For 
the  views  of  Maulmain,  Tavoy,  and  Mergui,  I  am 
indebted  to  a  distinguished  artist.  That  of  Sagaing 
was  taken  from  the  door  of  Mr.  Kincaid's  house,  and 
shows  a  section  of  his  family  boat,  partly  hid  under  the 
bank.  I  preferred  giving  this  to  a  sketch  of  Ava,  as 
being  most  likely  to  be  the  seat  of  that  mission.  The 
small  size  of  Burman  houses,  and  the  fashion  of  filling 
their  cities  with  stately  fruit-trees,  make  them  all  appear 
to  be  far  less  populous  than  they  really  are. 

It  would  be  a  grateful  task  to  acknowledge  the  kind- 
nesses which  were  multiplied  upon  me  in  every  place. 


8  PREFACE. 

But  such  matters  belong  to  the  sacred  recollections  of 
private  history.  To  publish  them  all,  would  require 
constant  repetitions,  in  which  the  reader  could  take  no 
interest ;  and  to  name  a  part,  would  be  doing  injustice 
to  the  rest.  Suflice  it  to  say,  that  I  was  every  where 
most  affectionately  and  respectfully  received,  for  my 
work's  sake.  Never  had  a  man  kinder  homes  when 
far  from  his  own,  not  only  among  missionaries,  but 
with  private,  civil,  and  military  gentlemen. 

May  He  who  blessed  the  enterprise,  and  bore  me 
safely  through,  bless  the  publication ! 

Boston,  February,  1839. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 
TRAVELS  IN  BURMAH. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Departure  —  Employments  —  Illness  —  Comet  —  Company  —  Preach 
on  Deck  —  Squall  —  Magellan  Clouds  —  Send  Letters  —  Trade- 
Winds —  Another  Illness  —  Tristan  d'Acunha  —  Portuguese  Men- 
of-War  —  Ship  Tigris  for  Ceylon  —  Encounter  hetween  a  Whale 
and  a  Thresher  —  "  Doubling  Cape  of  Good  Hope  "  —  Day  of  Fast- 
ing—  Enormous  Shark — Nicobar  Islands  —  First  Sight  of  Idolaters 

—  Kedgeree  —  Heavy  Dews  —  Andaman  Islands  —  Preparis  and 
Narcondam p.  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

Arrival  at  Amherst  —  First  Sabbath  at  Maulmain  —  Coasting  Voyage 

—  Moungmagoung  —  Curiosity  of  the  People  —  Walk  over  the 
Mountain  — Tavoy  — Mata  —  Karens;  their  Piety,  Liberality, 
Temperance,  Gratitude  ;  Letters  from  Young  Converts  ;  Churches ; 
Books  —  Mergui ;  Population  ;  Chinese ;  Mussulmans  ;  Christians ; 
Siamese  Shyans  ;  Important  as  a  Missionary  Station  —  Tennasserim 
Islands  —  Se-longs  —  Storm  —  Disagreeable  Insects  —  Variety  of 
Costumes  —  Karen  Juggler p.  35 

CHAPTER  III. 

Return  to  Maulmain  —  Missionary  Conference  —  Preaching  —  Balu 
Island  —  Karen  Churches  near  Maulmain  —  Water  Festival  — 
Chinese  Ceremony  —  The  Mohurrum  —  River  Excursion  —  Re- 
markable Caves  —  Karen  Christian  Village  —  Church-Meeting  and 
Baptism  —  Population  of  Maulmain  —  Commerce  —  State  of  Boodh- 
ism  —  State  of  the  Mission  —  English  Influence p.  55 


10  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

Population  of  Rangoon  ;  Commerce  ;  Prices  of  Living — Shoodagon 
Pagoda  —  Slaves  of  the  Pagoda  —  Sunrise  Worship  —  Rainy  Mon- 
soon —  History  of  the  Mission  —  Maubee  —  Labor  of  Native  As- 
sistants —  Interesting  Case  —  Voyage  to  Pegu  —  Evidences  of 
former  Greatness  —  Shoomadoo  Pagoda  —  Voyage  up  the  Irrawad- 
dy —  Boats  —  Mode  of  Fishing —  Prome  —  Leper  Village  —  Gauda- 
ma's  Foot  —  Burman  Energy  —  Earth-Oil  Wells  —  Shyan  Caravan 
—  Ruins  of  Paghan  —  Attempt  to  buy  Beef —  Buffalo  Herdmen  — 
Curiosity  of  Natives  —  Toddy  —  Arrival  at  Ava p.  73 


CHAPTER  V. 

Ava —  Splendid  Kyoungs  —  Pagodas  — Priests  —  Palace  —  Popula- 
tion —  Arts  —  Prices  —  The  Mekara  Prince  —  Meawade  Woon- 
gyee  —  The  Burman  Pontiff —  Surrawa  Prince  —  Climate  of  Ava 
—  History  of  the  Mission  in  Ava  —  Present  State  of  Mission  — 
Safety  of  the  Missionaries  — Roman  Catholics  —  Sagaing  —  Marble 
Quarries  —  Mengoon  Pagoda  —  Umerapoora p.  97 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Chittagong  —  Cox's  Bazar  —  Akyab  —  Kyouk   Phyoo  —  Ramree  — 
Arracan p.  118 


PART    II. 
DIGESTED    NOTES    ON    THE    BURMAN    EMPHIE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

The  Term  India  —  Hither  and  Farther  India  —  Boundaries  of  Burmah 
—  History  of  the  Empire  —  War  with  the  British  —  Dismember- 
ment of  the  Tennasserim  Provinces  —  State  of  the  Succes- 
sion   , p.  133 


CONTENTS.  11 


CHAPTER  II. 

Features  of  Country  —  Climate  —  Mountains  —  Minerals  —  Rivers 

—  Soil  —  Productions  —  Agriculture  —  Animals  —  Birds  —  Fishes 

—  Reptiles  —  Insects p.  143 


CHAPTER   III. 

Population  —  Form  and  Features  —  Buildings  —  Food  —  Dress  — 
Manners  and  Customs  —  Character —  Condition  of  Women  —  Mar- 
riage —  Polygamy  —  Divorce  —  Diseases  —  Medical  Practice  — 
Midwifery  —  Funerals  —  Amusements  —  Musical  Instruments  — 
Manufactures p.  178 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Government — Orders  of  Nobility  —  Grades  of  Community  —  Magis- 
tracy—  Laws. —  Division  of  Property p.  211 


CHAPTER   V. 

Revenue  —  Commerce  —  Currency  —  Army  —  Navy  —  Slavery  — 
Division  of  Time  —  Weights  and  Measures  —  Language  —  Litera- 
ture—  Degree  of  Civilization p.  222 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Extent  of  Boodhism  —  Meaning  of   the   Term  —  Antiquity  of  the 
System  —  History  of  Gaudama — The  next  Boodh  —  The  Bedagat 

—  Theory  of  the  Universe  —  The  Four  Islands  —  This  Island,  or 
the  Earth  —  Origin  and  Fall  of  Man  —  Celestial  Regions  —  Hells  — 
No  eternal  God  —  Universe  eternal  —  Moral  Code  —  Merit  —  Dis- 
course of  Gaudama — Religious  Edifices  —  Images — Impressions 
of  Gaudama's  Foot  —  Worship  —  Offerings  —  Public  Days  — 
Superstitions  —  Nat- Worship  —  Priests  ;  their  Dress,  Residences, 
Morals,  Office,  Support,  Numbers,  Orders,  Funerals  —  Priestesses 

—  Sects  —  Toleration  —  Remarks p.  239 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 
Map  of  South-Eastern  Asia. 
View  of  Tavoy,        % 
View  of  Mergui,       C  on  steel. 
View  of  Maulmain,  j 

Mrs.  Judson's  Grave 36 

Boardman's  Grave 54 

Maulmain  Printing-Office 69 

Mr.  Judson's  Residence 72 

Ascending  the  Irrawaddy 85 

Burman  Ox  Cart 96 

Ground  Plot  of  Ava 97 

Gentleman's  Carriage 100 

Burman  King's  Boat 113 

Warder,  or  Balu 132 

New  Pagoda  at  Ava 142 

Junction  of  the  Kyendween...l49 

Jack-Tree  and  Fruit 151 

Mango 152 

Plantain 153 

Cashew-Nut 156 

Irrigating  a  Rice  Field 169 

Buffalo 173 


Page. 

Woman  pounding  Rice 177 

Stand  for  Eating 182 

Burman  Shoe 183 

Burman  Lady 183 

Spittoon 186 

Burman  Gentleman  and  Fol- 
lowers  187 

Drums  and  Drummer 204 

Beating  the  Gong 204 

Drums 204 

Fiddle 205 

Burman  Lamp 206 

Assaying  Silver 207 

Cleaning  Cotton 208 

Gaudama 242 

Zayat 252 

Statue  of  a  Lion 253 

Streamer 254 

Gaudama's  Foot 255 

Priest  walking  out 260 

Priest  preaching .262 

Burning  Ponghee 267 


•k 


■ 


PART    I. 

TRAVELS   IN    BURMAH,  CHITTAGONG, 
AND    ARRACAN. 


CHAPTER  L 


Departure  —  Employments  —  Illness  —  Comet — Company  —  Preach  on  Deck 

—  Squall  —  Magellan  Clouds  —  Send  Letters  —  Trade-Winds  —  Another 
Illness  —  Tristan  d'Acunha  —  Portuguese  Men-of-War  —  Ship  Tigris  for 
Ceylon  —  Encounter  between  a  Whale  and  a  Thrasher  —  "  Doubling  Cape 
of  Good  Hope"  —  Day  of  Fasting  —  Enormous  Shark  —  Nicobar  Islands 

—  First  Sight  of  Idolaters — Kedgeree  —  Heavy  Dews  —  Andaman  Islands 

—  Preparis  and  Narcondam. 

How  cordial  and  comprehensive  are  the  sympathies  of  true 
religion  !  Who  that  saw  the  Louvre,  with  her  eleven  ordained 
ministers,  about  to  spread  her  canvass,  could  fail  to  contrast  the 
scene  with  ordinary  shipping  operations?  Over  all  the  wharf 
is  one  dense  mass  of  grave  and  silent  spectators,  while  the  decks 
and  rigging  of  the  adjacent  ships  are  filled  with  younger,  but  not 
less  intent  observers.  No  sound  interrupts  the  ascending  prayer. 
The  full  harmony  of  a  thousand  voices  wafts  to  Heaven  the 
touching  hymn.  Countless  hands,  thrust  toward  the  narrow 
passway,  seek  the  last  token  of  recognition.  Even  the  aged, 
unaccustomed  to  tears,  weep,  not  from  bitterness,  but  in  exu- 
berance of  love. 

But  here  are  none  of  the  customary  inducements  to  convene  a 
crowd.  A  ship  sailing  with  passengers  is  no  novelty.  One  of 
the  number  was,  indeed,  the  pastor  of  a  large  and  most  affec- 
tionate congregation  ;  but  with  the  others,  in  general,  the  multi- 
tude had  no  acquaintance.  Personal  attachments,  therefore,  had 
not  assembled  the  people.  There  was,  in  fact,  nothing  in  the 
scene,  which  could  call  forth  a  general  interest,  but  its  religious 
character.  The  regular  packet,  crowded  with  passengers,  leaves 
vol.  i.  2 


14  VOYAGE    OUT. 

our  shores,  while  only  here  and  there  a  group  of  personal  friends 
look  on  with  interest.  The  merchantman  unfurls  his  sails,  but 
his  destination  and  objects  are  not  regarded.  But  the  mission- 
ary! lie  awakens  the  sympathy  of  every  believer.  Stranger 
though  he  be,  all  press  to  grasp  his  hand,  and,  when  gone,  all 
intercede  for  him  with  God.  Even  denominational  preferences 
are  forgotten,  and  every  sect  mingles  in  the  throng,  exulting 
in  a  common  joy. 

But  all  this  is  a  mere  fraction  of  the  fruits  of  Christian 
charity.  The  same  expansive  benevolence  embraces  the  unseen, 
unknown  heathen.  Intense  interest  for  those  sends  forth  these 
self-denying  ones,  and  draws  from  Cliristians  at  home  the  re- 
quisite funds.  The  ivorld  is  the  field  over  which  the  eye  of  the 
Christian  wanders,  and  for  all  of  which  he  will  labor  and  pray, 
wliile  he  has  being.  O  blessed  gospel,  which  thus  makes  man 
the  friend  of  man,  and  excites  in  the  heart  all  that  is  pure,  joy- 
ous, and  benevolent ! 

Never  did  a  ship  leave  Boston  harbor  more  nobly.  A  fine 
wind,  and  favoring  tide,  bore  us  on  so  rapidly  as  scarcely  to  leave 
us  tune  to  gaze  one  lingering  farewell  to  the  faint  outlines  of  the 
great  and  beautifid  city.  In  two  hours  the  pilot  left  us,  bearing 
brief  notes  of  affectionate  remembrance  to  friends  behind.  Soon 
we  found  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  scores  of  beautiful  schooners, 
engaged  in  mackerel  fishing.  So  thickly  did  they  lie  along  the 
horizon,  as  to  resemble  streets  of  stately  white  houses.  Even 
these,  at  length,  sunk  into  the  dim  distance,  and  we  dashed  on 
till  night  closed  in,  and  the  breeze  hushed  itself  to  rest. 

Wednesday,  Sept.  23, 1835.  Light  winds  and  a  smooth  sea 
gave  us  a  night  of  quiet  repose  ;  but  as  the  sun  rose  cloudless  out 
of  the  sea,  the  wind  freshened  on  our  quarter,  and  amid  an  array 
of  studding-sails  we  made  fine  progress.  Most  of  the  passengers, 
alas!  feel  no  relish  for  the  noble  sight  of  ocean,  and  the  rapid 
plunging  of  our  gallant  ship.  Sea-sickness,  that  most  dispiriting 
of  all  maladies,  oppresses  them.  Mr.  Sutton  and  myself,  how- 
ever, being  inured  to  the  unnatural  motion,  are  so  far  exempt  as 
to  be  able  to  act  the  part  of  nurses.  Between  attending  the  sick, 
and  making  fast  the  baggage,  I  found  ample  employment  for 
the   day. 

My  heart  fills  with  tender  and  grateful  emotions,  as  I  arrange 
the  various  gifts  of  friendship  and  regard  which  almost  fill  my 
state-room.  Nothing  that  experience  could  dictate,  or  imagination 
suggest,  as  requisite  for  my  comfort,  seems  wanting.  My  sweet 
but  oppressive  emotions  find  relief  only  in  pouring  out  before 


EMPLOYMENTS MEDITATIONS.  15 

God  fervent  thanks,  and  imploring  him  to  remember  his  promise, 
that  a  cup  of  cold  water  given  to  a  disciple,  because  he  is  a 
disciple,  shall  not  lose  its  reward. 

24.  The  wind  has  continued  favorable,  and  we  are  already  ad- 
vanced on  our  way  nearly  500  miles.  The  skylight  in  my  state- 
room proves  sufficient.  The  round-house,  (so  called,)  on  deck,  is 
an  invaluable  comfort,  and  will  be  especially  so  in  rainy  weather. 
In  the  evening,  such  as  were  well  enough  commenced  family 
worship  in  the  cabin. 

Sunday,  27.  Still  fine  and  favoring  breezes.  The  awning  being 
extended,  and  seats  arranged,  br.  Sutton  preached  this  morning 
an  appropriate  and  interesting  discourse.  Most  of  the  passengers 
able  to  attend.  As  many  were  singers,  I  led  the  psalmody  with 
my  flute,  and  we  raised  hosannas,  not  unacceptable,  we  trust,  even 
to  the  ear  of  God.  Four  of  the  crew  attended.  Our  entire  com- 
pany then  resolved  themselves  into  a  Bible-class,  to  meet  every 
Lord's-day  afternoon  at  half  past  three,  and  requested  me  to  take 
charge  of  it.  We  selected  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  as  most  appro- 
priate to  missionary  work.  Till  the  arrival  of  the  appointed  hour, 
on  eveiy  side  were  seen  the  brethren  and  sisters,  busy  with  Dod- 
dridge, Henry,  Scott,  Barnes,  Adam  Clarke,  &c.  &c.  Each  reci- 
tation will  embrace  a  chapter,  and  occupy  from  one  to  two  hours. 

Saturday,  Oct.  10.  Amid  the  numerous  discomforts  of  a  long 
sea  voyage,  one  is  thrown  npou  his  own  resources,  both  for  im- 
provement and  pleasure.  But  the  mind  accustomed  to  vieAV  with 
intelligent  and  devout  contemplation  the  works  of  God,  can  sel- 
dom be  without  materials  for  lofty  and  purifying  thought.  And 
surely  the  wide  ocean  and  wider  sky  present  a  rich  field  for  the 
expatiation  of  our  noblest  thoughts.  Pacing  the  deck,  or  leaning 
against  the  bulwarks,  toward  setting  sun,  it  would  seem  as  though 
the  most  gross  and  thoughtless  mind  must  rise,  and  expand,  and 
feel  delight.  Far  and  near  rolls  "  old  Ocean."  Before  Jehovah 
spread  out  the  fairer  sceneiy  of  the  dry  land,  these  restless  bil- 
lows swelled  and  sparkled  beneath  the  new-made  firmament. 
Thousands  of  years  their  wide  expanse  remained  a  trackless 
waste, 

"  Unconquerable,  unreposed,  untired, 
And  rolled  the  wild,  profound,  eternal  bass, 
In  nature's  anthem." 

The  storm  then  found  no  daring  mariner  to  brave  its  fury,  and 
the  gentle  breeze  no  repose  on  the  fair  canvass  of  the  lordly  ship. 
Age  after  age,  the  fowls  of  heaven  and  the  tenants  of  the  deep 


16  VOYAGE    OOT. 

held  undisputed  empire.  But  now,  every  ocean  is  added  to  the 
dominion  of"  man.  He  captures  its  rulers,  he  makes  its  surges 
his  highway,  and  so  dexterously  adjusts  his  spreading  canvass, 
as  to  proceed,  in  the  very  face  of  its  winds,  to  his  desired  haven. 
Hut,  O  !  how  many  have  found  in  these  same  billows  a  grave ! 
How  many  a  gallant  ship  has  "sunk  like  lead  in  the  mighty  wa- 
ters," where  beauty  and  vigor,  wealth  and  venerableness,  learning 
and  piety,  find  undistinguished  graves !  To  these  lone  deserts 
of  pure  waters  man  pursues  his  brother  with  murderous  intent  — 
the  silence  is  broken  by  thundering  cannon  —  the  billows  bear 
away  the  stain  of  gore,  and  all  that  storm  ever  swallowed  up 
have  been  outnumbered  by  the  victims  of  a  battle.  O  war! 
when  will  thy  horrid  banner  be  forever  furled ! 

Reflection,  following  the  chasing  waves,  passes  on  to  the  shores 
they  lave,  and  there  looks  over  nations,  and  beholds  men  in  then- 
manners,  customs,  follies,  and  crimes,  their  loves  and  hates,  their 
joys  and  sorrows,  then-  enthusiastic  pursuit  of  wealth,  and  amaz- 
ing disregard  of  Heaven.  How  interminable  and  salutary  are  the 
thoughts  thou  inspirest,  Ocean !  whether  we  regard  thy  age,  thy 
beauties,  thy  wrath,  thy  silence,  thy  treasures,  thy  services  to 
man,  thy  praise  to  God,  or  the  scenes  winch  have  been  acted 
on  thy  surface ! 

But  while  we  thus  muse  and  speculate,  the  glories  of  sunset 
fade  into  sober  gray,  the  billows  take  a  deeper  tinge,  stars  multi- 
ply, and  soon  we  stand  beneath  a  firmament  glowing  with  ten 
thousand  fires.    Here  are  vaster,  sublimer  fields  for  thought. 

"  Hail,  Source  of  Being  !  Universal  Soul 
Of  heaven  and  earth  !     Essential  Presence,  hail ! 
To  Thee  I  bend  the  knee  ;  to  Thee  my  thoughts 
Continual  climb  ;  who,  with  a  master  hand, 
Hast  the  great  whole  into  perfection  touched." 

How  ennobling  and  purifying  is  the  study  of  astronomy!  How 
delicious  the  Christian's  hope  of  soon  roaming  among  these  works 
of  infinite  wisdom  and  power,  ever  learning,  adoring,  rejoicing, 
improving ;  ever  becoming  more  full  of  God,  and  of  glory,  and 
of  joy ! 

I  ought  to  mention  that  on  the  28th  Sept.  we  had  a  meeting  to 
agree  upon  some  general  measures  for  the  profitable  employment 
of  our  time.  It  was  unanimously  agreed  that,  in  addition  to  our 
daily  family  worship,  prayer-meetings  should  be  held  every  Sun- 
day and  Wednesday  evenings  ;  that  the  brethren  officiate  alpha- 
betically at  public  worship  on  deck,  and  in  asking  a  blessing 


ILLNESS AFRICA.  17 

during  one  day  at  table ;  that  the  monthly  concert  of  prayer  be 
held  at  the  same  hour  as  the  other  evening  meetings;  that  I 
should  deliver  on  Thursday  evenings  a  course  of  lectures  on 
missions,  missionary  measures,  and  missionary  fields  ;  and  that 
br.  Sutton  should  deliver  occasional  lectures  on  modern  my- 
thology and  the  state  of  the  heathen. 

12.  Head  winds,  the  past  three  or  four  days,  have  kept  us  pitch- 
ing sharply,  and  put  all  our  invalids  again  on  the  sick  list.  To- 
day, we  have  a  fan-  wind,  which  has  already  smoothed  the  sea, 
and  our  friends  are  better.  We  are  within  twelve  or  thirteen 
degrees  of  the  Cape  Verds,  but  expect  to  go  much  hearer,  though 
not  probably  in  sight. 

Sunday,  Oct.  18.  Crossed  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  Not  being 
able  to  command  voice  enough  to  preach  on  deck,  I  attempted  it 
this  evening,  by  general  request,  in  the  cabin.  Other  brethren 
performed  all  the  devotional  exercises,  but  my  throat  suffered 
considerably.  —  It  is  remarkable  that  we  have  not  yet  met  the 
north-east  trade-wind,  which  prevails  generally  as  high  as  25°. 
But  He  who  sent  us  will  give  us  such  speed  as  pleases  Him. 

23.  Have  been  confined  to  my  bed  with  an  attack  on  the 
bowels,  which  on  Monday  laid  a  severe  hold  upon  me.  Am  now 
about,  but  able  to  eat  nothing  but  a  little  oatmeal  gruel.  The  ten- 
der care  and  sympathy  of  my  brethren,  and  still  more  of  the  sis- 
ters, is  very  sweet.  What  a  blessed  home  would  this  world  be,  if 
Christian  love  pervaded  every  bosom !  It  is  exceedingly  grati- 
fying that  harmony  and  kind  feeling  prevail  among  all  our  pas- 
sengers, though  so  different  in  temper,  age,  and  previous  pur- 
suits ;  and  comprising,  as  we  do,  four  distinct  denominations. 

Sailing,  for  the  last  two  days,  along  the  coast  of  Africa,  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  frequent  thoughts  of  that  devoted  land.  How 
deep  the  darkness  which  covers  it !  How  few  the  points  where 
Christianity  kindles  her  fire !  How  wretched,  even  in  temporal 
things,  its  thronging  millions,  and  how  utterly  secluded  from  the 
improvements  of  the  age !  Yet  the  word  of  the  Lord  once  re- 
sounded along  these  shores,  and  triumphed  over  the  vast  interior. 
Afiican  philosophers,  ministers,  and  generals,  came  not  behind 
the  greatest  of  then  time.  Why,  and  how,  the  dreadful  change  ? 
"  Verily,  there  is  a  God,  that  ruleth  in  the  earth  !  " 

Yesterday  we  caught  the  first  faint  zephyrs  of  the  north-east 
trade-wind,  and  to-day  it  has  increased  to  its  regular  velocity ;  that 
is,  we  go  at  six  or  seven  miles  an  hour.  We  are  all  glad,  and  I 
trust  thankful. 

Saturday,  24.  Have  been  deeply  interested  to-night  in  observ- 
2* 


18  VOYAGE    OUT. 

ing  the  comet,  which  cloudy  nights  have  hitherto  kept  invisible. 
Here  we  are,  calmly  gazing  at  the  identical  thing,  which,  by  its 
amazing  brilliance,  spread  such  universal  panic  in  1456.  All 
Europe  seemed  to  believe  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand. 
The  pope  (Calixtus  III.)  partook  of  the  alarm.  Ordering  all 
church  bells  to  be  rung  every  day  at  noon,  (a  practice  which  has 
since  widely  prevailed,)  he  required  all  good  Christians  to  say 
the  "Ave  Maria"  tlnice  a  day,  with  this  addition,  "Save  us  from 
the  Turk,  the  Devil,  and  the  Comet."  He  went  further,  and  had 
the  comet,  in  regular  form,  excommunicated  every  day !  But  the 
patient  luminary  filled  the  coffers  of  its  ghostly  anathematizers. 
Incalculable  treasures  were  poured  into  the  hands  of  priests, 
from  the  guilty  and  the  affrighted ;  and  the  vilified  comet  "  hold- 
ing on  the  even  tenor  of  his  way,"  passed  out  of  sight.  It  has 
appeared  every7  seventy-five  years  since  that  time,  (though  with 
diminished  Brightness ;)  and  Science,  the  handmaid  of  Religion, 
has  now  made  it  an  object  of  calm  calculation  and  ennobled 
piety. 

We  have  for  some  days  had  a  continual  temperature  of  about 
80°.  With  an  awning  over  the  deck,  and  our  thinnest  clothes, 
we  keep  comfortable  on  deck,  though  hardly  so  below. 

27.  Am  nearly  well,  though  not  yet  able  to  partake  of  com- 
mon food.  Thanks  to  my  gracious  Lord,  past  sufferings  have 
not  been  so  utterly  unimproved,  as  to  permit  me  now  to  be  either 
terrified  or  querulous  under  the  endurance  of  evil,  so  called.  1 
feel  that  repeated  afflictions  come  not  as  lightnings  on  the  scathed 
tree,  blasting  it  yet  more,  but  as  the  strokes  of  the  sculptor  on 
the  marble  block,  forming  it  to  the  image  of  life  and  loveliness. 
Let  but  the  divine  presence  be  felt,  and  no  lot  is  hard.  Let  me 
but  see  His  hand,  and  no  event  is  unwelcome. 

Friday,  30.  The  monotony  of  a  calm  (for  the  trade-wind 
has  already  failed  us)  has  been  agreeably  relieved  yesterday 
and  to-day  by  the  neighborhood  of  two  ships,  much  larger  than 
our  own  —  one  English,  the  other  American.  The  English 
ship  (the  John  Barry,  of  London)  has  260  convicts  for  Sydney, 
in  New  South  Wales.  They  swarmed  on  the  whole  deckhand 
in  the  rigging,  while  men  under  arms  stood  sentry  over  them. 
There  were  probably  some  troops  also  on  board,  as  there  were 
several  officers  on  the  quarter-deck,  and  a  fine  band  of  music. 
This  was  politely  mustered  yesterday,  when  we  were  as  near  as 
we  could  safely  sail,  and  played  for  an  hour  or  two  very  delight- 
fully. As  the  music  swelled  and  died  away  in  heaving  and  ex- 
quisite cadences,  now  gay,  now  plaintive,  and  now  rising  into 


PREACH  ON  DECK SOUTH-EAST  TRADE.         19 

martial  pomp,  —  it  not  only  refreshed,  and  soothed,  and  exhila- 
rated, hut  awakened  trains  of  not  unprofitable  thought.  They  be- 
longed to  our  father-land  ;  they  came  from  the  noblest  nation 
earth  ever  saw;  they  were  but  lately  arrayed  against  us  in 
horrid  war ;  they  bore  to  a  distant  home  a  motley  crew  of  refined 
and  vulgar,  educated  and  ignorant,  now  reduced  by  sin  to 
common  convicts  and  exiles.  And  was  God  acknowledged 
among  them  ?  Did  any  of  them  go  to  him  hi  then  distresses  ? 
Would  they  in  exile  finish  an  inglorious  life,  and  meet  the  second 
death  ?  Or,  will  some  faithful  preacher  find  them  there,  under 
whose  admonitions  they  may  recover  earthly  honor,  and  find 
eternal  life  ?  O  that  then  native  land  may  long  remain  the  pil- 
lar of  freedom,  the  source  of  noble  missionary  endeavor ;  that 
her  stupendous  navy  may  rot  in  peace  ;  that  this  ship  may  have 
souls  born  to  God  among  her  crowd,  and  that  the  convict  colony 
may  soon  be  a  part  of  Christ's  precious  church ! 

The  American  ship  was  the  Canada,  of  New  York,  Capt.  Hicks, 
a  noble  ship,  whose  sailing  greatly  surpasses  ours.  We  went  on 
board,  and  spent  half  an  hour  very  pleasantly. 

Monday,  Nov.  2.  A  perfect  cahn  yesterday  enabled  me  to 
preach  on  deck.  Every  person  on  board  was  present,  except  the 
man  at  the  wheel,  and  one  sick  in  the  forecastle.  Our  national 
flag,  wrapped  round  the  capstan,  made  a  romantic  pulpit,  while 
another,  extended  across  the  ship,  just  behind  my  back,  from  the 
awning  to  the  deck,  made  us  a  beautiful  tabernacle,  and  gave  a 
charming  aspect  of  compactness  and  sociability  to  our  little  con- 
vocation. O  that  God  would  bless  the  endeavor  to  the  souls  of 
our  unconverted  fellow-voyagers !  We  often  converse  with  the 
men  individually ;  but  though  they  receive  remarks  with  kind- 
ness, and  seem  to  possess  many  good  qualities,  I  perceive  no 
particular  anxiety  on  the  subject  of  religion  resting  on  the 
mind  of  any  of  them.  The  brethren  and  sisters  seem  truly 
prayerful  for  their  conversion.  This  was  peculiarly  manifest  this 
evening  at  our  monthly  concert  of  prayer,  and  is  shown  at  all  our 
social  meetings.  I  visit  the  sick  sailor  frequently,  and  carry  him 
little  delicacies ;  but  his  extreme  sufferings  are  as  yet  fruitless  of 
spiritual  good. 

Thursday,  5.  Reached  the  south-east  trade-wind,  and  are 
going  gayly,  with  a  steady  breeze,  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  an 
hour.  Those  who  have  not  been  to  sea  can  scarcely  realize  the 
exhilaration  of  spirit  produced  by  a  strong  favoring  wind,  after 
wearisome  delays.  We  had  scarcely  made  any  advance  for  ten 
days,  and  were  almost  weary  of  delay.     When  we  had  wind,  it 


20  VOYAGE     OUT. 

was  in  severe  squalls,  accompanied  with  heavy  showers.  The 
majesty  of  u/nr  sharp  squalls,  however,  repays  one  for  the  dan- 
ger they  may  involve,  and  tempts  the  timid  passenger  to  brave 
the  wind  and  a  wetting,  for  the  pleasure  of  the  sight.  Every 
sluggish  sailor  is  converted  instantly  into  a  hero.  Every  order  is 
obeyed  on  the  run.  The  lofty  display  of  canvass,  which  had 
been  flapping  against  the  masts,  is  rapidly  reduced,  as  the  tln'eat- 
ening  cloud  draws  on.  Regardless  of  the  huge  drops  which  now 
begin  to  descend,  the  captain  stands  at  the  weather  bulwark, 
peering,  through  half-closed  lids,  into  the  gathering  gloom.  Fit- 
ful gusts  herald  the  approaching  gale.  More  canvass  is  taken 
in ;  the  waves  are  lashed  to  foam ;  the  wind  howls  through  the 
rigging;  the  bulk-heads  creak  and  strain ;  the  ship  careens  to  the 
water's  edge;  and  the  huge  spray  springs  over  the  weather 
bow :  then  comes  the  rain  in  torrents ;  the  mainsail  is  furled, 
the  spanker  brailed  up,  and  the  man  at  the  wheel  is  charged 
to  "mind  his  weather  helm."  Soon  the  whole  force  of  the 
blast  is  upon  us.  "  Hard  up  !  "  roars  the  captain.  "  Hard  up,  sir ! " 
responds  the  watchful  helmsman.  The  noble  thing  turns  her 
back  to  the  tremendous  uproar,  and  away  we  scud,  conscious 
of  safety,  and  thrilling  with  emotions  of  sublimity. 

The  rush  is  over !  The  dripping  seamen  expand  agaiu  the 
venturous  canvass  —  the  decks  are  swabbed  —  the  tropical  sun 
comes  out  gloriously  —  we  pah  ourselves  to  promenade  —  and 
evening  smiles  from  golden  clouds,  that  speak  of  day-gladdened 
realms  beyond.  And  now  the  rolling  billows,  disrobed  of  their 
foaming  glitter,  quiet  themselves  for  the  repose  of  night,  while 
the  blessed  moon  beams  mildly  from  mid-heaven. 

"  Thou  art,  O  God  !  the  life  and  light 
Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see ; 
Its  glow  by  day,  its  smile  by  night, 

Are  but  reflections  caught  from  thee  ! 
Where'er  we  turn,  thy  glories  shine, 
And  all  things  bright  and  fair  are  thine." 

Friday,  Nov.  6.  Just  before  sunset,  crossed  the  equator,  in 
longitude  28°  W. ;  45  days  from  Boston  ;  having  sailed,  by  log,  4(340 
miles.  Among  the  improvements  of  recent  years  is  the  abroga- 
tion, in  most  ships,  of  the  absurd  and  inhuman  practices  which 
used  to  prevail  at  this  point  of  a  voyage,  in  regard  to  such  as 
crossed  the  line  for  the  first  time.  Strange  that  a  custom  so  bar- 
barous should  ever  have  existed  —  more  strange  that  it  still  is 
tolerated  by  some  captains  —  and  almost  incredible  that  Christian 


AQUATIC     NOVELTIES.  21 

missionaries  and  venerable  fathers  in  the  church  should  not  be 
exempt.  But  two  or  three  years  since,  two  young  missionaries 
from  England  to  India  were  subjected  to  its  full  rigors ;  and 
even  Tyerman  and  Bennett  did  not  wholly  escape !  Alas,  how 
many  proofs  there  are  of  our  slowness  to  learn  to  love  our  neigh- 
bor as  ourselves !  Our  captain  permitted  nothing  of  the  sort,  and 
remarked,  that  the  sight  of  these  inflictions  early  determined  him, 
that,  if  ever  he  became  master  of  a  vessel,  he  would  utterly 
forbid  them. 

Numerous  birds,  but  of  what  species  I  cannot  learn,  have  been 
around  us  for  several  days.  Sometimes  we  are  surrounded  by 
them,  in  flocks  of  several  kinds,  generally  very  large.  The  fine, 
brisk  trade-wind  we  now  enjoy,  imparts  a  delightful  coolness  to 
the  ah  on  deck,  though  it  is  difficult  to  be  comfortable  below. 
Thermometer  79°  to  83°. 

9.  For  some  days,  we  have  been  indulged  with  aquatic  novelties, 
which  serve  to  vary  our  monotony,  and  create  topics  for  our  many 
journalizers.  Blackfish,  bonetas,  flying-fish,  dolphins,  porpoises, 
gulls,  &c,  summon  our  new  voyagers  to  the  side,  and  excite  no 
little  interest.  These  are  so  abundantly  described  in  elementary 
books,  that  no  description  of  them  need  be  given  here.  We 
found  the  dolphin  very  good  eating,  white,  dry,  and  resembling 
the  pike,  or  pickerel,  in  taste.  The  descriptions  of  the  flying-fish 
which  I  have  read  are  not  correct  in  stating  that  they  have  no 
power  really  to  fly,  but  only  spring  from  the  water,  and,  guiding 
themselves  with  then  huge  pectoral  fins,  keep  up  a  little  while, 
in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  We  often  see  them  actually  flying, 
and  skimming  up  and  down,  accommodating  themselves  to  the 
waves,  and  going  60  or  70  yards  at  a  time,  but  generally  in  a  di- 
rection from  the  ship,  which  they  seem  to  think  is  some  enemy. 
Poor  things !  they  lead  a  precarious  life ;  for  many,  both  of  the 
watery  and  feathered  tribes,  make  them  a  constant  prey. 

Last  evening,  caught  a  booby,  (pelicanus  sula,)  and  to-day  I  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  a  Mother  Carey's  chicken,  or  storm  petrel,  (pro- 
cellaria  pelagica,)  by  trailing  a  thread  in  which  its  wings  became 
entangled.  The  booby  sat  doggedly  on  the  mizzen  royal  yard, 
and,  as  the  mate  approached  him,  kept  edging  off,  till  he  got  to 
the  very  end  of  the  spar,  but  would  uot  fly,  and  suffered  himself 
to  be  caught.  As  they  will  bite  severely  when  attacked,  he  was 
suddenly  seized  by  the  neck,  and  brought  below.  He  has  re- 
mained on  deck  all  day,  without  attempting  to  fly,  and  looking  as 
stupid  as  possible.  The  storm  petrel  is  about  the  size  of  a  small 
robin ;    dark  brown,  with  a  broad  circle  of  white  at  the  root  of 


22  VOYAGE     OCT. 

the  tail ;  black,  hooked  bill ;  long,  slender  legs ;  and  ample, 
webbed  feet.  Fond  of  the  bits  of  grease,  &c.  thrown  over  in  the 
slops,  they  follow  us  often  whole  days,  and  in  large  numbers. 
Notwithstanding  the  scorn  with  which  the  proposal  was  received, 
I  had  the  petrel  broiled,  together  with  slices  from  the  breast  of 
the  booby.  They  were  both  pronounced  excellent,  by  all  who 
could  be  prevailed  upon  to  taste  them.  As  the  plumage  of  both 
birds  was  in  fine  order,  I  preserved  and  stuffed  then-  skins. 

Nov.  11.  Saw,  this  evening,  the  Magellan  clouds.  In- 
stead of  being  always  at  the  water's  edge,  as  Col.  Symmes* 
affirmed,  they  stand  high  in  the  heavens,  and  will  be  almost  ver- 
tical as  we  pass  round  the  Cape.  We  can  perceive  but  two,  both 
bright ;  but  it  is  said  there  is  a  third  one,  dark.  Those  we  see 
are  oval,  about  the  size  of  a  cart-wheel  to  the  eye,  and  exacdy 
resembling  the  milky  way.  It  is  supposed  by  astronomers  that 
they  consist  of  just  such  a  collection  of  stars  as  form  that  beauti- 
ful pathway  across  the  heavens.  The  present  residence  of  the 
younger  Herschel,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  his  stu- 
pendous instruments,  will  doubtless  furnish  the  learned  world 
with  some  new  and  important  facts  in  regard  to  these  famous 
"  clouds." 

The  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  in  this  region  is  very  striking. 
So  pure  is  the  air,  that  the  stars  shine  with  a  glory  not  inferior  to 
that  of  our  most  resplendent  northern  nights.  In  one  respect, 
they  transcend  even  those,  viz.  the  visibility  of  stars  down  almost 
to  the  very  horizon.  Shooting  stars  are  numerous,  and  of  great 
apparent  size.  Delicious  weather,  smooth  water,  and  fine  winds, 
make  up  the  monotonous  but  attractive  scenery  of  our  evenings. 

" Such  beauty,  varying  in  the  light 

Of  gorgeous  nature,  cannot  be  portrayed 
By  words,  nor  by  the  pencil's  silent  skill: 
But  is  the  property  of  those  alone 
Who  have  beheld  it,  noted  it  with  care, 
And  in  their  minds  recorded  it  with  love." 

The  comet  has  become  more  glorious,  and  its  train  is  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  stretching  upward,  almost  a  fourth  part  to  the 
zenith.  Seen  through  the  ship's  glass,  it  is  half  the  size  of  the 
moon,  and  of  a  dazzling  brightness,  resembling  Jupiter.  It  ap- 
pears low  in  the  west,  and  sets  about  half  past  nine. 

Thursday,  12.  Had  the  great  pleasure,  to-day,  of  sending  letters 
directly  to  Boston,  by  the  ship  Susan,  Capt  Jennings,  from  Rio 

*  Author  of  the  theory  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  hollow  and  inhabited. 


TRADE-WINDS ANOTHER    ILLNESS.  23 

Janeiro.  Judging  by  appearances  that  she  was  an  American 
vessel,  and  bound  for  the  United  States,  we  checked  our  way  to 
meet  her,  and,  finding  our  hopes  confirmed,  asked  the  captain  to 
heave  to,  and  take  letters,  which  he  readily  did.  I  had  seven 
nearly  finished,  and,  among  us  all,  made  up  more  than  sixty, 
which  will  gladden  our  friends,  by  assuring  them  that  we  are,  so 
far,  all  well.  Such  opportunities  are  very  rare  at  sea,  and  we 
feel  grateful  that  our  friends  will  thus  be  able  to  hear  from  us 
seven  or  eight  months  before  they  could  from  Calcutta. 

We  are  now  in  south  latitude  15°  34',  and  west  longitude  32° 
20',  going  seven  miles  (or  knots)  an  hour,  day  and  night,  fanned 
and  forwarded  by  the  invaluable  trade- wind.  There  are,  on  the 
globe,  two  trade-winds  ;■  one  north  of  the  equator,  forever  blow- 
ing from  the  north-east,  and  the  other  south  of  the  equator,  and 
blowing  always  from  the  south-east.  They  extend  about  28  de- 
grees each  side  of  the  equator,  but  advance  and  recede  several 
degrees,  according  as  the  sun  is  north  or  south  of  the  line.  They 
blow  with  sufficient  force  to  propel  a  vessel  generally  about  seven 
miles  an  hour,  and  with  such  uniformity  that,  for  many  days,  a 
ship  scarcely  alters  a  rope;  and  are  attended  with  delightful 
weather.  They  extend  quite  round  the  globe,  except  where  the 
action  of  the  sun  on  masses  of  land,  or  high  islands,  obstructs  it 
for  a  limited  space.  They  are  generally  attributed  to  the  rare- 
faction of  the  air,  under  the  path  of  the  sun,  causing  an  influx 
from  toward  the  poles.  The  wind  thus  created  is  drawn  west- 
ward by  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  in  its  path,  and  the  rapid 
rotatory  motion  of  the  earth.  The  north-east  trade-wind  stops 
short  of  reaching  the  equator,  by  several  degrees,  and  is  less  reg- 
ular and  strong,  which  is  attributed  to  the  great  contraction  of 
the  Atlantic  between  Africa  and  Brazil,  and  to  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  producing  an  amount 
of  rarefaction  which  allows  less  cold  air  for  the  supply  of  the 
tropics.  At  the  West  Indies,  the  large  scope  of  ocean  to  the 
eastward  gives  uniformity  to  the  trade-wind;  and  hence  the  term 
"  Windward  Islands."  Whatever  may  be  the  second  causes  of 
these  great  and  perpetual  phenomena,  we  certainly  owe  the 
great  First  Cause  unspeakable  thanks  ;  for  they  impart  most  im- 
portant benefits. 

November  19.  Another  severe  shaking  of  my  clay  house  has 
been  reminding  me  again  of  the  Master's  warning,  "  Behold,  1 
come  as  a  thief"  An  attack  of  colic,  on  Monday,  reduced  me  in  a 
few  hours  to  extremity.  It  was  more  violent  than  most  previous 
attacks,  but  yielded  sooner.     Precious  days,  however,  have  these 


24  VOYAGE    OUT. 

been.  What  fresh  and  endearing  benefits  do  sicknesses  impart ! 
No  height  of  worldly  honor,  or  richness  of  bodily  enjoyment, 
would  induce  mc  to  part  with  the  salutary  lessons  derived  from 
even  one  of  these  attacks. 

We  have  now,  probably,  bid  farewell,  for  the  present,  to  warm 
weather,  being  in  latitude  30°.  Thick  clothes  are  in  requisition, 
and  the  thermometer  ranges  from  G0°  to  65°.  It  will  probably 
remain  cold  with  us  for  five  or  six  weeks,  perhaps  more.  We 
had  the  pleasure  to-day,  for  the  first  time,  of  seeing  Cape  pigeons, 
and  that  king  of  aquatic  birds,  the  albatross,  [diomedea  exulans.) 
These,  with  gannets,  molly  mawks,  boobies,  pintadoes,  and  other 
birds  for  which  those  on  board  have  no  name,  are  almost  con- 
stantly round  the  ship. 

Saturday,  21.  Well  enough  to  be  on  deck  and  enjoy  the  calm 
and  delicious  vernal  sun.  The  present  season  in  this  latitude 
about  corresponds  with  our  May  at  home.  At  evening,  alter 
watching  a  gorgeous  sunset,  I  was  sitting  in  the  round-house  to 
avoid  the  dew,  when  cries  of  admiration  called  me  out ;  and 
there  was  Venus,  queen  of  all  stars,  gradually  descending  into 
ocean,  unobscured  by  mist  or  cloud !  Nothing  could  be  more 
beautiful.  It  gave  a  strong  proof  of  the  exceeding  purity  of 
these  skies. 

Thursday,  26.  Feasted  our  eyes  with  the  sight  of  "land" 
which  for  sixty-five  days  we  have  not  done.  But  imagination 
had  to  spread  the  banquet ;  for  few  of  us  would  have  suspected 
that  we  saw  land,  had  we  not  been  told  so.  The  dim,  cloud-look- 
ing crags  of  Tristan  d'Acunha  showed  their  questionable  out- 
line amid  fogs  and  rolling  mists,  for  about  an  hour,  and  then  left 
us  to  spend  another  sixty-five  days,  or  more,  before  we  again  see 
aught  but  sky  and  water.  This  lonely  spot  is  occupied  by  but  a 
single  family,  of  15  or  20  persons. 

"Cape  weather"  is  now  upon  us  —  foggy,  damp,  and  cold,  but 
with  a  noble  westerly  gale,  driving  us  on  magnificently.  Our 
promenades  on  deck  are  suspended  ;  but  the  cool  weather  ena- 
bles us  to  sit  in  our  state-rooms,  and  the  privilege  of  unrestricted 
retirement  makes  amends  for  the  absence  of  many  others. 

Saturday,  28.  Succeeded,  this  morning,  hi  harpooning  a  por- 
poise, (delphimts  phoccena,)  and  getting  it  on  board.  It  measured 
seven  feet  in  length,  and  more  than  three  feet  in  girth  ;  of  a  pure 
white  under  the  belly,  and  rich  lead  color  on  the  back ;  with  large 
fins  each  side,  near  the  head ;  and  the  nose  long  and  pointed, 
not  unlike  that  of  a  hog.  This  latter  feature  is  no  doubt  the 
reason  why,  in  French,  Italian,  and  German,  the  creature  is  called 


HARPOONING    A    PORPOISE ALBATROS3.  25 

"hog-fish."  The  spout-hole  is  not  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  as  is 
said  in  the  Encyc.  Amer.,  but  quite  forward  of  the  brain,  on  the 
snout,  and  divided,  by  a  septum  of  solid  bone,  into  two  oval 
apertures,  each  capable  of  admitting  a  finger  with  ease.  The 
harpoon  entered  its  heart,  so  that  it  never  moved  after  being 
brought  on  deck.  Its  blubber  (that  is,  the  coat  of  fat  lying  under 
the  skin)  was  stripped  off  for  lamp-oil,  and  the  carcass  hung  up 
for  food.  The  kidneys  exactly  resembled  a  pint  of  small  grapes 
enclosed  in  a  thin,  transparent  pellicle.  The  rapidity  with  which 
these  creatures  swim  is  astonishing.  Instead  of  tumbling  and 
rolling  lazily,  as  in  smooth  weather,  they  seem  to  gather  spirits 
with  a  breeze,  playing  back  and  forward,  across  the  bows,  though 
the  ship  is  going  eight  or  ten  miles  an  horn-.  Their  move- 
ments indicate  perfect  ease  and  gayety;  and  not  unfrequently 
they  leap  wholly  out  of  water. 

We  had  scarcely  done  with  the  porpoise,  when  "  a  sail "  was 
announced.  We  soon  came  near  enough  to  perceive  that  she 
had  a  whale  alongside,  from  which  they  were  hoisting  the  last 
sheets  of  blubber,  and  soon  after  cut  adrift  the  carcass.  It  floated 
by  us,  at  a  little  distance,  covered  with  huge  and  ravenous  birds 
pulling  it  to  pieces,  while  a  multitude  of  smaller  ones  swam 
around,  picking  up  the  scattered  fragments.  We  soon  spoke  the 
ship,  and  found  her  to  be  the  Samuel  Robertson,  of  New  Bedford, 
out  ninety  days.  The  captain  politely  offered  to  send  a  boat,  if 
any  of  us  wished  to  gratify  our  curiosity  ;  and  several  of  the  gen- 
tlemen gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity.  They  found 
her  a  "temperance  ship,"  in  fine  order,  and,  after  spending  half  an 
hour,  and  leaving  some  tracts,  newspapers,  &c,  returned  with  a 
present  of  two  fine  albatrosses,  measuring  eleven  feet  across  the 
wings.  Unaccustomed  to  injury  from  man,  they  seemed  no  wise 
affrighted,  and  sat  quietly  on  deck.  Their  long  wings  and  short 
legs  render  it  impossible  for  them  to  rise  in  flight  from  a  flat, 
solid  surface.  When  provoked,  they  snapped  violently  at  the  per- 
son, uttering  a  shrill,  loud  sound,  not  unlike  the  braying  of  a  mule. 
They  cannot  stand  up  on  then-  feet  a  minute,  but  continue  squat- 
ting, as  on  the  water.  In  walking,  their  awkwardness  is  really 
ludicrous,  while  their  enormous  palmated  foot  comes  down  each 
time  with  a  heavy  slap.  Though  the  largest  of  all  aquatic  birds, 
they  fly  with  great  ease,  seldom  moving  the  Aving ;  now  skimming 
gracefully  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  adroitly  conforming  to 
its  undulations,  and  now  soaring  aloft  like  an  eagle.  They  are 
continually  seen  in  this  region,  hundreds  of  miles  from  land,  and 
at  night  repose  at  pleasure  on  the  surface  of  the  deep.  They 
vol.  i.  3 


2t)  VOYAGE    OUT. 

prey  upon  flying  fish,  spawn,  molluscae,  dead  carcasses,  &c,  and 
are  generally  in  good  condition. 

Sunday,  2!).  For  an  entire  week,  we  have  gone  six  or  seven 
miles  an  hour,  day  and  night,  on  our  exact  course,  enjoying  niild 
weather,  but  with  excessive  dews.  This  morning,  at  sunrise,  the 
wind  lulled  to  a  three-knot  breeze,  and  has  continued  so  all  day, 
giving  us  a  fine  opportunity  for  worship.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
as  yet,  every  Sabbath  but  one  has  been  calm,  and  pleasant  enough 
for  service  on  deck. 

An  uncommon  scene  has  been  before  us  all  day.  From  day- 
fight  to  dark  we  have  been  sailing  though  vast  multitudes  of  the 
"  Portuguese  man-of-war,"  [holothuriaphysalis,)  though  we  have 
gone  forty  miles.  They  extended  on  every  side  as  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  the  palm  of  the  hand  to 
that  of  a  finger  nail,  and  close  enough  to  average,  probably,  one 
to  every  two  cubic  feet.  We  readily  caught  some  in  a  basket. 
They  are  elliptical  in  shape,  about  as  thick  as  common  paste- 
board, with  a  sail,  of  the  same  thickness,  extending  diagonally 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  This  position  of  their  sail  makes 
them  always  seem  to  be  sailing  "  on  a  wind,"  and  not  directly 
before  it.  Beneath  is  a  cavity,  corresponding  to  the  base  of  the 
sail.  The  interior  of  this  is  filled  with  small,  short  tubes,  like 
mouths,  and  from  the  edge  of  it  hang  numerous  long  tentacles, 
like  roots.  The  sad  is  white,  and  the  body,  or  horizontal  part, 
of  a  beautiful  silvery  lead  color,  inclining  to  a  deep  blue  at  the 
circumference,  and  taking  on  an  edge  tint  of  rose,  after  it  has 
been  kept  some  time  in  a  glass.  It  has  neither  bones  nor  shell. 
The  sailors  consider  it  poisonous  to  the  touch ;  but  I  handled 
them  (cautiously  at  first,  of  course)  without  any  ill  effect. 

Our  Bible-class  continues  exceedingly  interesting,  and  gener- 
ally holds  nearer  two  hours  than  one.  It  costs  me,  however,  more 
effort  than  I  anticipated.  The  questions  asked  by  such  a  class 
are  not  of  ready  solution.  All  take  a  deep  interest  in  it,  and  pre- 
pare themselves  by  study.    We  use  no  text-book. 

Tuesday,  Dec.  1.  Last  evening,  a  sail  was  descried  directly 
astern,  which,  by  three  o'clock  this  morning,  proved  to  be  the  Ti- 
gris,  from  London  to  Ceylon.  They  passed  ahead ;  but,  the  wind 
dying  away,  they,  after  breakfast,  put  off  a  boat,  and  the  captain, 
(Stephens,)  Col.  McPherson,  of  the  Ceylon  regiment,  a  surgeon, 
and  several  young  officers,  came  on  board.  Learning  from  them 
that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hardy  and  wife,  Wesleyan  missionaries  to  Cey- 
lon, were  on  board,  Mr.  Sutton  and  myself,  with  two  or  three  of 
the  brethren,  went  to  him,  and  had  a  pleasant  interview.     On 


ENCOUNTER    BETWEEN    A    WHALE    AND    A    THRESHER.  27 

returning,  we  found  our  captain  had  rigged  my  arm-chair,  with 
nice  tackle,  to  the  yard-arm,  and  was  prepared  to  give  the  ladies 
an  excursion.  The  two  boats  took  them  all,  and  they  remained 
an  hour  with  the  ladies  in  the  Tigris,  during  which  a  genteel  re- 
past was  served  to  them.  Our  first  visitors  remained  with  us, 
and  took  lunch.  From  Col.  McPherson,  who  had  served  in  the 
Burman  war,  I  learned  a  few  particulars  respecting  that  people, 
and  also  the  Shyans,  for  whom  I  feel  deeply  interested. 

During  the  absence  of  the  ladies,  we  observed  an  encounter 
between  a  humpbacked  whale  and  a  thrasher.  The  whale 
seemed  greatly  provoked,  floundering,  and  blowing  with  violence, 
while  the  thrasher  adroitly  evaded  the  stroke  of  his  flukes,  some- 
times by  leaping  entirely  out  of  the  water.  Presently  after  these 
combatants  disappeared,  four  or  five  other  whales  were  seen 
rolling  and  playing  within  one  hunched  yards  of  the  ship,  then" 
backs  rising  five  or  six  feet  out  of  the  water,  while,  ever  and  anon, 
as  they  descended,  their  broad  tails  rose  high  into  view.  Toward 
evening,  a  breeze  sprung  up,  the  Tigris  passed  on,  and  we  parted 
company  with  the  regret  of  severed  neighbors. 

25.  In  latitude  37°  3(y,  longitude  70°  east.  Never  had  ship 
a  finer  run  than  ours  since  we  left  the  equator.  We  got  up  to 
latitude  35°  on  the  23d  ult.,  being  then  in  longitude  23°  west 
We  have  thus  run  ninety-three  degrees  of  longitude  in  thirty- 
three  days,  and  have  passed  the  Cape  without  the  semblance 
of  a  storm.  It  being  nearly  midsummer  here,  we  have  had 
mild,  though  damp  weather,  the  thermometer  never  sinking 
below  50°. 

I  had  no  conception  that  "  doubling  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  " 
meant  passing  near  the  coast  of  S.  America  to  a  higher  latitude 
than  the  Cape,  and  then  proceeding  as  near  as  possible  in  a 
straight  line  six  thousand  miles  eastward,  before  we  turn  north- 
ward again  ;  in  the  mean  time  not  coming  within  one  hundred 
and  fifty  or  two  hundred  miles  of  the  Cape.  But  such  is  the 
course  rendered  necessary  by  the  trade-winds.  Persons  em- 
barking for  India  at  any  time  except  from  about  the  first  of 
October  to  the  first  of  January,  ought  to  be  provided  with 
flannels  for  five  or  six  weeks'  use. 

Having  found  the  flesh  of  our  porpoise  exceedingly  delicate, 
Ave  have  sought  every  opportunity  to  harpoon  another,  but  with- 
out success,  till  yesterday,  when  we  welcomed  one  on  deck.  All 
agree  that  they  never  ate  more  delicious  meat  than  this  is,  after 
it  has  been  kept  a  day  or  two.  It  has  no  resemblance  to  fish,  in 
appearance  or  taste ;  but,  when  cooked,  is  of  a  dark  color,  like 


28  VOYAGE    OUT. 

venison,  and  eats  like  the  tenderest  beef.  The  liver  is  very  fine. 
This  porpoise  was  instantly  recognized  as  of  a  different  species 
from  the  other,  though  of  the  kind  usually  caught  in  this  region. 
It  had  a  strong,  thick,  colter-shaped  fin  on  the  back.  The  light 
color  of  the  beliy  was  diffused  over  the  back  towards  the  tail. 
The  other,  which  the  sailors  called  Cape  Horn  porpoise,  had  no 
fin  on  the  back,  and  was  of  a  uniform  dark  color  the  whole 
length  of  the  back.  The  captain  assures  us  that  the  porpoises 
which  tumble  about  in  our  bays  are  quite  equal  to  these  for  food. 
It  is  a  pity,  in  this  case,  that  they  are  not  brought  to  market.  Be- 
ing easily  taken,  they  would  form  at  once  a  cheap  and  delicious 
food,  beside  the  advantage  of  the  oil.  Perhaps  they  are  not  kept 
sufficiently  long  to  become  tender. 

January  1,  1836.  Our  fine  run  continues.  For  fifty-four  days 
past,  our  progress  has  averaged  one  hundred  and  seventy-two 
miles  a  day,  which  is  seventy  miles  more  than  the  average  of -the 
fust  forty-five  days.  We  now  see  no  albatrosses,  and  lew  birds 
of  any  kind  —  no  whales  —  no  ships.  The  reflection  that,  as  we 
walk  the  deck,  we  can  turn  no  where  and  look  towards  home, 
that  friends  and  countrymen  are  beneath  our  feet,  and  that  the 
thickness  of  the  globe  divides  us,  makes  this  new  year's  day 
memorable.  Absence  indeed  it  is,  when  one  can  get  no  further 
from  his  country ! 

Monday,  4.  According  to  previous  agreement,  we  observed 
this  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer,  as  is  done  by  so  many  asso- 
ciations at  home,  having  reference  to  our  own  spiritual  improve- 
ment, and  the  advancement  of  true  religion  over  all  tbe  earth. 
Had  a  prayer-meeting  from  ten  to  half  past  eleven,  A.  M.  At 
one,  P.  KL,  I  preached  in  the  after-cabin  from  Habakkuk  iii.  2  — 
'•  O  Lord,  revive  thy  work ; "  and  in  the  evening  we  observed  the 
usual  concert  of  prayer.  I  trust  the  season  was  not  wholly  lost 
to  us.  But,  alas !  how  strongly  are  we  reminded,  at  the  close  of 
a  day  so  designated,  that  "  our  righteousnesses  are  as  filthy  rags  " ! 
My  throat  suffered  less  than  it  has  hitherto  from  similar  exer- 
tions, for  which  I  am  truly  thankful.  We  had  a  slight  breakfast 
and  supper,  but  dispensed  with  dinner. 

Wednesday,  6.  Were  visited  yesterday  by  an  enormous  shark. 
We  were  going  but  at  the  rate  of  two  knots  (miles)  an  hour,  and 
some  men  were  at  work  over  the  side,  whose  feet  occasionally 
dipped  in  the  water;  and  it  is  possible  this  may  have  drawn 
him.  lie  was  about  thirty  feet  long,  and  four  or  five  broad,  the 
head  flat,  and  nearly  square  across  the  snout.  After  he  had  ac- 
companied us  some  time,  within  eight  or  ten  feet  of  the  ship,  the 


MEETING    FOR    SEAMEN.  29 

captain  had  tbe  harpoon  thrown  into  him.  It  entered  near  his 
head,  and  passed  deeply.  For  some  moments,  he  seemed  uncon- 
scious of  the  wound,  and  then  moved  off  abeam.  In  vain  the 
sailors  held  on  to  the  rope  ;  it  passed  irresistibly  through  their 
hands,  till  it  came  to  the  end  where  it  was  made  fast,  and  then, 
though  an  inch  in  diameter,  broke  like  a  thread.  The  sailors  call 
this  the  bone-shark.  It  is,  I  am  pretty  confident,  the  basking  shark 
(selache  maxima)  of  the  books,  not  unfrequently  seen  on  the  Amer- 
ican coast,  and  which  greatly  resembles  a  huge  catfish.  Its  flesh 
is  said  to  be  good  eating,  and  a  valuable  amount  of  oil  may  be 
got  from  it.  Around  bun,  as  usual,  were  pilot-fish,  {scomber  due- 
tor,)  shaped  like  a  perch  or  small  fat  herring,  and  girdled  beauti- 
fully with  alternate  rings  of  blue  and  white. 

Monday,  11.  Preached  in  my  turn  last  evening,  in  the  small 
cabin,  and  suffered  still  less  than  before.  For  several  Sabbaths, 
Ave  have  had  a  separate  meeting  for  the  seamen,  at  4  o'clock,  held 
in  the  forecastle,  or  on  the  forward  deck.  They  all  attend,  and  give 
respectful  attention.  I  sometimes  converse  with  them  individu- 
ally at  sunset.  They  admit  the  importance  of  personal  piety, 
and  one  or  two  are  serious ;  but  their  great  objection  to  giving 
themselves  up  immediately  to  God  is,  that  they  cannot  maintain  a 
devotional  life,  situated  as  they  are  at  sea.  Alas !  there  are  al- 
ways some  to  scoff  at  a  religious  messmate;  and  a  sailor  can  bear 
any  thing  better  than  scorn.  Sad  are  the  responsibility  and  danger 
of  the  "  one  sinner  [that]  destroy  eth  much  good" 

Friday,  15.  Are  at  length  north  of  the  line  again,  and  have 
been  for  a  day  or  two  within  24  hours'  sail  of  Sumatra.  Sixteen 
thousand  miles  of  our  voyage  are  now  accomplished,  in  safety. 
It  has  been  oppressively  hot  for  a  fortnight,  with  daily  showers 
of  rain.  Some  of  the  gentlemen  have  refreshed  themselves  by 
swimming  at  the  side  of  the  vessel,  when  it  was  calm ;  and  the 
captain  has  "  rigged  up  "  a  nice  bath,  on  deck,  for  the  ladies,  of 
which  they  gladly  avail  themselves. 

It  is  pleasing  to  have  ocular  evidence,  in  rock-weed,  tropic 
birds,  &c,  of  our  approach  to  Aurea  Chersonensis  and  Argentta 
Regio,  as  the  ancients  called  Burmah  and  Siam.  They  knew 
little  more  of  these  regions,  than  that  they  existed;  and  few  mod- 
erns know  much  more.  But  the  eyes  of  Christians  are  now 
turned  on  these  lands  with  strong  benevolence,  and  the  world  will 
know,  not  only  their  riches  in  gold  and  silver,  in  ivory  and  spices, 
but  the  condition  of  their  teeming  population,  and  the  character 
and  tendencies  of  their  religion.  The  missionary  shall  feel  at 
home  on  lands  which  white  men  knew  not,  and  the  knowledge 
3* 


30  VOYAGE    ODT. 

of  God  supplant  their  gloomy  superstitions.  Soon  we  shall  say, 
"  Thy  light  is  come ! " 

January  18, 183G.  Sailing  to-day  only  80  miles  from  the  Nico- 
bar  Islands,  and  embayed  among  pagan  countries,  makes  one  feel 
already  amid  the  heathen.  On  these  pleasant  islands  the  gospel 
was  long  and  faithfully  dispensed,  and  deliberately  and  finally 
rejected.  Mingled  emotions  of  pity  for  the  deluded  people,  and 
admiration  of  true  missionary  zeal,  force  themselves  upon  us, 
when  we  remember  the  straggles  and  martyrdom  of  the  faithful 
Moravians  on  these  coasts.  Eighty  years  ago,  they  began  by 
sending  six  men  to  convert  and  civilize  the  people.  Others  came, 
as  disease  made  breaches  in  their  number.  Thirty  years  long 
did  these  holy  men  exert  themselves  amid  both  hardships  and 
discouragement.  Obliged,  at  night,  in  their  preaching  tours,  to 
sleep  in  trees,  or  bury  themselves  in  the  sand  of  the  shore,  to 
avoid  venomous  insects;  often  escaping,  as  by  miracle,  from -alli- 
gators, serpents,  and  wild  beasts  ;  feeding  on  wretched  shell-fish  ; 
lodged  in  poor  huts ;  and  laboring  with  their  own  hands  for  a 
subsistence,  —  they  fainted  not,  nor  ceased  their  toil.  But  no  ear 
gave  heed  to  their  heavenly  message  ;  no  heathen  began  to  adore 
the  true  God ;  no  idol  was  cast  to  the  moles  and  the  bats.  Thir- 
teen of  the  bretliren,  with  ruined  health,  returned  to  Tranquebar, 
and  died,  while  eleven  more  found  graves  in  their  little  cemetery. 
The  society,  at  length,  ordered  the  only  surviving  missionary  to 
abandon  the  undertaking,  and  bear  his  rejected  tidings  to  another 
people.  The  lonely  laborer,  therefore,  after  kneeling  on  the 
green  sod,  where  lay  his  loved  companions  and  predecessors,  and 
offering  one  more  fervent  prayer  for  the  pitied  islanders,  left  the 
country,  [in  1787 ;]  and  "  the  voice  of  free  grace  "  has  been  heard 
among  them  no  more.  —  O  ye  Nicobarians !  how  have  ye  put 
from  you  the  teachings  of  Jesus,  and  "  counted  yourselves  un- 
worthy of  eternal  life  " !  But  the  light  now  kindling  on  Burmah's 
shores  shall  strike  your  silent  mountains,  and  wake  from  your 
dank  valleys  the  exultations  of  the  saved. 

Tuesday,  26.  Becalmed.  Juggernaut's  temple  about  90  miles 
distant  —  It  is  difficult  to  abstain  from  gazing  over  the  side,  per- 
petually, at  the  countless  numbers  and  variety  of  aquatic  crea- 
tures, which,  far  and  near,  sport  themselves  on  the  smooth,  warm 
surface  of  the  sea.  Through  the  glass  we  discern  numerous 
turtles,  puffing-pigs,  &c,  while  nearer  at  hand  are  sharks,  dog- 
fish, sun-fish,  toad-fish,  cuttle-fish,  porcupine-fish,  snakes,  sea-lice, 
spiders,  &c. ;  and  on  every  fragment  of  bamboo,  or  wood,  or  co- 
coa-nut husk,  which  floats  along,  are  various  shell-fish,  suckers, 


FIRST    SIGHT    OF    IDOLATERS.  31 

and  worms.  Different  parties  take  the  boat  from  time  to  time, 
and  row  about,  getting  fine  turtles,  and  picking  up  a  great  variety 
of  creatures,  which  we  should  be  glad  to  preserve,  if  we  had 
the  conveniences.  I  began  my  portfolio  by  making  drawings 
of  several  of  the  fishes.  We  got  six  or  eight  crabs,  about 
as  large  as  a  half  dollar ;  exceedingly  beautiful  and  various  hi 
their  colors.  In  a  piece  of  porous  wood,  not  exceeding  four 
inches  square,  we  found  perhaps  fifty  different  insects,  all,  of 
course,  new  and  curious  to  us.  What  an  opulence  of  divine 
power  and  skill  is  seen  in  this  endless  variety  of  animated  be- 
ings !  —  all  perfect  in  their  kind  —  all  happy  in  then  way  —  all 
fulfilling  some  object  for  which  they  were  made.  "  O  that  men 
would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  goodness  and  his  wonderful 
works ! " 

Monday,  Feb.  1,  1836.  At  our  conceit  of  prayer  this  evening, 
it  was  an  affecting  consideration  that,  on  all  this  coast,  from  Cut- 
tack  to  Calcutta,  not  a  solitary  evangelist  holds  forth  the  word  of 
life !  Commercial  zeal  maintains,  at  great  expense,  buoys,  light- 
houses, telegraphs,  and  pilots,  lest  property  should  be  lost  on 
these  numerous  shoals ;  but  Christian  zeal  has  not  lit  up  the  torch 
of  truth,  to  save  the  thousands  of  these  people  from  the  loss  of 
the  soul!  How  many  other  districts  of  equal  magnitude  are 
similarly  destitute !  O  Zion !  thy  wealth  cankers.  Thy  worldli- 
ness,  hi  expenditure,  in  fashions,  and  hi  pursuits,  oppresses  thy 
graces,  destroys  thy  power,  and  leaves  whole  nations  unblest 
with  thy  light !  O  for  some  such  devotedness  as  men  of  earth 
exhibit  in  the  ways  of  pleasure  and  of  gam  !  O  that  the  millions 
of  money  annually  wasted  by  professed  Christians,  hi  the  United 
States,  were  expended,  not  in  injury  to  the  church,  but  in  ele- 
vating from  barbarism,  misery,  and  death,  the  untaught  millions 
of  heathen ! 

3.  Yesterday,  about  8  o'clock,  A.  M.,  we  got  a  pilot,  and  are 
now  slowly  ascending  the  Hoogly,  hoping  to  find  at  Kedgeree, 
about  CO  miles  up,  some  conveyance  for  our  friends  who  are 
going  to  Calcutta.  The  boat  which  brought  on  board  the  pilot 
was  manned  with  nine  lascars.  My  heart  melted  at  this  first 
sight  of  poor  idolaters.  Compassion  and  awe  have  been  seldom 
more  strongly  excited.  Lookhig  round  on  the  others,  who  stood 
looking  over  the  ship's  side?  I  found  my  eyes  were  not  the  only 
fountains  of  tears.  To-day  we  have  seen  many  more  natives,  who 
came  off  to  us  in  their  boats.  Most  of  them  have  a  veiy  small 
white  cotton  cloth  wrapped  round  their  loins ;  some  have  it  long 
enough  to  cover  the  shoulders  also  when  they  choose  to  loose  it 


32  VOYAGE    OUT. 

tor  that  pin-pose ;  and  a  few  wear  turbans  of  the  same  material : 
none  have  any  defence  to  the  feet.  Their  complexion  is  not 
much  different  from  that  of  colored  people  in  our  Northern  States, 
who  have  not  generally  the  jet  color  of  Africans.  Some  of  the 
younger  ones  were  not  so  dark,  and  had  more  of  the  red  tint  of  the 
American  aborigines.  Their  stature  is  small,  limbs  well  propor- 
tioned, countenance  intelligent,  nose  aquiline,  teeth  very  white, 
hair  black,  and  inclined  to  curl.  A  fishing-boat  attached  itself  to 
our  stern  as  we  lay  at  anchor,  and  remained  during  the  ebb  tide, 
in  company  with  another,  which  had  come  to  offer  aid  in  working 
the  ship.  It  was  interesting  to  observe  the  nicety  with  which 
they  prepared  their  rice,  and  the  enormous  quantity  they  de- 
voured. I  should  judge  that  each  man  ate  two  quarts  ;  but  it  was 
boiled  dry,  and  lay  loose.  It  is  to  be  considered,  however,  that 
they  eat  little  else.  They  ate  with  the  fingers,  or  rather  the 
hand,  pressing  together  as  much  as  they  could  well  grasp,  Hud 
cramming  as  much  of  it  as  they  could  into  the  mouth,  letting  the 
remainder  fall  back  into  the  dish  again  ;  then  picking  up  a  small 
morsel  of  fish.  It  was  an  ocular  proof  of  the  propriety  of  the  East- 
ern custom  of  "  washing  before  meat "  —  a  custom  which  a  mere 
American  reader  might  regard  as  founded  in  superstition.  After 
dinner,  and  smoking,  they  lay  down  to  sleep.  Untying  the  cloth 
round  their  loins,  they  made  it  answer  as  a  sheet,  and  the  bare 
deck  formed  their  couch.  Though  we  find  it  warm  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  (thermometer,  in  the  shade,  79°,)  they  all  complained 
of  the  cold,  and  laid  themselves  in  the  full  blaze  of  the  sun. 

The  boats  are  similar  to  ours,  but  pointed  at  each  end,  heavier, 
and  decked  over,  so  that  the  rowers  sit  flat  on  the  floor,  or  on  a 
very  low  stool,  having  the  oar  fastened  at  the  top  of  two  small 
sticks,  about  two  feet  long,  set  up  like  the  letter  A.  Most  of  the 
oars  were  bamboo  rods,  with  a  flat  piece,  about  18  inches  long, 
at  the  end.  They  are  short,  and  the  rowers  sit  in  pairs,  side  by 
side,  while  the  boat  is  steered  by  an  oar  at  the  stern. 

5.  Went  ashore,  and,  after  visiting  the  telegraph  officer  at  this 
station,  strolled  through  the  bazar.  —  We  found  rice,  grain,  sugar, 
milk,  eggs,  fowls,  cocoa-nut  and  mustard-seed  oil,  mats,  oranges, 
guavas,  bananas,  plantains,  shattucks,  (called  here  pomelos,)  pine- 
apples, yams,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  cabbages,  carrots,  Irish 
potatoes,  lettuce,  &c.  &c,  but  no  butcher's  meat.  Generally,  the 
prices  were  much  cheaper  than  with  us ;  but  such  of  the  articles 
as  do  not  properly  belong  to  a  tropical  climate  were  of  very  poor 
quality.  Mustard  is  cultivated  in  large  fields,  simply  for  the 
oil,  Avhich  is  prized  not  only  for  burning,  but  for  cookery,  and 


ANDAMAN     ISLANDS.  33 

especially  for  anointing  oil,  in  which  last  mode  the  consumption 
is  very  great. 

6.  Having  parted  with  Mr.  Sutton  and  his  company,  we 
weighed  anchor  about  2  o'clock,  and  dropped  down  the  river,  to 
resume  our  voyage  to  Burmah.  The  navigation  here  is  so  intri- 
cate as  seldom  to  be  attempted  at  night,  especially  during  this 
month,  when  fogs  occur  every  night.  From  midnight  till  this 
morning  at  eight  o'clock,  the  fog  and  dew  sent  down  from  the  rig- 
ging a  continual  dropping,  like  a  smart  shower.  A  good  rain  of 
an  hour's  duration  would  not  have  wet  the  ground  more  deeply. 
What  a  merciful  provision  in  a  country  where  no  rain  occurs  for 
so  long  a  period !  A  fine  wind  and  ardent  sun  clear  the  atmos- 
phere about  eight  o'clock. 

Feb.  12.  Just  now  we  have  to  the  south  of  us  the  Andaman 
Islands.  The  chief  of  these  is  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  long, 
and  twenty-five  wide,  divided,  however,  in  fact,  into  three  islands, 
by  channels,  which  extend  across  the  whole  breadth.  This  ar- 
chipelago was  known  to  Ptolemy,  who  calls  it  "Insulce  bonre 
fortuncE."  He  declares  the  inhabitants  to  be  anthropophagi,  which 
horrid  fact  is  confirmed  by  late  travellers,  though  it  seems  they 
eat  human  flesh  only  in  revenge  towards  enemies,  or  when  im- 
pelled by  famine,  to  which  they  are  often  exposed.  They  are 
genuine  negroes,  and  uncommonly  repulsive  in  appearance,  hav- 
ing limbs  disproportionally  slender,  protuberant  bellies,  high, 
round  shoulders,  very  large  heads,  woolly  hair,  thick  lij)s,  and 
sooty  skin.  The  average  height  of  the  men  is  about  five  feet. 
No  two  races  of  men  are  more  distinct  than  this  people  and  the 
nations  around  them.  How  they  came  here  is  a  problem  not 
solved.  The  general  conjecture  is,  that  a  Portuguese  slaver  from 
Mozambique  was  some  time  wrecked  here,  and  thus  peopled  the 
island.  But  we  have  the  account  of  two  Mahometan  travellers, 
who  journeyed  eastward  in  the  ninth  century,  six  hundred  years 
before  Portuguese  ships  found  then-  wTay  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Their  description  of  these  islanders  is  quite  correct.  They  say, 
"  The  complexion  of  the  people  is  black,  then*  hair  frizzled,  their 
countenance  frightful,  and  their  feet  very  large.  They  go  quite 
naked,  and  eat  human  flesh."  Perhaps  no  people  on  earth  stand 
lower  in  the  scale  of  humanity.  Going  utterly  naked,  and  there- 
fore exposed  to  the  annoyance  of  various  insects,  they  are  in 
the  habit  of  daubing  themselves  from  head  to  foot  with  mud, 
which,  hardening,  forms  a  complete  defence,  but  gives  them  a 
hideous  appearance.  Their  habitations  are  scarcely  superior  to 
the  lair  of  the  monkey.     Four  slender  poles  stuck  into  the  ground, 


34  VOYAGE    OCT. 

tied  together  at  the  top,  and  covered  with  leaves,  form  the  whole 
structure.  A  few  leaves  scraped  into  a  corner  make  the  bed. 
Then-  only  manufactures  are  some  poor  bows  and  arrows,  hard- 
ened at  the  end  by  fire,  or  pointed  with  bone ;  and  some  simple 
fishing-tackle.  Addicted  to  war  (!),  and  kept  down  by  scanty  food, 
their  numbers  amount  to  less  than  three  thousand  souls.  Who 
will  go  to  these  ?  Who  will  carry  the  torch  of  truth  into  that 
thick  gloom  ?     Lord,  send  by  whom  thou  wilt  send ! 

14.  Passed  not  far  from  the  Preparis  and  Narcondam 
Islands.  The  former  is  accessible  only  on  the  eastern  side.  It 
is  about  seven  miles  long,  entirely  covered  with  a  dense  forest, 
and  uninhabited.  Monkeys  and  squirrels,  said  to  be  the  only 
quadrupeds,  are  exceedingly  numerous.  Narcondam  is  regarded 
as  of  volcanic  origin,  and  has  on  its  summit  the  apparent  crater 
of  an  exhausted  volcano.  Its  form  is  conical,  and,  though  the 
island  is  very  small,  its  height  is  computed  at  two  thousand  Jive 
hundred  feet    It  is  visible  in  very  clear  weather  seventy  miles. 

17.  Since  leaving  Kedgeree,  we  have  held  meetings  every 
evening  with  the  men  in  the  forecastle,  and  are  rejoiced  to  find 
eight  out  of  the  ten  avowing  themselves  subjects  of  deep  convic- 
tion, and  declaring  then-  full  purpose  of  heart  to  follow  Christ  in 
all  his  appointed  ways.  We  usually  preach  a  familiar  discourse, 
and  then  converse  with  them  personally.  Their  gradual  progress 
has  been  very  perceptible,  and  so  far  very  satisfactory.  Several 
of  them  pray  in  our  little  meetings  with  great  propriety.  Three 
of  them  give  good  evidence  of  conversion,  and  desire  baptism. 
They  are  much  the  most  sensible  men  in  the  crew,  and  one  has 
an  excellent  education.  We  hope  they  will  be  found  true  to  their 
new  purpose,  amid  the  temptations  of  the  future,  and  redeemed 
at  last  by  the  grace  of  God. 


35 


CHAPTER   IL 

Arrival  at  Amherst  —  First  Sabbath  at  Maulmain  —  Coasting  Voyage  — 
Moung-ma-goung  —  Curiosity  of  the  People  —  Walk  over  the  Mountain  — 
Tavoy  —  Mata  —  Karens ;  their  Piety,  Liberality,  Temperance,  Grati- 
tude ;  Letters  from  Young  Converts  ;  Churches  ;  Books  —  Mergui ;  Popu- 
lation ;  Chinese  ;  Mussulmans  and  Christians  ;  Siamese  Shans  ;  Important 
as  a  Missionary  Station  —  Tenasserim  Islands  —  Se-longs  —  Storm  — 
Disagreeable  Insects— Variety  of  Costumes— Karen  Juggler—  Grave-yard. 

Monday,  Feb.  21,  1836.  Cast  anchor  at  Amherst.  Thanks  to 
God  for  his  great  mercy  in  bringing  us  to  our  desired  haven  in 
safety  and  peace ! 

Having  yesterday  sent  a  line  to  Mr.  Judson  at  Maulmain,  by  a 
small  boat,  we  had  scarcely  anchored  before  Mr.  Osgood  was  on 
board  to  welcome  us.  It  was  a  joyous  meeting,  saddened,  how- 
ever, by  seeing  in  brother  Osgood's  face  evidence  of  infirm  health. 
He  brought  covered  boats  to  take  us  to  Maulmain,  and  at  ten 
o'clock,  the  tide  being  favorable,  we  set  out,  and  arrived  about 
day-break.  Brother  J.  received  us  with  exultation  at  the  aid  we 
brought,  and  we  were  soon  comfortably  quartered  —  myself  at 
brother  J.'s,  and  the  rest  at  the  houses  of  brethren  Osgood, 
Hancock,  and  Vinton. 

Our  first  Sabbath  in  this  dark  land  was,  of  course,  full  of  inter- 
est. In  the  morning,  we  worshipped  with  the  Burman  congre- 
gation in  the  zayat.  About  seventy  were  present,  nearly  all  Chris- 
tians. Seldom  have  I  seen  so  attentive  and  devout  an  audience. 
They  sat,  of  course,  on  the  floor,  where  mats  were  spread  for 
their  accommodation,  a  large  bamboo,  about  eighteen  inches 
from  the  floor,  serving  as  a  rest  to  the  back.  In  prayer,  the 
Americans  knelt,  and  the  rest,  without  rising  from  the  floor,  leaned 
forward  on  their  elbows,  putting  their  palms  together.  At  the 
close  of  the  petition,  all  responded  an  audible  Amen  —  a  prac- 
tice truly  apostolic,  and  strangely  discontinued  with  us.  Mr.  J. 
preached  with  much  apparent  earnestness,  and  all  listened  with 
rapt  attention.  Several  inquirers  were  present,  some  of  whom 
applied  for  baptism. 

At  night,  attended  at  the  chapel,  where  worship  in  English 
is  regularly  maintained.  About  one  hundred  were  present,  chiefly 
soldiers.     During  the  whole  day,  the  gong  resounded  in  different 


36  BURMAH. 

parts  of  the  city,  and  in  the  evening  several  theatres  were  opened. 
We  were  informed  that  one  of  the  chiefs  was  giving  a  feast 
of  seven  days,  on  the  occasion  of  his  last  child  having  his 
ears  bored! 

After  holding  a  meeting  early  on  Monday  morning,  to  decide 
on  the  destination  of  Mr.  Davenport,  I  returned  to  the  ship,  to 
superintend  the  discharge  of  the  cargo,  and  got  back  in  the  night 
on  Tuesday.  During  the  intervals  of  loading  lighters,  I  went 
ashore,  and  sketched  Mrs.  Judson's  grave,  and  the  tree  over  it. 


The  Grave  of  Mrs.  Judson. 

The  head  and  foot  stones  are  in  perfect  order,  and,  with  the 
little  grave  of  "  Maria,"  are  enclosed  in  a  light  bamboo  fence. 
The  mouth  of  the  Sal  wen  and  the  broad  expanse  of  ocean 
opens  on  the  left.  It  is  a  holy  spot,  calculated  indeed  to 
awaken  the  emotions  which  the  sweet  poetess  has  ascribed 
to  the  traveller. 

Instead  of  attempting  to  describe  my  thoughts  and  feelings 
as  I  gazed  upon  the  spot,  I  will  give  some  stanzas  written  by 
Mrs.  Sigourney,  to  whom  I  forwarded  a  copy  of  the  picture,  with 
the  request  that  she  would  furnish  a  few  lines. 


LINES    ON    THE    DEATH    OF    MRS.    ANN    H.    JUDSON.  37 

THE    HOPIA-TREE, 

PLANTED    OVER    THE    GRAVE   OF    MRS.  ANN   H.   JCDSON. 

"  Rest !  Rest !    The  hopia-tree  is  green, 
And  proudly  waves  its  leafy  screen 

Thy  lowly  bed  above  ; 
And  by  thy  side,  no  more  to  weep, 
Thine  infant  shares  the  gentle  sleep, 

Thy  youngest  bud  of  love. 

11  How  oft  its  feebly-wailing  cry 
Detained  unsealed  thy  watchful  eye, 

And  pained  that  parting  hour, 
When  pallid  Death,  with  stealthy  tread, 
Descried  thee  on  thy  fever-bed, 

And  proved  his  fatal  power ! 

"  Ah  !  do  I  see,  with  faded  charm, 
Thy  head  reclining  on  thine  arm, 

The  "  Teacher  "  far  away  ?  — 
But  now,  thy  mission-labors  o'er, 
Rest,  weary  clay,  to  wake  no  more 

Till  the  great  rising  day." 

Thus  spake  the  traveller,  as  he  stayed 
His  step  within  that  sacred  shade  : 

A  man  of  God  was  he, 
Who  his  Redeemer's  glory  sought, 
And  paused  to  woo  the  holy  thought 

Beneath  that  hopia-tree. 

The  Salwen's  tide  went  rushing  by, 
And  Burmah's  cloudless  moon  was  high, 

With  many  a  solemn  star ; 
And  while  he  mused,  methought  there  stole 
An  angel's  whisper  o'er  his  soul, 

From  that  pure  clime  afar  — 

Where  swells  no  more  the  heathen  sigh, 
Nor  'neath  the  idol's  stony  eye 
Dark  sacrifice  is  done,  — 
And  where  no  more,  by  prayers  and  tears, 
And  toils  of  agonizing  years, 
The  martyr's  crown  is  won. 
TOL.    I.  4 


or  ISL  KiUAlJ. 

Then  visions  of  the  faith  that  blest 
The  dying  saint's  rejoicing  breast, 

And  set  the  pagan  free, 
Came  thronging  on,  serenely  bright, 
And  cheered  the  traveller's  heart  that  night, 

Beneath  the  hopia-tree. 

Tuesday,  29.  Waited  with  Mr.  J.  on  Mr.  Blundell,  the  com- 
missioner  of  the  province,  or  governor,  as  he  is  here  commonly 
called,  and  on  Mr.  Condamine,  the  second  in  office.  They  re- 
ceived us  politely,  and  were  able  to  answer  me  many  important 
questions.  Mr.  Blundell  is  regarded  as  a  skilful  and  prudent 
governor,  and  as  earnestly  desirous  of  the  true  prosperity  of  the 
country.  He  estimates  the  entire  population  of  the  provinces 
under  his  care  at  less  than  300,000  souls;  the  provinces  of 
Amherst,  Tavoy,  Yeh,  and  Mergui,  at  less  than  100,000 ;  and  Ar- 
racan  at  about  200,000. 

Having  concluded  unanimously,  at  a  full  meeting  of  the 
brethren,  to  call  a  general  convocation  of  all  our  missionaries 
who  could  attend  and  return  before  the  rains,  it  has  become  ne- 
cessary that  my  visit  to  Tavoy  and  Mergui  should  be  made  before 
such  meeting,  which,  in  view  of  all  considerations,  we  appointed 
for  the  30th  of  March.  In  order  to  be  exempt  from  the  delays 
and  disappointments  attendant  on  waiting  for  casual  vessels,  we 
chartered  a  small  cutter.  She  is  a  tiny  craft,  of  40  or  50  tons, 
but  has  a  little  cabin,  which  accommodates  Mr.  Abbott*  and 
myself  very  well. 

The  scenery  along  the  coast  is  mountainous  and  entirely  un- 
inhabitable, as  is  the  case  also  with  numerous  islands,  and  which 
form  almost  a  continuous  chain,  a  few  miles  from  shore.  Dense 
forests  cover  the  whole,  presenting  throughout  the  year  a  rich 
and  varied  verdure.  To  avoid  three  or  perhaps  four  days'  delay 
in  going  round  Tavoy  Point,  and  up  the  river,  I  was  set  ashore, 
with  a  few  articles  of  immediate  necessity,  at  Moung-ma-goung,  a 
small  Burman  village,  eight  or  ten  miles'  walk  from  1'avoy.  It 
stands  nearly  a  mile  from  the  shore,  with  wide  paths  and  good 
houses,  beautifully  shaded  by  noble  trees,  especially  the  bunyatha 
or  jack,  a  species  of  the  bread-fruit.  While  the  necessary  prep- 
arations were  being  made,  1  was  conducted  to  the  cool  zayat, 
and  was  scarcely  seated  on  its  floor  of  split  canes,  when  a  wo- 
man brought  a  nice  mat  for  me  to  lie  on,  another  presented  me 
with  cool  water,  and  the  head  man  went  and  plucked  for  me  a 

*  A  fellow-passenger  from  America,  destined  for  the  Karens. 


WALK    OVER    THE    MOUNTAINS.  39 

half  dozen  of  fine  oranges.  None  sought  or  expected  the  least 
reward,  but  disappeared,  and  left  me  to  my  repose.  A  constant 
succession  of  children,  however,  came  to  gaze  at  the  foreigner, 
and  some  women,  with  babes  on  their  hips,  squatted  at  a  little 
distance  to  gratify  their  curiosity;  all,  however,  behaving  with 
decorum  and  respect.  In  a  Burman  village,  the  zayat  is  the  only 
tavern.  It  consists  of  a  shed  with  a  floor  raised  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  wide  verandas  to  keep  off  the  sun.  The 
quality  of  the  building  varies  with  the  wealth  and  generosity  of 
the  villagers.  Some  are  truly  splendid.  As  chairs  and  tables  are 
out  of  the  question,  and  as  every  traveller  carries  his  own  pro- 
vision, here  is  an  ample  hotel.  The  neighbors  readily  furnish 
water,  and  fruits  seem  free.  A  little  fire,  kindled  near,  cooks  the 
rice  ;  an  hour's  slumber  follows  the  unpretending  meal,  and  all 
things  are  ready  for  a  start. 

After  some  repose,  the  cooley  (or  porter)  having  adjusted  the 
haggage  at  the  ends  of  a  pole,  placed  it  on  his  shoulder,  and 
walked  on  as  guide.  After  passing  some  patches  of  pine-apple, 
and  many  noble  fruit-trees  of  kinds  unseen  before,  we  entered  the 
jungle,  and  began  to  wind  our  way  over  the  mountains,  which  ex- 
tend along  all  this  coast,  and  terminate  at  Tavoy  Point.  Though 
no  rain  has  fallen  since  October,  the  foliage  was  fresh  and  intense. 
Flowers,  great  and  small,  beamed  on  us  at  every  step,  and  in  some 
places  filled  the  air  with  fragrance.  Innumerable  vines,  creep- 
ing, climbing,  and  depending,  seemed  to  intertwine  the  trees  for 
mutual  support.  A  great  variety  of  parasites  clung  to  the 
branches,  sometimes  with  very  large  leaves,  forming  a  complete 
and  beautiful  sheath  to  the  entire  trunk,  and  sometimes  sending 
down  long  stems  thirty  or  forty  feet,  waving  to  the  breeze  like 
small  ropes.  The  lower  portions  of  the  mountain  are  of  coarse, 
gray  granite,  the  higher  parts  of  some  friable  stone  with  which  I 
was  not  acquainted;  the  soil  generally  a  stiff,  reddish  clay. 
Near  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  we  stopped  at  a  shallow 
well,  and,  spreading  a  cloth  on  the  ground,  my  servant  pro- 
duced the  result  of  his  morning  cooking  on  board  the  cutter, 
with  fine  cool  water,  drawn  in  a  joint  of  bamboo.  In  the 
midst  of  our  frugal  meal,  a  couple  of  ponghees  came  up,  followed 
by  servants  bearing  their  baggage,  and  stopped  under  the  shade 
of  the  same  great  tree,  though  on  the  opposite  side.  After 
dining,  an  ample  plate-full  was  given  to  the  cooley,  while  Jesse 
sat  down  and  helped  himself.  The  poor  cooley  took  the  plate, 
and,  squatting  down  at  some  distance  from  the  elder  priest, 
reached  forward  with  great  reverence,  and  presented  the  whole. 


40  BURMAH. 

The  old  man  and  his  followers  took  a  little,  but  with  indiffer- 
ence. The  bread  he  smelled,  and  examined,  and  tasted,  but 
threw  it  away.  His  palate,  I  suppose,  was  not  adjusted  to  such 
a  novelty. 

As  we  sat  waiting  for  the  sun  to  decline,  Jesse  engaged  the 
old  man  in  a  religious  discussion.  They  both  pleaded  with  great 
earnestness  and  much  gesture,  though  sitting  ten  feet  apart.  I 
could  but  pray  earnestly  that  the  poor  gray-headed  idolater  might 
be  convinced  of  the  truth,  and  my  recently-converted  man  be 
able  to  set  Jesus  savingly  before  him.  How  I  longed  to  be  able 
to  proclaim  to  them  the  great  salvation  !  The  old  man  at  length 
got  out  of  patience,  and  moved  off,  followed  by  his  company. 
The  Lord  grant  that  this  people  may  be  inclined  to  accept  the 
heavenly  boon  which  American  Christians  are  offering  them. 
About  sunset,  arrived  at  Tavoy,  and  was  most  kindly  received  by 
Mrs.  Mason  and  Miss  Gardner,  the  only  missionaries  now  at 
the  station. 

March  14.  The  ten  days  spent  in  this  city  have  been  much  oc- 
cupied with  the  missionaries,  in  hearing  statements,  asking  ques- 
tions, examining  accounts,  visiting  schools,  giving  advice,  and 
such  other  official  duties  as  will  recur  at  eveiy  station.  Such 
matters  do  not  belong  here,  and  my  readers  will  not  expect  to 
find  them  in  subsequent  pages,  though  they  form  an  important 
part  of  my  duties. 

The  town  and  suburbs  of  Tavoy  contain,  as  I  am  iuformed  by 
the  acting  governor,*  1845  houses,  with  a  population  of  9,045 
soids,  giving  a  fraction  less  than  five  to  a  house.  Of  these,  about 
two  hundred  are  Chinese  men,  generally  married,  and,  of  course, 
to  Burman  females.  There  are  also  Malays,  Malabars,  Mussul- 
mans, &c.  The  streets  are  in  good  order,  with  much  shade,  and 
exhibit  some  stir  of  business.  Good  vessels  are  built  here,  and 
a  regular  trade  maintained  with  the  chief  places  along  the  coast 
from  Singapore  to  Canton.  This  secures  bakers  and  many 
other  convenient  mechanics. 

The  province,  exclusive  of  the  city,  contains  4,768  houses,  and 
25,143  inhabitants ;  or  rather  over  five  to  a  house.  There  are 
from  thirty  to  forty  criminal  convictions  per  annum.  The  rev- 
enue is  more  than  equivalent  to  the  expenditure  of  the  Company 
in  keeping  up  its  military  and  civil  establishments,  which  is  said 
not  to  be  the  case  with  any  other  of  these  provinces.     The  number 

*  Dr.  Richardson.  To  this  gentleman,  who  has  travelled  more  extensively 
in  Burmah  and  these  provinces  than  any  other  European  here,  I  am  indebted 
for  much  valuable  information. 


TAVOY.  41 

of  priests  is  estimated  at  about  four  hundred.  Of  nuns  there 
are  about  fifty ;  of  whom  all  I  saw  were  beyond  middle  life,  and 
generally  wore  the  aspect  of  mendicants. 

The  dialect  of  Tavoy  is  a  sort  of  obsolete  Burman,  scarcely 
intelligible  to  those  who  speak  the  pure  language ;  but  no 
difference  exists  in  writing. 

The  missionaries  at  this  station  are  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wade, 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Mason,  and  Miss  Gardner.  The  latter  alone  and 
Mrs.  M.  attend  to  the  Tavoyers,  and  only  in  the  way  of  schools. 
Of  these,  there  are  generally  five  or  six,  con  taming  about  150 
pupils. 

The  married  missionaries,  though  obliged  to  reside  here  part 
of  the  year,  on  account  of  the  unhealthiness  of  the  Karen  forests 
during  the  rains,  give  then-  whole  time  and  attention  to  that  peo- 
ple. The  diy  season  they  spend  among  the  mountains,  some- 
times several  months  in  a  place,  particularly  at  Mata.  From 
April  to  October,  they  remain  at  Tavoy,  engaged  in  the  study  of 
Karen,  and  preparing  books  in  that  language,  while  their  wives, 
assisted  by  Miss  Gardner,  attend  to  boarding-schools  for  Karen 
children,  who  come  to  town  for  this  purpose. 

Public  worship  in  the  Burman  language  is  held  every  Sunday 
morning,  in  a  convenient  chapel,  of  ample  dimensions,  at  which 
the  children  of  all  the  day-schools,  with  their  teachers,  are  re- 
quired to  be  present.  Few  of  the  other  heathen  citizens  attend ; 
seldom  more  than  two  or  three ;  and  as  there  are  but  five  native 
Christians  in  Tavoy,  the  congregation  is  very  small.  Some  that 
were  baptized  here,  have  gone  to  other  places.  Worship  is  also 
held  every  evening  at  the  house  of  one  of  the  missionaries,  at 
which  the  native  Christians  and  pupils  in  the  boarding-schools 
attend.  Seven  soldiers  have  been  baptized,  but  all  are  now  gone, 
and  only  a  gentleman  in  the  medical  service,  and  the  missiona- 
ries, form  at  this  time  the  Baptist  communion  in  Tavoy.  In  no 
part  of  our  field  is  help  more  wanted  than  for  the  Burman  de- 
partment of  the  Tavoy  mission. 

Two  days'  journey  from  Tavoy,  a  considerable  number  of 
Karens,  converted  in  different  places,  have  been  brought  together, 
and  formed  into  a  Christian  village  ;  the  heads  of  every  family 
being  members  of  the  church.  These  Christians  now  amount 
to  about  two  hundred,  and  conduct  themselves  with  exemplary 
rectitude.  By  the  aid  of  the  missionaries,  they  have  obtained 
goats,  bullocks,  oil-mills,  seeds,  &c. ;  and  with  these,  and  still 
more  by  the  increased  industry  they  have  been  taught  to  prac- 
4* 


42  BURMA  H. 

tise,  they  have  been  enabled  to  cease  their  wanderings,  and  ac- 
quire many  comforts  to  which  their  countrymen  are  strangers. 
Cleanliness,  in  winch  Karens  are  universally  deficient,  has  been 
attained  in  no  small  degree.  The  men  have  been  exhorted  to 
raise  plenty  of  cotton,  and  the  women  induced  so  to  apply  them- 
selves to  spinning  and  weaving,  as  to  furnish  every  one  of  their 
families  with  a  change  of  raiment.  They  now  wash  their  gar- 
ments often,  which  before  they  scarcely  ever  did.  Then-  ground, 
under  their  houses,  winch  always  used  to  be  receptacles  for  filth 
and  vermin,  is  all  swept  out  clean  every  Saturday  afternoon, 
and  the  rubbish  burnt.  On  Sunday,  they  come  to  public  worship 
perfectly  clean,  and,  as  then  costume  covers  the  person  entirely, 
the  sight  would  please  the  most  fastidious  American  eye.* 

But  it  is  the  spiritual  change  visible  at  Mata,f  which  is  most 
delightful.  In  this  respect,  they  present  a  most  attractive  spec- 
tacle. Punctual  in  all  public  services,  they  fill  a  large  zayat  on 
the  Sabbath,  and  manifest  a  decorum  and  devotion  far  superior 
to  any  thing  ordinarily  seen  in  America.  Being  a  musical  peo- 
ple, and  having  a  book  of  over  a  hundred  hymns,  composed  by 
Mr.  Mason,  they,  almost  without  exception,  unite  in  the  singing ; 
and  to  my  ear  their  psalmody  was  correct  and  sweet.  After  a 
prayer  or  a  benediction,  they  all  utter  an  audible  "  Jlmen,"  re- 
main silent  on  their  knees  for  the  space  of  half  a  minute,  and 
retire  in  perfect  silence  —  a  practice  which  would  greatly  im- 
prove our  meetings.  Mrs.  Wade  has  been  hi  the  habit  of  hold- 
ing daily  a  prayer-meeting  with  them  at  sunrise.  Almost  every 
morning,  before  day-light,  many  gather  at  the  zayat,  and  com- 
mence singing  hymns.  As  soon  as  Mrs.  Wade  is  seen  issuing 
from  her  door,  at  sunrise,  they  strike  the  gong,  and  presently  the 
multitude  come  together.  It  is  remarkable,  that  not  one  man  or 
woman  refuses  to  pray  when  called  upon.  On  Sunday,  a  Sun- 
day school  is  held  in  the  morning,  at  which  all  the  children  of 
proper  age  attend  ;  those  that  are  not  professors  being  formed 
into  one  company,  and  the  others  into  another,  superintended  by 
the  missionary  and  his  wife  alternately.  Public  worship  and 
preaching  are  held  morning  and  evening.     The  afternoon  is 

*  Friends  who  wish  to  make  little  presents  to  the  Karen  Christians,  might 
send  fine-tooth  combs,  brown  soap,  writing-paper,  slates  and  pencils,  quills, 
strong  scissors,  cotton  cloth,  thread,  large  needles,  and  penknives.  Garments 
of  any  description  are  not  wanted. 

t  The  name  given  their  village,  importing,  literally,  "  Love."  Sometimes 
they  call  it  Mata-myu,  or  City  of  Love. 


PIETY    OF    THE     KARENS.  43 

often  employed  in  baptizing,  or  administering  the  communion  ; 
and  when  this  is  not  the  case,  prayer-meetings  are  held  at  the 
houses  of  the  sick.  Some  fifty  or  more  members  of  the  church 
live  at  different  distances  in  the  country,  as  far  round  as  five  or 
six  miles.  These  attend  punctually,  generally  walking  in  on 
Saturday  afternoon,  that  they  may  lose  no  part  of  the  blessed 
day. 

It  will  of  course  be  supposed  that  this  people,  so  lately  wild 
and  wandering,  without  books,  without  even  the  forms  of  reli- 
gion, and  furnished  as  yet  with  no  part  of  the  word  of  God  in 
their  own  tongue,  and  but  a  single  manuscript  copy  of  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew,  would  be  exceedingly  ignorant  of  the  claims  of 
Christianity.  They  are  indeed  so.  But  it  is  exhilarating  to  see 
the  readiness  and  cordiality  with  which  they  enter  into  the  per- 
formance of  eveiy  duty,  as  soon  as  it  is  made  known  to  them. 
Time  would  fail  to  describe  all  the  instances  which  illustrate  this 
remark ;  but  one  or  two  may  be  named.  Mrs.  W.  had  on  one 
occasion  read  to  them  that  chapter  in  Matthew,  which,  describing 
the  judgment,  speaks  of  visiting  Christ  (as  represented  in  his  dis- 
ciple) when  sick  or  in  prison,  &c.  They  at  once  saw  how  re- 
gardless they  had  been  of  persons  under  sickness  and  sorrow ; 
and  the  very  next  day  began  to  perform  services  to  the  sick,  such 
as  they  had  never  thought  of  doing  before.  A  poor  widow,  who 
had  a  leprous  sort  of  disease,  and  a  child  about  two  years  old, 
similarly  affected,  were  visited  by  many  of  them  the  very  next 
day.  They  performed  many  repulsive  offices  for  her  and  her 
child,  brought  water,  cleaned  the  house,  gave  them  rice  and  other 
articles,  and  so  enriched  and  comforted  the  poor  creature,  that  she 
was  bewildered  with  delight.  These  attentions  have  continued 
constantly.  Another,  who  was  bed-ridden  with  loathsome  sores, 
was  attended  to  in  the  same  way.  Since  that  time,  no  one  is 
suffered  to  want  any  thing  which  the  rest  enjoy.  These  kind- 
nesses are  done  with  studied  concealment,  and  can  be  learned 
only  from  the  beneficiaries  themselves. 

On  being  told  of  the  persecution  of  Mouug  San-lone  and 
others  at  Rangoon,  and  how  they  had  been  chained,  imprisoned, 
and  excessively  fined,  they  unexpectedly  proposed  subscribing 
toward  paying  his  fine  and  releasing  them  from  prison ;  and  out 
of  their  deep  poverty  actually  sent  to  Rangoon  50  rupees  for  this 
purpose.  They  have  built,  of  their  own  accord,  a  sufficient  house 
for  the  residence  of  their  missionary  and  his  family,  and  a  zayat. 
A  greater  evidence  of  Christian  generosity  is  seen  in  their  mis- 
sionary zeal.     Those  whose  abilities,  as  assistants  or  school-rnas- 


44  BURMAH. 

ters,  warrant  the  missionaries  in  sanctioning  it,  are  ever  ready  to 
part  with  their  families,  and  go  wearisome  journeys  of  six  months 
at  a  time,  among  distant  villages,  where  they  are  utterly  unknown, 
carrying  on  their  backs  tracts  and  food,  sleeping  on  the  way  in 
trees,  or  on  the  ground,  and  enduring  many  privations.  Young 
men,  whose  services  are  very  important  to  then-  aged  parents  in 
clearing  jungle  and  planting  paddy,  are  readily  spared,  and  go  to 
various  points,  during  the  rainy  season,  teaching  school,  for  which 
their  salary  is  from  two  to  three  dollars  a  month  — half  what  they 
could  earn  in  other  employ.  About  twenty  school-masters  and 
assistants  are  now  thus  employed.  Mr.  Mason  has,  in  his  excur- 
sions, baptized  many  converts  who  were  brought  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  truth  by  these  assistants.  His  last  journey  among  the 
retired  villages  between  Tavoy  and  Mergiu  has  been  cheered  by 
the  reception  of  a  number  of  such. 

The  change  in  regard  to  temperance  is  not  less  remarkable. 
Unlike  the  Burmans,  whose  religion  utterly  forbids  strong  drink, 
and  who  scarcely  ever  use  it,  the  Karens  use  it  universally,  and 
generally  to  excess :  every  family  make  arrack  for  themselves, 
and  from  oldest  to  youngest  partake.  Drunkenness,  with  all  its 
train  of  horrors,  is  rife  among  them,  of  course.  But  no  sooner  do 
any  become  serious  inquirers,  and  consort  with  the  disciples  for 
further  instruction,  than  they  totally  abandon  the  accursed  thing. 
Jn  Mata,  therefore,  not  a  drop  is  made  or  drank.  The  children 
of  the  very  men  who  were  sots  are  growing  up  without  having 
tasted  or  seen  it  The  consequences  to  domestic  peace  and 
general  welfare  may  be  supposed. 

It  will  be  recollected  that  they  knew  nothing  of  letters  or 
books,  till  Mr.  Wade  reduced  their  language  to  writing,  about 
three  years  ago.  It  is  found  that  the  system  he  has  adopted  is 
eminently  philosophical,  and  so  easy  for  learners,  that,  in  a  few 
weeks,  pupils  who  have  never  seen  a  letter  learn  to  read 
with  facility. 

As  evidence  at  once  of  the  benefit  of  Mrs.  Wade's  school,  and 
the  piety  of  the  young  converts,  I  will  here  give  translations  of 
some  letters  received  from  pupils  on  coming  away  from  Tavoy. 
They  are  part  of  some  twenty  or  more,  and  are  a  fan-  specimen. 

Letter  from  a  female  Scholar  aged  15  years. 

"  O  Great  Teacher  ! 

"  We  put  our  trust  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  eternal  God.  O  great 
teacher,  having  heard  that  you  have  come  to  Tavoy,  I  have  a  great 
desire  to  see  thy  face.     Therefore,  O  great  teacher,  when  thou  prayest 


LETTERS  FROM  YOUNG  CONVERTS.  45 

to  God,  I  beg  thee  to  pray  for  me  :  when  I  pray,  I  will  remember  thee, 
O  great  teacher  !  When  I  heard  of  thy  arrival,  I  had  a  great  desire  to 
go  to  you.  I  said  to  my  father,  I  will  go ;  but  he  did  not  give  permis- 
sion. My  mind  was  cast  down,  and  my  tears  fell  much,  O  great 
teacher  !  O  pray  for  me,  and  I,  when  I  pray,  will  much  pray  for  thee. 
"  A  letter  of  affection  from 

"  Naw  Poo  Moo." 

From  a  Girl  of  16,  icho  had  been  to  School  nine  months. 

"  O  Great  Teacher  !  Sir, 

"  Great  is  the  grace  and  glory  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  the 
eternal  God  !  In  former  times,  we  heard  not  the  word  of  God.  But 
now,  sir,  we  endeavor  very  much  to  keep  his  commands.  I  heard  of 
your  coming,  and  my  mind  was  very  happy.  But  I  greatly  desire  to  see 
you  ;  therefore  do  come  to  Mata,  O  great  teacher  !  By  hearing  of  your 
arrival,  my  tears  fell  much.  Great  sir,  in  order  that  I  may  keep  the 
word  of  the  Lord,  do  pray  for  me,  and  that  we  may  meet  together 
amidst  the  joys  of  heaven  :  as  for  me,  I  trust  I  exert  myself  in  prayer 
truly  to  God. 

"  The  affectionate  letter  of  the  disciple 

"Moo  Yai." 

From  a  Girl  16  years  of  age. 

"  O  Great  Teacher  ! 

"  We  put  our  trust  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  eternal  God. 
When  you  pray  to  God,  pray  for  us  ;  and  when  we  pray,  we  will  pray  for 
thee !  When  I  set  out  to  return,  by  means  of  longing  after  thee,  I  cried 
much ;  but  by  thinking  on  the  grace  of  God,  my  mind  was  somewhat  let 
down.  Notwithstanding,  during  the  whole  day  in  which  we  were  sep- 
arated from  you,  my  longings  did  not  cease.  I  thought  that  in  this 
state  we  see  each  other  but  a  small  moment ;  but  when  we  arrive  in 
heaven,  we  shall  behold  each  other  age  upon  age  !  Then  we  cannot 
be  separated.  O  great  teacher,  I  have  a  painful  desire  to  see  your  coun- 
try. In  order  to  go  with  you,  I  asked  and  obtained  permission  of  my 
mother.  If  you  consent,  please  write  me  a  kind  letter  immediately. 
But  if  you  do  not  give  permission,  do  not  write.  As  for  me,  I  have  an 
earnest  wish  to  see  the  country  of  the  teachers  and  their  wives. 

"Nau  Moo  Klur." 

I  might  add  many  interesting  facts  and  incidents,  which  filled 
me  with  pleasure  and  thankfulness  on  their  behalf.  But  I  am 
not  drawing  a  picture,  for  the  sake  of  exhibiting  glowing  colors. 
Christian  benevolence  does  not  depend  on  success.  If  it  did,  the 
town  of  Mata,  amid  the  solitude  of  the  great  mountains  of  Ta- 
voy,  exhibits  facts,  which,  if  they  were  all  the  effects  our  whole 


4(j  BURMAH. 

missionary  operations  could  boast,  are  sufficient  to  assure  the 
most  incredulous  of  the  blessedness  of  our  enterprise. 

When  endeavors  to  do  good  fail,  it  is  a  sweet  reward  to  see 
those  we  meant  to  benefit  grateful  for  our  interference.  And 
when  good  is  really  done,  our  pleasure  is  often  neutralized  by  the 
pain  of  being  ungratefully  requited.  Those  who  support  our 
enterprise  ought  to  know  that  this  people  testify  aloud  their  con- 
tinual gratitude  toward  the  Christians  of  this  country  for  the 
knowledge  of  Christianity.  They  often  compare  their  former 
degradation  and  misery  with  their  present  comforts  and  hopes. 
The  pastor  of  the  Mata  church  frequently  speaks  of  these  things 
in  moving  terms  —  himself  once  a  sot,  and  cruel.  The  missiona- 
ries cannot  remain  in  the  forest  during  the  rains,  so  that  this 
church  is  left  six  months  in  the  year  to  itself.  Then-  return  is 
the  occasion  of  a  general  rejoicing.  When  they  are  ready,  many 
come  to  Tavoy  to  accompany  them  out,  and  to  carry  portions'  of 
the  articles  to  be  transported ;  and,  where  the  way  is  sufficiently 
level,  carry  Mrs.  Wade  or  Mrs.  Mason  in  a  litter.  As  the  long  file 
winds  under  the  trees,  along  the  narrow  crag,  or  up  the  bed  of 
a  torrent,  songs  of  Zion  echo  among  the  dark  recesses,  and  nature 
rejoices  to  see  her  Maker  glorified  by  men  who  for  ages  received 
his  favors  brutishly.  Warned  of  then-  approach,  the  villagers 
come  forth  in  troops,  some  hours'  walk,  and,  after  glad  greetings, 
fall  in  behind,  (for  the  path  admits  no  double  file,)  and  the  length- 
ened tram  comes  into  the  village  with  resounding  joy. 

Nor  is  Mata  alone  in  its  brightness,  amid  Bin-man  shades. 
All  along  the  jungle  as  far  as  Mergui  to  the  south,  and  above 
Maulmain  on  the  north,  Karens  are  turning  to  God.  The  mis- 
sionaries properly  discourage  then-  always  collecting  into  exclu- 
sively Christian  villages ;  but  in  some  cases  it  seems  expedient 
and  necessary.  Among  the  Karens  in  the  Tavoy  provinces  are 
the  following  churches,  beside  Mata,  which  are  also  regular 
out-stations  :  —  Toung  Byouk  Gala,  two  and  a  half  days  south 
of  Tavoy ;  16  members,  25  inquirers:  Pee-kah,  fom-  days  south  of 
the  last-named  church ;  15  members,  43  inquirers :  Kah-pah, 
three  days  south  of  Peekah,  on  a  stream  of  the  same  name,  navi- 
gable for  boats ;  20  members,  and  within  a  day's  walk,  34  in- 
quirers, most  of  whom  have  asked  for  baptism :  Tah-mlah,  on 
the  Tenasserim,  three  days  from  Mergui ;  9  members.  All  these 
have  good  places  of  worship,  built  by  themselves;  and  each  has 
a  native  pastor  and  a  Christian  school-master.  There  are  also  in 
the  region  six  other  schools,  under  Christian  masters;  and  meas- 
ures are  in  train  to  form  others.     On  an  average,  last  year,  ten 


BOOKS  IN  THE  KAREN  LANGUAGE.  47 

learned  to  read  in  each  school,  some  of  whom  are  middle  aged, 
and  some  quite  old  persons.  The  names  of  the  pastors  are  not 
given  here,  because,  being  young  men,  they  are  changed  every 
year,  to  give  each  an  opportunity  of  being  with  the  missionary 
half  his  time  in  the  acquisition  of  Christian  knowledge. 

The  only  printed  books  in  Karen  are  three  tracts  —  Mrs.  Jud- 
son's  Catechism,  translated  by  Mr.  Wade,  with  the  commands  of 
the  New  Testament  as  contained  in  the  "View;"  Sayings  of  the 
Fathers,  a  small  tract  containing  traditions  and  commands, 
which  remarkably  coincide  with  biblical  history :  and  Mrs.  Jud- 
son's  Catechism  versified  —  both  the  latter  by  Mr.  Mason.  There 
are  in  the  Tavoy  provinces  about  250  Karens  who  have  learned 
to  read.  The  younger  part  of  these  generally  show  great  ear- 
nestness in  copying  such  other  works  as  are  prepared  by  the 
missionary,  and  not  yet  printed.  The  works  which  have  been 
written  or  translated,  and  the  printing  of  which  is  greatly  needed, 
are  as  follows :  —  Gospel  of  Matthew ;  Vade  Mecum,  containing 
passages  of  Scripture,  with  reflections  for  every  day  in  the  month, 
and  embracing  an  extended  view  of  the  Christian  religion ; 
Hymn  Book,  containing  upwards  of  120  hymns ;  enlarged  edition 
of  the  "Sayings,"  by  Mr.  Mason;  translation  of  Mr.  Judson's 
Mew  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  translation  of  most  of  Mr. 
Boardman's  Digest,  both  by  native  Christians ;  a  tract,  con- 
sisting of  didactic  and  hortatory  pieces,  by  native  preachers  ;  Mr. 
Judson's  View  of  the  Christian  religion,  versified,  by  Sau  Panlah, 
a  native  assistant;  Bible-Class  Questions  on  Matthew,  by  Mr. 
Wade ;  Brief  Biographies  of  Joseph,  and  other  Old  Testament 
Characters,  by  the  same ;  Child's  Catechism  for  Sunday  schools, 
by  Mr.  Vinton  ;  Lee-mo-pga,  or  spelling-book  of  the  Chegau  or 
Myettho;  do.  of  the  Pwo  or  Myet-kyen,  (the  two  dialects  used  by 
the  Karens,)  by  Mr.  Wade.  Beside  these,  there  are  a  Grammar, 
by  Mr.  Mason,  and  a  Dictionary,  by  Mr.  Wade,  in  an  advanced 
state  of  preparation,  and  a  considerable  mass  of  manuscripts, 
for  the  use  of  present  and  future  missionaries,  which  it  is  not 
intended  to  print ;  such  as  Customs  and  Demon  Worship  of  Ka- 
rens ;  fables  and  legends,  amounting  to  more  than  100  ;  Karen 
poems  and  traditions ;  many  letters  from  Karens,  copied  into  a 
book,  to  show  the  structure  of  the  language  ;  an  extensive  vocab- 
ulary of  common  things,  in  English  and  Karen;  another  in 
Bun  nan,  Karen,  and  English;  and  a  phrase-book  for  beginners, 
in  Burman  and  Karen. 

I  was  happy  to  find  that  the  Christians  here  partook  of  the 
zeal  of  their  transatlantic  friends,  in  giving  for  the  support  of  a 


48  BURMAH. 

preached  gospel.  A  society  has  heeu  formed,  called  "  The  Tavoy 
Missionary  Society,  auxiliary  to  the  Baptist  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,"  which  has  heen  in  existence  four  years.  For  the  last 
two  years,  it  has  supported  four  native  assistants.  It  is  sustained 
chiefly  by  the  Europeans  and  Americans  at  the  station ;  but  sev- 
eral of  the  natives  pay  then-  regular  monthly  contribution. 

I  had  the  pleasure,  in  my  voyage  from  hence  down  the  coast, 
to  be  accompanied  by  Rev.  Mr.  Wade  ;  and,  after  four  days,  ar- 
rived at  Mergui.  The  only  European  with  whom  we  had  inter- 
course there  was  Captain  McLeod,  the  commissioner,  or  acting 
governor  of  the  province,  who  received  us  to  his  house  with  the 
utmost  cordiality.  He  communicated,  with  great  frankness,  many 
important  facts,  beside  patiently  answering  a  wearisome  round 
of  questions.  There  are  but  35  British  inhabitants  in  the  place, 
including  common  soldiers. 

Mergui,  or,  as  the  natives  call  it,  Bike,  is  beautifully  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  middle  branch  of  the  Tenasserim.  This  noble 
river  has  tliree  principal  mouths,  and  several  minor  ones.  The 
chief  is  that  about  four  miles  north,  and  receives,  a  few  miles 
before  it  enters  the  ocean,  the  Byng  River  from  the  north.  A  fine 
island,  opposite  the  town,  shelters  it  from  the  south-west  mon- 
soon, and  makes  a  safe  though  small  harbor. 

The  site  of  the  city  embraces  a  high  hill,  surmounted,  as  usual, 
with  conspicuous  pagodas.  Next  to  the  sea  it  rises  abruptly ;  and 
the  houses  of  the  English,  which  are  erected  on  its  summit,  have 
a  magnificent  view  of  the  lower  town,  the  harbor,  and  the  ocean. 
Most  of  the  town  cannot  be  seen  hi  the  picture.  The  rear  of  the 
hill  slopes  gradually,  and  is  thickly  built  with  native  houses,  on 
regular  streets,  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  fine  fruit  and  other 
trees,  almost  as  close  as  in  a  forest.  Among  these,  the  cocoa-nut, 
jack,  and  papaya,  are  the  most  frequent.  At  the  time  Captain 
Alexander  Hamilton  visited  this  city,  it  was  in  possession  of 
Siam.  He  calls  it  Merjee,  and  says  that  "  in  former  times  there 
were  many  English  there."  The  massacre  of  these,  wliich  was 
succeeded  by  the  expulsion  of  those  in  Siam,  occurred  in  1687. 
The  chief  exports  are  sapan  wood,  dennee,  mats,  ratans,  sea-slug, 
tortoise-shell,  and  edible  birds'  nests.  It  was  founded  within  a 
century  by  the  Burmans.  The  ancient  fortifications  are  still 
seen,  though  rapidly  vanishing  by  the  use  of  the  bricks  for  other 
purposes.  It  is  thus  with  the  ramparts  of  all  the  towns  hi 
British  Burmah,  it  being  useless  to  retain  extensive  walls  for  a 
handful  of  troops,  which,  if  occupied  by  hosts  of  natives,  might 
help  them  in  resistance. 


MERGUI.  49 

The  whole  province  of  JVIergui  has  a  population  of  only  10,000, 
of  which  above  6,000  are  in  this  town.  This  great  scantiness  of 
people  in  one  of  the  finest  regions  of  the  earth  is  chiefly  owing  to 
the  intolerable  government  under  which  they  have  lived.  About 
twenty  years  ago,  it  was  unusually  severe  under  the  viceroyship 
of  Daing-woon,  who  was  engaged  in  repelling  the  Siamese.  The 
atrocities  of  this  monster  were  incredible,  and  drove  forty  or  fifty 
thousand  inhabitants  from  the  province,  besides  the  multitudes 
which  he  destroyed.  In  speaking  to  the  Burmans  of  hell,  even 
at  this  day,  no  circumstance  is  so  appalling,  as  to  assure  them 
that  Daing-woon  will  be  there ! 

Here,  as  at  Maulmain  and  Tavoy,  I  find  numerous  Chinamen 
married  to  Burman  wives.  They  are  at  once  the  most  valuable 
of  the  community  for  mechanical  and  mercantile  conveniences, 
and  the  most  pernicious  for  introducing  and  vending,  wherever 
they  go,  arrack  and  opium.  Without  them,  Europeans  would 
suffer  many  discomforts,  and  through  them,  the  natives  are 
greatly  corrupted.  Their  superiority,  in  civilization  and  intelli- 
gence, to  the  various  nations  with  whom  they  are  intermixed  in 
every  part  of  the  East,  is  very  striking. 

Beside  the  usual  quantity  of  pagodas  and  kyoungs,  there  are 
four  mosques,  for  the  use  of  the  Mussulman  part  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  a  Popish  chapel.  About  four  hundred  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, descendants  of  the  early  Portuguese,  profess  to  be  Christians. 
No  converts,  that  my  informants  knew  of,  have  joined  the  num- 
ber from  among  the  Burmese,  except  some  who  unite  in  order  to 
be  married  to  those  who  belonged  before. 

Mergui  has  been  put  down  as  one  of  our  stations,  but  it  was 
only  occupied  by  a  native  assistant  for  six  months.  We  have 
but  one  professed  Christian  in  the  place,  and  that  a  woman.  Mr. 
Mason  has  been  thrice  through  the  town,  on  his  way  to  the  Ka- 
rens up  the  Tenasserim ;  and  the  efforts  he  and  his  assistants  have 
made,  have  met  encouraging  results.  .  In  this  respect,  a  veiy  great 
change  has  been  wrought,  we  trust,  by  the  good  hand  of  the 
Lord.  Ko  Ing  was  greatly  persecuted,  and  could  get  but  few 
hearers.  He  was  reviled  as  he  walked  along  the  street,  and  some 
would  even  throw  stones.  At  his  death,  the  people  showed  no 
disposition  to  listen  ;  and  his  wife,  with  the  above-named  woman, 
were  the  only  Christians.  His  death  robbed  the  mission  of  one 
of  its  most  valuable  assistants,  and  the  subsequent  marriage  and 
removal  of  his  wife,  left  the  solitary  widow  to  hold  up  a  faint 
light  in  a  dark  place.  Now,  the  case  is  quite  different  A  large 
part  of  the  people  readily  receive  tracts  and  New  Test&mei 
vol.  i.  5 


50  BURMA  H. 

much  so,  that  when  Ko  Myet-Iay  lately  visited  the  place,  taking 
one  hundred  and  fifty  Testaments  and  many  tracts,  all  were  gone 
in  two  days,  without  going  abroad  to  offer  them.  All  were  ap- 
plied for  at  his  lodgings,  and  received  with  many  expressions  of 
thanks.  Not  only  did  he  thus  impart  the  blessed  truths  to  Bur- 
mans  ;  the  Chinese  and  Siamese,  hearing  that  he  also  had  tracts 
in  then-  languages,  came  for  them  ;  and  he  entirely  disposed  of  a 
considerable  quantity  sent  by  Mr.  Jones  from  Bankok.  It  is  now 
easy  to  obtain  attentive  hearers,  though  frequently  some  dispute. 
Not  only  do  many  listen  with  apparent  candor,  but  some  seem 
really  under  serious  impressions,  and  about  twelve  profess  to 
have  embraced  the  gospel.  These  have  not  yet  been  baptized, 
for  want  of  opportunity  sufficiently  to  examine  and  try  them ; 
but  they  are  said  to  be  steadfast,  though  much  reviled  by  their 
pagan  acquaintance.  They  are  like  sheep  without  a  shepherd, 
and  need  immediate  care.  Moreover,  they  would  probably-form 
an  encouraging  church  at  once,  if  a  missionary  could  be  placed 
there.  The  husband  of  the  disciple  above  named,  and  an  inter- 
esting daughter,  are  desirous  of  baptism. 

Late  circumstances  have  conspired  with  the  above  facts  to 
make  Mergui  now  a  favorable  opening.  A  few  years  ago,  the 
two  chief  ponghees  came  to  an  open  rupture,  and  all  the  people 
took  sides  with  one  or  the  other.  Great  animosity  and  confusion 
prevailed  for  a  long  time,  each  party  denouncing  hell  to  the  other. 
A  few  months  ago,  one  of  them  retired  to  Tavoy,  and  there  died. 
His  party  have  ever  since  utterly  refused  to  worship  the  priests 
who  remain,  or  make  them  offerings,  and,  in  fact,  have  almost 
ceased  from  religious  observances.  These  are  now  particularly 
ready  to  hear  our  preachers. 

The  fact,  too,  that  Siamese  Shyans  live  here,  most  of  whom, 
the  men  at  least,  speak  Burman ;  and  that  on  the  Tenasserim,  and 
its  tributary  streams,  and  on  the  coast  below  Mergui,  they  have  vil- 
lages, one  containing  800  souls,  —  urges  us  to  make  early  efforts 
here.  If  any  of  these  Shyans  should  receive  Christ,  (and  surely 
we  may  hope  and  believe  they  would,)  they  would  be  invaluable 
in  carrying  the  gospel  to  their  countrymen,  who  inhabit  the  hills 
and  mountains  from  the  Tenasserim  to  Bankok.  Tracts,  &c.  in 
this  language,  can  at  once  be  had  from  Mr.  Jones,  and  all  things 
seem  to  be  ready.  The  intercourse  between  Burmah  and  Siam, 
so  far  as  the  natives  of  the  two  countries  are  concerned,  is  per- 
fectly unrestrained,  though  no  white  man  is  allowed  to  pass  the 
frontier. 

Many  Karens,  too,  are  conveniently  accessible,  by  boat,  from 


MERGUI.  51 

Mergui,  by  the  Teiiasserim  and  its  branches.  Mata  village  stands 
on  an  extreme  branch  of  this  river,  accessible  by  water  only  to 
very  small  boats.  Tenasserim  city,  once  very  large,  but  now  con- 
taimng  a  population  of  only  about  250,  is  but  forty  miles  up  the 
river  from  Mergui.  It  is  resorted  to  from  different  places  for 
gold-dust,  and  would  be  an  important  out-post  for  a  native  as- 
sistant 

The  islands  on  the  Tenasserim  coast  are  quite  populous,  and, 
as  yet,  have  never  been  visited  by  Christian  teachers.  There  are 
three  large  islands  in  one  cluster,  inhabited  by  Se-longs,  without 
a  written  language,  and  in  a  very  degraded  state.  These  would 
claim  some  of  the  tune  of  native  assistants  from  Mergui,  and  oc- 
casional visits  from  the  missionary. 

AH  these  facts  conspire  to  urge  us  to  place  a  missionary  here 
as  soon  as  possible.  In  order  to  this,  the  man  must  be  sent  out, 
as  no  missionary  on  the  ground  can  be  spared  from  his  present 
post.  The  place  is  as  salubrious,  perhaps,  as  any  part  of  the 
earth ;  and  the  presence  of  the  British  officers  secures  nearly  all 
the  conveniences  of  housekeeping  with  entire  regularity.  The 
cost  of  living  is  less  than  at  Maulmain. 

Learniug  that  Mr.  Mason  was  at  a  village  not  far  distant,  on 
the  coast,  intending  to  remain  a  few  days,  and  then  come  to 
Mergui  for  a  passage  home,  I  sent  an  express,  and  had  the  pleas- 
ure, in  due  time,  of  welcoming  him  on  board  the  cutter,  with  ten 
or  twelve  coolies,  who  had  been  carrying  his  tracts  and  baggage 
in  the  jungle,  together  with  some  Karen  native  preachers.  The 
reports  of  his  journeys  are  deeply  interesting  to  the  friends  of 
missions,  and  eminently  exemplify  the  usefulness  of  native 
assistants. 

The  present  period  of  the  year  on  this  coast  is  the  latter  part 
of  the  dry  season,  and  is  marked  by  heavy  squalls  and  showers. 
After  these,  there  are  about  six  weeks  of  clear  weather,  in- 
creasingly hot,  after  which  the  monsoon  changes  to  the  south- 
west, with  violent  squalls,  and  the  rains  set  in  for  six  months. 
In  this  return  voyage  to  Maulmain,  we  experienced  three  of 
these  storms,  accompanied  by  much  thunder,  each  severely 
testing  the  power  of  our  anchor  and  vessel.  The  rocky  coast 
furnishes  no  harbor  except  Mergui,  Tavoy,  and  Amherst ;  and 
the  high  mountains  which  skirt  the  shore  seem  to  draw  together 
the  utmost  fury  of  the  elements. 

One  of  these  storms,  experienced  off  Tavoy  Point,  will  be 
memorable  to  all  on  board.  As  night  drew  on,  the  thunder, 
which  had  been  growling  on  the  mountains,  grew  more  violent. 


52  BDRMAII. 

It  was  evident  we  should  have  a  hard  blow ;  and,  the  tide  turning 
against  us,  we  were  obliged  to  anchor  in  an  exposed  situation. 
After  dark,  the  wind  and  lightning  increased,  and  we  got  top- 
mast, gaff,  Sec.  upon  deck,  and,  paying  out  much  cable,  waited 
the  issue,  uneasy.  At  length  it  blew  a  hurricane,  and  the  light- 
ning kept  up  a  glare  bright  as  mid-day.  It  was  but  at  intervals 
that  it  was  dark,  even  for  a  moment,  the  light  flickering  con- 
stantly like  a  torch  in  the  wind.  We  were  in  the  very  midst  of 
the  electric  cloud,  and  the  sharp,  cracking  thunder  was  deafening. 
Torrents  of  ram  drenched  the  poor  fellows  on  deck,  (for  there 
was  room  for  only  two  or  three  below,)  and  even  in  the  cabin  I 
had  to  gather  my  desk,  &c.  under  an  umbrella ;  for  the  neglected 
seams  let  in  the  water  in  twenty  places.  The  little  cutter  pitched 
heavily  at  her  anchor,  and  the  loud  roaring  of  a  lee  surf  told  what 
we  should  experience  if  she  parted  her  chain.  We  left  all  in 
the  hands  of  God,  and  were  sitting  in  silence  below,  when  a 
universal  shout  of  terror  brought  us  on  deck  —  a  ball  of  fire 
rested  on  the  mast-head!  The  consternation  was  universal; 
the  captain  and  every  one  of  the  crew  vociferating  prayers, 
one  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  another  to  Mahomet,  &c,  each  in 
different  language.  They  seemed  frantic,  and  then  voices  rose 
on  the  tempest  like  the  swelling  wail  of  dying  men.  One 
declared  it  was  the  devil,  and  proposed  to  drive  him  away  by 
burning  a  certain  mixture  to  make  a  horrid  smell.  They 
seemed  comforted,  however,  to  see  us  confident,  and  aware  of 
its  cause.  The  Christian  Karens  were  tranquil,  but  awe-struck, 
and  lay  on  their  knees  with  their  faces  to  the  deck,  uttering 
prayer  each  for  himself,  in  a  low  but  audible  voice.  It  staid 
clinging  to  the  mast  amid  all  the  rocking  of  the  surges,  till  the 
lascars  were  nearly  ready  with  their  incantations,  and  then  dis- 
appeared. It  was  an  hour  of  great  danger  ;  but  the  good  hand 
of  the  Lord  was  upon  us,  and  our  frail  bark  rode  out  the  storm, 
which  abated  in  its  violence  before  morning. 

Aside  from  the  danger  of  navigating  this  side  of  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  (except  from  September  to  March,  when  the  weather  is 
exceedingly  fine,)  the  inconveniences  are  not  small,  from  the  bad 
construction  and  management  of  the  vessels  employed,  and  the 
annoying  insects,  &c.  with  which  they  abound.  My  little  cutter 
is  superior  in  all  those  respects  to  the  Burman  vessels,  which  I 
expect  generally  to  sail  in  from  place  to  place.  I  can  stand  up 
in  the  cabin,  while  in  those  one  can  only  sit,  and  that  on  the 
floor.  I  have  a  little  quarter-deck,  which  they  know  nothing 
of      And    we   have    an    iron    anchor,   while    theirs    is   but  a 


COASTING  VOYAGE.  53 

piece  of  wood,  shaped  like  a  fish-hook.  On  the  score  of 
insects,  too,  I  am  informed  that  my  condition  is  far  better.  In 
the  latter  point,  however,  I  can  by  no  means  boast.  Hundreds 
of  ants,  great  and  small,  black  and  red,  move  in  endless  files 
every  where.  Cockroaches,  flying  and  creeping,  spotted,  striped, 
and  plain,  walk  over  me  and  about  me  all  night,  but,  through 
mercy,  they  do  not  bite,  and  are,  withal,  quite  shy  when  there  is 
a  light  binning,  and  so  do  not  interrupt  me  when  engaged.  I 
now  and  then  kill  a  forward  fellow ;  but  it  is  in  vain  to  think  of 
abating  the  nuisance,  for  their  "  name  is  legion."  I  have  nice 
sugar-cane  laid  in  a  corner  for  the  ants,  to  keep  them  away  ;  but 
some  of  them  are  blood-thirsty,  and  bite  me  with  all  zeal.  I 
sometimes  watch  a  bold  fellow,  as  he  runs  over  my  hand ;  and, 
when  he  finds  a  suitable  spot,  he  raises  himself  perpendicular, 
and  digs  into  me,  kicking  and  struggling,  as  if  he  would  go 
through  the  skin.  The  spiders  I  kill  without  mercy ;  and  busy 
enough  they  kept  me,  the  first  day  or  two.  Some  of  them  have 
bodies  as  big  as  the  joint  of  one's  thumb,  and  occupy,  as  they 
stand,  a  space  as  large  as  the  top  of  a  coffee-cup.  Mice  nibble 
my  clothes  at  night.  I  have  seen  but  two  or  three  centipedes, 
and  succeeded  in  killing  them ;  but  there  are,  doubtless,  more  on 
board.  But  the  musquitoes  !  They  are  a  torment  day  and  night 
I  am  comforted  with  the  assurance  that  strangers  suffer  most 
with  them,  and  hope  they  will  not  "  make  a  stranger  of  me " 
much  longer. 

Among  all  these  enemies,  I  have  no  auxiliaries  but  two  or  three 
nimble  lizards.  These  I  carefully  befriend,  and  they  consume  as 
many  of  the  vermin  as  they  can.  But  what  are  these  among  so 
many?  Beside  then  services  in  the  butchering  department, 
they  interest  me  by  then  sudden  and  adroit  movements  on  the 
walls  and  ceiling,  and,  withal,  sing  for  me  every  night,  as  soon 
as  the  candle  is  out. 

The  variety  of  costume  on  board  is  striking.  My  man  is 
from  Madras,  and  wears  generally  nothing  but  a  pair  of  calico 
drawers.  The  captain  has  nothing  but  a  piece  of  check  wound 
tight  round  his  hips,  and  drawn  up  between  his  thighs.  The 
owner's  agent,  or  supercargo,  is  a  Mussulman,  and  wears,  beside 
the  waist-cloth,  a  muslin  jacket  with  sleeves,  tied  in  front,  so  as 
to  discover  the  left  breast.  The  su-c.'in-ny,  or  steersman,  is  a 
half-blood  Portuguese,  and  wears  drawers,  and  a  short  shirt  or 
jacket,  of  red  calico.  One  of  the  sailors  has  a  regular  short 
gown  and  petticoat,  and  the  other,  short  drawers  only.  The 
Karens  wear  nothing  but  a  long  shirt  without  sleeves,  made  of 
5* 


54  BURMAH. 

substantial  cotton  cloth,  ingeniously  figured  in  the  loom.  Diver- 
sity in  dress  is  still  greater  in  the  towns,  arising  from  the  great 
mixture  in  the  population.  I  have,  however,  already  become  so 
accustomed  to  it,  that  it  ceases  to  excite  attention. 

We  have  one  person  on  board,  who  excites  my  notice  —  a 
Christian  disciple,  who  was  a  Karen  Bhookoo,  or  prophet.  He 
was  so  struck  with  fear,  when  the  "great  teacher"  sent  for  him 
into  the  cabin,  to  ask  him  some  questions,  that  I  got  but  little 
from  him.  He  declared  that,  at  first,  he  felt  impelled,  he  knew 
not  how,  to  predict  the  coming  of  a  deliverer  in  six  months,  and 
sincerely  believed  it.  But  when  the  lapse  of  that  time  proved 
him  wrong,  he  became  wilful,  and  deliberately  endeavored  to 
impose  on  the  people's  credulity,  to  keep  up  his  influence. 

Among  my  luxuries  at  Tavoy,  were  several  visits  to  the  grave- 
yard where,  among  others,  is  the  tomb  of  Boardman.  It  was 
once  a  Boodhist  grove  ;  and  a  dilapidated  pagoda  still  remains 
within  the  enclosure.  I  made  the  sketch  below,  in  the  assur- 
ance that  the  friends  of  missions  would  love  to  see  the  resting- 
place  of  that  great,  good  man,  and  where  other  beloved  ones 
may  yet  lay  their  bones. 


Boardman's    Tomb. 


55 


CHAPTER  HI. 

Return  to  Maulmain  —  Missionary  Conference  —  Preaching  —  Balu  Island  — 
Karen  Churches  near  Maulmain  —  Water  Festival  —  Chinese  Ceremony  — 
The  Mohurrum  —  River  Excursion  —  Remarkable  Caves  —  Karen  Chris- 
tian Village  —  Church-meeting  and  Baptism  —  Population  of  Maulmain  ; 
Commerce,  State  of  Boodhism,  State  of  the  Mission,  English  Influence. 

By  the  utmost  diligence  in  overseeing  the  boatmen,  and  taking 
advantage  of  every  tide,  and  every  breeze,  I  got  back  to  Maul- 
main, in  mere}',  the  morning  of  March  30,  the  very  day  on  which 
our  conference  was  to  convene.  We  began  our  session  accord- 
ingly, having  present  brethren  Judson,  Wade,  Kincaid,  Bennett, 
Hancock,  Mason,  Osgood,  Vinton,  Howard,  Webb,  Haswell,  and 
Abbott.  Every  day,  except  the  Sabbath,  was  diligently  spent  in 
the  business,  and,  beside  many  important  topics,  which,  though 
fully  discussed,  did  not  come  to  a  formal  vote,  the  following  sub- 
jects were  acted  upon,  beside  minor  ones :  —  The  establishment 
of  a  seminary  for  native  assistants;  its  location,  temporary 
preceptor,  and  course  of  studies  and  by-laws ;  new  fields 
of  labor  proposed  and  described;  native  schools;  polygamy 
among  natives,  and  the  management  of  such  cases  in  regard  to 
applicants  lor  baptism  ;  reducing  the  size  of  the  Burman  charac- 
ter ;  the  plan  of  giving  English  names  to  native  children ; 
boarding-schools,  and  the  best  mode  of  their  endowment.  Con- 
siderable time  was  taken  up  in  designating  the  new  missionaries 
to  their  fields  of  labor.  They  seem  to  be  as  jewels,  which  each 
was  anxious  to  seize.  Every  man  felt  keenly  the  claims  of  his 
station  or  neighborhood,  and  longed  to  see  more  laborers  in 
what  he  deemed  so  promising  a  field.  It  was  a  noble  strife  of 
disinterested  love,  and  so  small  was  the  reinforcement,  compared 
with  the  admitted  wants,  on  all  sides,  that  it  was  difficult  to 
decide  where  aid  should  first  be  sent. 

The  next  Sabbath,  being  the  first  in  April,  I  preached  to  the 
brethren  and  sisters  by  vote  of  the  convocation.  We  met  in  the 
new  and  unfinished  chapel,  built  for  the  native  church.  The 
building,  though  large  for  Burmah,  is  scarcely  larger  than  many 
dining-rooms  in  India ;  yet,  as  our  little  band  arranged  themselves 
in  one  corner,  we  seemed  lost  in  the  space.  There  was,  however, 
moral  power  in  the  meeting ;  and,  when  I  reflected  on  the  recent 
origin  of  the  mission,  its  small  beginnings,  and  its  various  dangers 


•">(>  BURMAH. 

and  hinderances,  the  company  before  me  was  a  most  refreshing 
sight.  Here  were  twelve  missionaries,  beside  Misses  Gardner 
and  Macomber,  and  the  missionaries'  wives.  Elsewhese  in  the 
mission  were  four  evangelists  and  a  printer,  not  computing  those 
in  Siam.  The  text  was,  "  Glorify  ye  the  Lord  in  the  fires  ;  "  and 
every  heart  seemed  to  say  Amen,  as  sentence  after  sentence 
came  forth.  It  is  delightful  preaching  to  greedy  listeners ;  and 
long  had  most  of  these  been  deprived  of  the  refreshment  of 
pitting  under  a  gospel  sermon.  Mr.  Judson  had  not  heard  a 
sermon  in  English  for  fourteen  years. 

As  my  eye  rested  on  tins  loved  little  company,  it  was  sweet  to 
contemplate  the  venerable  founder  of  the  mission,  sitting  there 
to  rejoice  hi  the  growth  of  the  cause  he  had  so  assiduously  and 
painfully  sustained.  His  labors  and  sufferings  for  years ;  his 
mastery  of  the  language  ;  his  translation  of  the  whole  Word  of 
God ;  and  his  being  permitted  now  to  be  the  pastor  of  a  church 
containing  over  a  hundred  natives,  —  make  him  the  most  interest- 
ing missionary  now  alive.  What  a  mercy  that  he  yet  lives  to 
devote  to  this  people  his  enlarged  powers  of  doing  good !  And 
we  may  hope  he  will  veiy  long  be  spared.  His  age  is  but  forty- 
seven  ;  his  eye  is  not  dim ;  not  a  gray  hair  shows  itself  among 
his  full  auburn  locks ;  his  moderate-sized  person  seems  full  of 
vigor ;  he  walks  almost  every  evening  a  mile  or  two  at  a  quick 
pace,  lives  with  entire  temperance  and  regularity,  and  enjoys, 
in  general,  steadfast  health.  May  a  gracious  God  continue  to 
make  him  a  blessing  more  and  more. 

A  day  or  two  after  the  close  of  our  conference,  I  accompanied 
Mr.  Vinton  to  Balti  Island,  to  counsel  with  him  on  the  final  choice 
of  a  spot  for  a  new  station,  and  to  visit  some  Karen  villages, 
where  as  yet  the  gospel  had  not  been  dispensed.  This  island 
forms  the  right  bank  of  the  Salwen  River,  from  Maulmain  nearly 
to  Amherst.  It  is  about  seventeen  miles  long,  and  six  or  seven 
wide,  settled  chiefly  by  Karens.  No  portion  of  these  Tenasse- 
rim  provinces  is  more  fertile,  or  more  carefully  and  successfully 
cultivated.  The  population  of  course  is  dense,  amounting  to 
over  10,000.  Along  the  whole  island,  from  north  to  south, 
stretches  a  fine  chain  of  moderately-elevated  mountains. 

Having  coasted  the  northern  end  of  the  island,  and  passed 
down  its  western  side  a  few  miles,  we  came  to  a  creek,  naviga- 
ble for  row-boats,  except  at  very  low  tide,  and  pulled  up  it  to 
within  about  two  miles  of  the  proposed  spot.  From  the  mouth 
of  the  creek,  the  rice-fields  engross  each  side  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  covering  an  immense  flat,  but  little  above  common 


BALU    ISLAND KARENS.  57 

high-water  mark.  The  walk  from  the  boat  to  the  spot  proposed 
led  through  villages  and  rice-fields,  till  we  began  to  ascend  the 
mountain,  and  then  presented  enough  of  the  beauties  of  an 
Oriental  forest  to  keep  a  transatlantic  eye  intent.  Being  the 
midst  of  the  hot  season,  we  of  course  were  deprived  of  its  full 
glories ;  but  many  trees  bore  large  aud  gorgeous  flowers,  beside 
shrubs  and  smaller  plants,  in  great  variety.  American  forests 
have  more  large  trees,  and  less  undergrowth,  but  they  have 
fewer  leaves,  and  scarcely  any  flower-bearing  trees.  We  were 
never  a  moment  without  a  variety  of  blossoms  in  sight,  and 
mauy  fruits. 

Arrived  at  the  spot,  I  found  it  near  one  of  the  lower  summits, 
overlooking  rice-fields,  limited  north  and  south  only  by  the  ex- 
tent of  vision,  and  to  the  west  commanding  a  wide  view  of 
ocean,  distant  five  or  six  miles.  From  the  summit  of  that  ledge, 
a  few  yards  eastward,  a  view  scarcely  less  extensive  is  had  of  the 
Salwen  River,  Amherst,  and  the  ocean. 

It  would  seem  that,  though  in  the  jungle,  this  spot  must  be 
salubrious,  from  its  complete  exposure  to  the  sea  breeze,  and  its 
great  elevation  ;  but  I  fear  it  will  prove  too  much  out  of  the  way 
from  the  main  path.  After  breakfasting  on  the  spot,  we  de- 
scended to  the  village  of  the  Karen  chief,  and  spent  the  day 
making  contracts  for  house  materials,  and  testifying  to  them  the 
grace  of  God. 

Though  we  lodged  each  night  in  the  boat,  we  spent  our  time 
and  ate  among  the  people.  The  glance  thus  gained  at  native 
character  was  very  gratifying.  We  saw  no  house  where  poverty 
seemed  to  dwell,  (though  we  passed  through  four  or  five  villages,) 
and  no  disorder  in  any  place.  Wherever  we  stopped  to  eat,  we 
entered  a  house  freely,  and  were  immediately  offered  clean  mats, 
and  treated  with  the  utmost  hospitality.  Able  and  willing  to 
supply  our  wants,  they  sometimes  expostulated  with  the  servant, 
as  he  was  cooking  our  meals,  that  he  had  brought  rice  and 
fowls,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  furnish  our  table.  This  trait 
is  prevalent  among  the  Karens.  Native  assistants  go  from  vil- 
lage to  village  among  them,  even  where  the  gospel  has  never 
been  heard,  and  take  literally  "  neither  scrip  nor  purse."  They 
are  bountifully  supplied,  even  where  their  message  meets  only 
with  opposition.  Mr.  Vinton,  on  one  occasion,  went  several 
days'  journey  among  Karen  villages,  without  servant  or  food. 
Every  where  they  killed  for  him  their  best  fowls,  and  spread 
before  him  rice,  fruits,  honey,  and  whatever  they  had,  and  gave 
him  their  best  place  to  sleep. 


58  BURMAH. 

Among  that  portion  of  the  Karens  lying  contiguous  to  Maul- 
main,  Mr.  Vinton  is  the  only  Laborer.  There  are  in  this  province 
three  churches  —  1st,  At  Ko  Chet-thing's  village,  on  the  Salwen 
River,  two  days  above  Maulmain ;  thirty-seven  members,  five  or 
six  inquirers,  Ko  Chet-thing  pastor:  2d,  Neivville,  on  the  Da- 
gaing  River,  three  days  from  Maulmain  ;  twenty-eight  members, 
Ko  Tau-pau  pastor :  3d,  Boo-tah,  on  the  River  Attaran ;  thirty-four 
members,  Ko  Taunah  pastor.  The  station  at  Chummerah  has 
been  abolished  by  the  removal  of  all  the  people.  The  place  is 
no  longer  inhabited.  This  part  of  the  mission  to  the  Karens 
has  five  valuable  native  assistants,  including  the  three  pastors 
just  named,  besides  several  young  members  of  the  church,  in 
training,  who  give  evidence  of  being  called  to  the  ministry. 
One  hundred  and  twenty-three  persons  have  been  baptized 
in  all. 

When  the  amount  of  labor  which  has  been  bestowed  on  this 
portion  of  the  Sgau  Karens  is  considered,  these  results  will 
appear  exceedingly  encouraging.  Miss  Cummings  went  to 
Chummerah  to  acquire  the  language,  but  died  before  she  was 
able  to  speak  it.  Mr.  Judson  commenced  this  department  of  the 
mission,  and  resided  among  the  people  a  few  months.  He,  how- 
ever, retired  thither  chiefly  to  be  undisturbed  in  translating,  and 
devoted  but  a  small  part  of  his  tune  to  direct  missionary  labor. 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Vinton  came  out  in  December,  1834 ;  and  their  time, 
of  course,  has  been  almost  wholly  occupied  in  getting  the  lan- 
guage. They  have  already  made  a  beginning  in  proclaiming 
the  gospel,  but  much  of  their  time  will  still  have  to  be  spent  in 
study.  They  are  now  the  only  laborers  among  this  people  ;  and 
six  months  of  the  year  they  must  leave  these  infant  churches, 
and  retire  from  the  jungle  to  their  new  station  on  Balu  Island. 
The  past  dry  season,  they  visited  them  each,  and,  passing  up  the 
Un-za-len  River,  twelve  days  from  Maulmain,  established  several 
schools  in  important  villages.  They  hope  to  be  able  to  reside 
on  this  island  during  the  rains,  continuing  the  itinerant  system 
in  the  dry  season. 

The  festivities  which  usher  in  the  new  year  (commencing  at 
the  April  new  moon)  have,  for  several  days  past,  kept  the  town 
excited.  Before  every  Burman  house  is  erected  a  slight  bamboo 
palisade,  six  or  eight  feet  long,  decorated  very  tastefully  with 
young  palm-trees,  and  pots  of  water,  filled  with  various  beauti- 
ful blossoms.  The  moistened  streets  send  up  an  enlivening 
freshness,  which,  with  the  odors  of  the  flowers,  makes  the  street 
like  a  charming  avenue  in  a  garden.     The  absurd  yet  amusing 


WATER    FESTIVAL MOHURRDM.  59 

ceremony  to  which  these  are  preparations  seems  peculiar  to 
Burmans.  It  is  a  general  war  of  water.  Every  one  is  at  liberty 
to  wet  his  neighbor,  but  the  compliment  is  chiefly  paid  by 
women  to  men,  and  men  to  women;  the  children  taking  the 
principal  share  of  the  business  into  their  hands.  I  have  just 
been  riding  along  the  principal  streets  to  witness  the  scene ;  but 
no  one  offered  to  compliment  me,  or  other  foreigners,  with  a 
bowl  of  water.  They  know  that  foreigners,  whose  raiment  is 
not  so  easUy  changed,  do  not  relish  the  sport ;  though  sometimes, 
out  of  ill-timed  complaisance,  they  submit  to  it.  Almost  uni- 
versally the  people  take  it  pleasantly;  but  occasionally  I  saw  little 
fellows  chased  and  overthrown  in  the  dirt,  who  played  off"  on 
men.  It  certainly  requires  some  command  of  temper,  to  show 
entire  nonchalance  when  the  children  project  a  forcible  stream 
from  large  bamboo  syringes  directly  into  the  eyes  and  ears, 
creeping  up  slyly  for  the  purpose,  and  running  off  with  exulta- 
tion. Not  a  native  is  to  be  seen  with  dry  clothes ;  but  "  holiday 
clothes  "  on  this  occasion  are  their  poorest. 

No  one  can  assign  any  origin  or  signification  to  this  custom. 
It  seems  as  if  it  must  have  originated  in  some  notions  of  purifi- 
cation from  the  sins  of  the  old,  and  entering  cleansed  upon  the 
new  year ;  but  Boodhists  have  no  idea  of  the  remission  of  sins, 
hi  any  way.     Their  only  hope  is  to  balance  them  with  merit. 

Beside  this  harmless  and  merry  custom,  the  religious  celebra- 
tions of  several  classes  of  foreigners  have  kept  the  town  hi  con- 
fusion for  a  fortnight  past.  The  Chinese  have  just  had  their 
annual  ceremonies  in  memory  of  deceased  ancestors.  Hearing, 
a  few  mornings  since,  an  uncommon  din  of  great  gongs  and 
other  discordant  instruments,  I  went  to  the  veranda,  and  saw 
the  procession  pass  to  the  cemeteiy.  It  was  a  meagre  affair  as 
to  pomp,  but  doubtless  quite  as  absurd  as  if  it  had  been  in  then 
own  country.  A  succession  of  tables,  borne,  like  biers,  on  men's 
shoulders,  were  spread  with  hogs,  goats,  and  poultry,  roasted 
whole,  and  various  other  eatables ;  the  horrid  music  followed, 
and  a  procession  with  streamers,  terminated  by  a  man  or  two 
with  muskets,  firing  at  short  intervals.  A  priest,  in  proper  cos- 
tume, walked  on  each  side  of  the  tables. 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  revolting  exhibitions  made  by  the 
Hindoo  Mussulmans,  who  also  are  now  holding  then*  annual  feast 
of  Mohurrum.  By  nature  almost  black,  they  make  themselves 
entirely  so  with  paint;  many  of  them  adding  blotches  and  hid- 
eous figures,  not  only  on  their  faces,  but  on  every  part  of  their  body, 
and  of  every  colored  earth  they  can  find.     Some  go  further,  and 


60  BURMAH. 

put  on  masks  of  infernal  ugliness,  with  horns,  snouts,  and  inde- 
scribable distortions.  I  never  beheld  them  but  with  fresh  horror. 
Moving  about  the  streets  in  companies,  they  writhe  every  muscle, 
some  throwing  their  arms  about  as  if  ready  to  attack  every  one 
they  meet,  others  slapping  long,  flat  sticks  together ;  some  beat- 
ing on  drums,  and  pieces  of  brass,  others  filling  the  air  with  yells 
and  clamor.  Man  could  not  more  brutify  himself,  even  in  the 
madness  of  intoxication. 

These  three  ceremonies  are,  perhaps,  pretty  fair  specimens  of 
the  habits  of  the  three  nations  of  idolaters.  Surely  they  furnish 
no  ground  for  the  boast  of  the  infidel,  as  to  the  purity  and  noble- 
ness of  human  nature,  evinced  by  pagans  whose  morals  have 
not  been  contaminated  by  Europeans. 

Desirous  of  seeing  the  people,  as  much  as  possible,  in  their 
own  retired  villages,  where  foreign  influence  is  unknown,  and  of 
ascertaining  the  numbers,  locality,  &c.  from  personal  observa- 
tion, I  occupied  the  latter  part  of  April  in  making  two  excursions 
into  the  interior ;  one  up  the  Dagaing,  and  the  other  up  the  Sal- 
wen  River.  In  the  first,  Mrs.  Judson  accompanied  me,  and  in  the 
last  and  longest,  Mr.  J.  himself.  We  slept  generally  in  the 
boat,  stopping  at  shady  villages  to  cook  our  food,  distribute 
tracts,   &c. 

The  whole  region  immediately  above  Maulmain  is  alluvial ; 
the  rocks  chiefly  blue  limestone  of  excellent  quality.  The  coun- 
try is  flat,  fertile,  and  beautiful,  but,  though  once  populous,  is 
now  thinly  inhabited.  The  scenery  is  rendered  romantic  and 
peculiar  by  small  mountains,  rising  abruptly  from  the  level  fields 
to  the  height  of  four,  five,  and  six  hundred  feet ;  the  base  scarce- 
ly exceeding  the  size  of  the  summit.  In  most  parts,  trees  and 
shrubs  cling  to  the  sides ;  but  here  and  there  the  castellated  and 
perpendicular  rocks  project  above  the  foliage,  like  the  turrets 
of  some  huge  ruined  tower.  On  the  summits  of  many  of  them, 
apparently  inaccessible  to  human  feet,  Boodhist  zeal  has  erected 
pagodas,  whose  white  forms,  conspicuous  far  and  near,  remind 
the  traveller  every  moment  that  he  surveys  a  region  covered 
with  the  shadows  of  spiritual  death.  Some  of  the  smaller  of 
these  hills  I  ascended.  My  heart  sickened  as  I  stood  beside  the 
dumb  gods  of  this  deluded  people,  looking  down  and  around  on 
a  fine  country,  half  peopled  by  half-civilized  tribes,  enjoying  but 
half  the  blessings  of  then*  delicious  climate,  borne  by  whole 
generations  to  the  chambers  of  death.  They  eat,  and  drink,  and 
die.  No  inventions,  no  discoveries,  no  attainments,  no  enjoy- 
ments, are  theirs,  but  such  as  have  descended  to  them  age  by  age ; 


REMARKABLE    CAVES.  61 

and  nothing  is  left  to  prove  they  have  been,  but  then*  decayed 
pagodas,  misshapen  gods,  and  unblessed  graves. 

Most  of  these  mountains  contain  caves,  some  of  them  very 
large,  which  appeal*  to  have  been,  from  tune  immemorial,  spe- 
cially devoted  to  religious  purposes.  The  wealth  and  labor  be- 
stowed on  these  are  of  themselves  sufficient  to  prove  how  great 
the  population  has  been  in  former  ages.  I  visited,  in  these 
excursions,  three  of  the  most  remarkable  —  one  on  the  Dah 
Gyieng,  and  two  on  the  Salwen.  They  differed  only  hi  extent, 
and  in  the  apparent  antiquity  of  the  idols  they  contained.  Huge 
stalactites  descended  almost  to  the  floor  in  many  places,  while,  in 
others,  stalagmites  of  various  magnitudes  and  fantastic  shapes 
were  formed  upon  the  floor.  In  each,  the  bats  occupied  the  lofty 
recesses  of  the  ceiling,  dwelling  in  deep  and  everlasting  twilight. 
In  one  they  seemed  innumerable.  Their  ordure  covered  the 
bottom,  in  some  places,  to  the  depth  of  many  feet.  Throwing  up 
some  fragments  of  idols,  we  disturbed  their  noon-tide  slumbers, 
and  the  effect  was  prodigious.  The  flutter  of  their  wings 
created  a  trembling  or  pulsation  in  the  ah,  like  that  produced 
by  the  deepest  base  of  a  great  organ.  In  the  dusk  of  the  even- 
ing, they  issue  from  the  cave  in  a  thick  column,  which  extends 
unbroken  for  miles.  The  natives  all  affirmed  this  to  be  the  case 
every  evening ;  and  Mr.  Judson  himself,  when  here  with  Major 
Crawfurd  and  others,  saw  the  almost  incredible  fact. 

This  cave  has  evidently  been  long  deserted,  except  that  a  sin- 
gle large  image  at  the  entrance  is  kept  hi  repair,  before  which 
were  some  recent  offerings.  I  might,  therefore,  have  easily 
obtained  images  for  my  friends  ;  but,  Mr.  J.  being  afraid  of  an 
injurious  influence  on  the  native  Christians  who  were  with  us,  I 
abstained,  and  afterward  obtained  a  supply  by  regular  purchase. 

The  last  one  we  visited  is  on  the  Salwen,  about  fifteen  or 
twenty  miles  above  Maulmain.  The  entrance  is  at  the  bottom 
of  a  perpendicular  but  uneven  face  of  the  mountain,  enclosed 
in  a  strong  brick  wall,  which  forms  a  large  vestibule.  The  en- 
trance to  this  enclosure  is  by  a  path,  winding  along  the  foot  of 
the  mountain ;  and  nothing  remarkable  strikes  the  eye  till  one 
passes  the  gate,  where  the  attention  is  at  once  powerfully  ar- 
rested. Not  only  is  the  space  within  the  wall  filled  with  images 
of  Gaudama  of  every  size,  but  the  whole  face  of  the  mountain, 
to  the  height  of  eighty  or  nmety  feet,  is  covered  with  them.  On 
every  jutting  crag  stands  some  marble  image,  covered  with  gold, 
and  spreading  its  uncouth  proportions  to  the  setting  sun.  Every 
recess  is  converted  into  shrines  for  others.     The  smooth  surfaces 

VOL.    I.  6 


62  BURMAH. 

are  covered  by  small  flat  images  in  burnt  clay,  and  set  in  stucco. 
Of  these  last,  there  are  literally  thousands.  In  some  places,  they 
have  fallen  off,  with  the  plaster  in  which  they  were  set,  and  left 
spots  of  naked  rock,  against  which  bees  have  built  their  hives 
undisturbed.  No  where  iu  the  country  have  I  seen  such  a  dis- 
play of  wealth,  ingenuity,  and  industry.  But  imposing  as  is  this 
spectacle,  it  shrinks  to  insignificance,  compared  to  the  scene  which 
opens  on  entering  the  cavern  itself.  It  is  of  vast  size,  chiefly  in 
one  apartment,  which  needs  no  human  art  to  render  it  sublime. 
The  eye  is  confused,  and  the  heart  appalled,  at  the  prodigious 
exhibition  of  infatuation  and  folly.  Eveiy  where,  on  the  floor, 
over-head,  on  the  jutting  points,  and  on  the  stalactite  festoons  of 
the  roof,  are  crowded  together  images  of  Gaudama  —  the  offer- 
ings of  successive  ages.  Some  are  perfectly  gilded ;  others  in- 
crusted  with  calcareous  matter ;  some  fallen,  yet  sound ;  others 
mouldered ;  others  just  erected.  Some  of  these  are  of  stupen- 
dous size ;  some  not  larger  than  one's  finger;  and  some  of  all  the 
intermediate  sizes ;  marble,  stone,  wood,  brick,  and  clay.  Some, 
even  of  marble,  are  so  time- worn,  though  sheltered  of  course 
from  changes  of  temperature,  that  the  face  and  fingers  are  ob- 
literated. In  some  dark  recesses,  bats  were  heard,  and  seemed 
numerous,  but  could  not  be  seen.  Here  and  there  are  models 
of  temples,  kyoungs,  &c,  some  not  larger  than  a  half  bushel,  and 
some  ten  or  fifteen  feet  square,  absolutely  filled  with  small  idols, 
heaped  promiscuously  one  upon  another.  As  we  followed  the 
paths  which  Avound  among  the  groups  of  figures  and  models, 
every  new  aspect  of  the  cave  presented  new  multitudes  of 
images.  A  ship  of  five  hundred  tons  could  not  carry  away  the 
half  of  them. 

Alas!  where  now  are  the  successive  generations  whose 
hands  wrought  these  wonders,  and  whose  hearts  confided  in 
these  deceits  ?  Where  now  are  the  millions  who  came  hither  to 
confess  their  sins  to  gods  that  cannot  hear,  and  spread  their  vain 
oblations  to  him  that  cannot  save  ?  The  multitudes  are  gone, 
but  the  superstition  remains.  The  people  are  left  like  the  glean- 
ings of  the  vintage,  but  the  sway  of  a  senseless,  hopeless  system 
is  undiminished.  Fewer  bow  in  these  dark  recesses,  but  no 
better  altars  witness  holier  devotions.  May  we  not  hope  great 
things  from  the  effect  of  a  full  toleration  secured  by  the  present 
rulers,  and  a  full  tide  of  missionary  effort  set  forward  by 
American  churches  ?  Thanks  be  to  God  that  a  Christian 
nation  rules  these  provinces,  and  a  Christian  community  sends 
forth  light  and  truth.     Happy  and  auspicious  is  the  mental  dawn 


KAREN    VILLAGE.  63 

which  now  begins  to  break !  May  Christians  pray  it  into  per- 
fect day. 

On  the  third  day  after  leaving  Maulmain,  we  arrived  at  the 
newly-formed  Christian  village  of  which  Ko  Chet-thing,  so  well 
known  in  America,  is  pastor.  It  numbers  as  yet  but  thirteen 
houses,  of  which  most  of  the  adults  are  Karen  disciples,  drawn 
together  to  enjoy  the  means  of  mutual  edification.  Thirty-nine 
members  constitute  the  church,  and  others  are  about  to  remove 
thither.  Few  of  the  great  effects  produced  at  Mata  are  yet  visi- 
ble here ;  but  religion  has  already  placed  this  little  band  far 
above  their  wandering  brethren  hi  many  respects.  At  least,  it 
has  saved  then  souls !  Did  it  leave  them  in  all  their  destitution 
of  comfort  and  refinement,  the  deficiency,  when  compared  to 
the  gain,  would  be  a  grain  of  sand,  —  to  the  universe ! 

Mr.  Vinton  was  absent  on  a  preaching  tour  up  the  river.  Mrs. 
Vinton  received  us  with  a  hearty  welcome,  and  the  disciples 
were  not  behind  hi  paying  then  cordial  respects.  My  intended 
visit  had  been  announced  to  them  a  fortnight  ago,  and  a  church- 
meeting  and  communion  season  appomted.  Some  Christians 
from  other  villages  had  arrived,  and  others  kept  emerging  from 
the  jungle  all  day.  Several  brought  presents  of  eggs,  plantains, 
honey,  &c,  and  the  occasion  evidently  possessed  in  then  minds 
great  interest.  A  number  of  serious  inquirers  and  hopeful  con- 
verts presented  themselves.  Several,  who  had  for  some  months 
given  evidence  of  a  spiritual  change,  asked  baptism,  and  the 
evening  was  spent  in  warm  devotional  exercises.  We  lodged  in 
little  rooms  partitioned  off  at  the  end  of  the  chapel,  and  most  of 
those  who  came  from  a  distance  lodged  in  the  building.  It  was 
truly  refreshing  to  hear  them  conversing,  till  a  late  hour,  on  the 
things  of  the  kingdom.  As  one  after  another  at  length  grew 
sleepy,  he  engaged  hi  private  prayer  in  a  low  tone  of  voice,  and 
stretched  himself  for  repose  on  the  clean  bamboo  floor.  The 
voice  of  prayer  was  in  this  manner  kept  up  till  midnight. 

Next  morning,  we  had  a  church-meeting,  at  which,  among 
other  business,  three  candidates  for  baptism  were  received. 
Some  others  were  deferred  for  the  present.  The  rude-looking 
assembly  (lately  so  rude  indeed,  and  so  ignorant  of  eternal 
things)  transacted  their  business  with  much  order  and  great  cor- 
rectness of  judgment.  Now,  and  several  times  before,  I  ad- 
dressed them  officially,  through  Mr.  Judson,  examining  into  their 
degrees  of  religious  knowledge,  and  leaving  them  various  in- 
junctions relating  both  to  temporal  and  eternal  things.  Li  the 
afternoon,  we  met  again,  and,  after  religious  exercises,  walked  in 


64  BURMAH. 

procession  to  the  water  side,  where,  after  singing  and  prayer,  I 
baptized  the  candidates  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Three.  The 
river  was  perfectly  serene,  and  the  shore  a  clean  sand.  One  of 
those  lofty  mountains  which  I  have  described  rose  in  isolated 
majesty  on  the  opposite  shore,*  intercepting  the  rays  of  the  set- 
ting sun.  The  water  was  perfectly  clear,  the  air  cool  and  fra- 
grant, the  candidates  calm  and  happy.  All  was  good.  May  that 
lonely  mountain  often,  often  echo  with  the  baptismal  hymn  and 
the  voice  of  prayer.  Next  morning,  we  had  the  Lord's  supper, 
and  departed,  amid  the  tears  and  prayers  of  these  lovely  children 
of  the  forest. 

How  blessed  and  golden  are  these  days  to  Burmah !  Men  love 
to  mark  the  glorious  sunrise.  Painters  copy  it ;  poets  sing  it ; 
all  derive  pleasure  and  elevation  as  they  gaze  while  it  blazes  up 
the  heavens,  turning  to  gorgeous  purple  every  dull  cloud,  gilding 
the  mountain  tops,  and  chasing  the  mists  from  the  valley.  -God 
seems  present,  and  creation  rejoices.  But  how  much  more  glori- 
ous is  the  dawn  I  am  permitted  here  to  witness !  All  the  ro- 
mance which  swells  the  bosom  of  the  sentimentalist,  gazing  on 
early  day,  is  coldness  and  trifling,  compared  to  the  emotions  a 
Christian  may  cherish  when  he  sees  the  gospel  beginning  to  en- 
lighten a  great  nation.  Surely  we  may  hope  such  is  the  case 
here,  and  that  the  little  light  which  has  invaded  this  empire  of 
darkness  will  issue  in  perfect  day.  I  see  a  dim  twilight ;  others 
will  rejoice  in  the  rising  sun,  and  others  in  the  meridian  day.  O 
Lord,  come  with  thy  great  power.  Inspire  the  churches  to  do 
all  their  duty,  and  prepare  all  people  for  thy  truth. 

I  have  now  seen  much  of  the  Karens,  and  gathered  what 
information  there  is  respecting  them,  which  will  be  introduced, 
with  notices  of  other  tribes,  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  city  of  Maulmain  was  only  a  few  years  ago  a  jungle, 
though  some  intelligent  natives  affirm  that  it  was  once  a  large 
city,  and  the  metropolis  of  a  Shyan  kingdom,  then  independent. 
After  the  cession  of  these  provinces  to  the  English,  it  was  select- 
ed as  a  military  post,  and  a  town  sprang  up,  which  has  continu- 
ally increased,  and  numbers  now  18,000  souls.  The  rest  of 
the  province  contains  about  30,000  more,  of  whom  some  thou- 
sand are  Karens  and  Toungthoos.  The  city  consists  principally 
of  one  street,  which  extends  along  the  river  about  two  and  a 
half  miles.  The  river  is  about  a  mile  wide,  with  a  tide  of 
twenty  feet  perpendicular  rise.  In  the  rear,  distant  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  is  a  long,  narrow  hill,  running  parallel  to 

*  Containing  also  a  cavern  filled  with  idols,  which,  however,  I  had  not  time 
to  visit. 


MAULMAIN.  65 

the  river,  presenting  along  its  summit  a  string  of  pagodas 
mostly  fallen  to  ruin.  From  a  fine  road,  made  here  by  Sir  A. 
Campbell,  the  whole  city,  with  the  river,  shipping,  and  high 
hills  on  the  opposite  island  of  Balu,  are  in  full  view.  The 
accompanying  picture  is  taken  from  the  summit  of  the  hill.  The 
distance  is  too  great  to  allow  of  distinctness  in  sketching  the  town. 
The  large  house  near  the  centre  is  the  residence  of  the  gov- 
ernor. The  mission  premises  are  close  to  the  river,  nearly  over 
the  heads  of  the  two  soldiers,  who  sit  on  the  summit  of  the  hill, 
near  the  point  from  whence  the  view  was  taken.  On  the  ex- 
treme right  is  the  city  of  Martaban,  with  its  conspicuous  pagoda. 
The  location  of  the  city  has  been  found  exceedingly  salubrious, 
and  gentlemen  in  the  Company's  service  are  glad  to  resort 
hither  for  health,  from  the  opposite  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
The  settlement  is  too  recent  to  be  adorned  with  noble  shade- 
trees,  like  Tavoy  and  Mergui,  but  is  well  laid  out,  and  the  Bur- 
mans,  always  tasteful  in  such  matters,  have  planted  them  to  a 
sufficient  extent.  Over  the  water-courses  are  handsome  bridges 
of  substantial  masonry ;  and  fine  roads  are  made,  and  being 
made,  in  various  directions. 

Being  the  metropolis  of  British  Burmah,  the  commissioner  or 
acting  governor  resides  here.  The  garrison  consists  of  a  regi- 
ment of  the  line,  a  detachment  of  artillery,  and  some  companies 
of  sepoys.  The  officers  of  this  force,  and  the  gentlemen  connect- 
ed with  the  civil  service,  make  a  considerable  circle  of  English 
society,  which,  with  soldiers,  traders,  &c,  and  their  families,  in- 
sure all  the  conveniences  of  an  abundant  market,  various  me- 
chanics, and  well-supplied  shops.  In  the  market  may  always  be 
had  fresh  beef,  pork,  goat,  venison,  and  poultry,  butter,  eggs, 
milk,  &c,  with  great  plenty  of  the  finest  fish,  fruits,  and  vegeta- 
bles. In  passing  through  it  one  day,  I  counted  thirty-two  differ- 
ent kinds  of  fruit,  besides  vegetables.  The  price  of  articles,  with 
some  exceptions,  is  cheaper  than  in  our  cities,  —  fowls,  two  ru- 
pees a  dozen ;  rice,  half  a  rupee  a  bushel.  The  best  of  bakers' 
wheat-bread  is  sold  at  about  our  rates,  and  British  goods  are  in 
general  cheaper  than  with  us.  On  the  whole,  it  is  perhaps  as 
pleasant  and  desirable  a  residence  as  any  part  of  the  East. 

On  commerce  and  trade  there  are  no  restrictions.  Vessels 
pay  no  tonnage,  and  merchandise  no  duty.  Even  pilotage  is  es- 
tablished at  low  rates,  and  such  as  choose  to  dispense  with  a 
pilot,  pay  only  a  small  sum,  for  the  benefit  of  the  buoys.  Ship 
and  boat  building,  on  English  and  native  models,  is  done  to  the 
amount  of  some  thousand  tons  per  annum. 
6* 


GG  BURMAII. 

The  impoits  from  Tavoy  and  Mergui  are  principally  attaps,  or 
dennees,  (leaves  stitched  upon  strips  of  ratan,  ready  for  thatch- 
ing,) damar  torches,  cardamoms,  sapan  wood,  gnapee,  ratans,  pre- 
served doryans,  mats,  salt,  yams,  and  ivory.  In  return  are  sent  to 
these  places  cotton,  oil,  English  goods,  paddy,  beef,  lime,  and 
tamarinds. 

From  Rangoon  are  imported  cutch  or  catechu,  stick  lac, 
gram,  oil-seed,  earth-oil,  sesamum-oil,  lappet,  (tea,)  wheat,  ivory, 
lackered  ware,  glazed  pottery,  jaggery,  (black  sugar,)  Burman 
silks,  tamarinds,  chillies,  garlic,  &c. ;  and  in  return  are  sent  areca- 
nuts,  cotton,  dates,  English  goods,  cocoa-nuts,  &c. 

From  Penang  are  brought  umbrellas,  muskets,  torches,  dates, 
coffee,  &c. ;  and  in  return  are  sent  chiefly  paddy  and  rice. 

From  Calcutta  are  brought  specie,  English  goods,  wines,  gin- 
ger, steel,  rose-water,  sugar ;  and  almost  the  only  important  return 
is  teak  timber.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Madras.  This  is  about 
the  whole  commerce  of  Maulmain.  From  eight  to  twelve  ves- 
sels enter  and  clear  per  month. 

Among  the  inhabitants  are  500  Chinese,  and  above  2,000  other 
foreigners,  most  of  whom  are  from  Bengal  and  Madras.  Each 
class  has  a  place  of  worship,  and  adheres  to  its  national  costume 
and  habits.  The  English  have  a  Company's  chaplain,  and  a 
capacious  church.  Here  service  is  regularly  performed,  and  the 
troops  are  required  to  attend.  The  English  Baptist  church  have 
also  a  good  meeting-house  of  teak,  and  one  of  the  missionaries 
always  acts  as  pastor.  At  present,  Mr.  Osgood  discharges  this 
duty,  in  connection  with  his  engagements  at  the  printing-office. 

Though  there,  is  not  the  slightest  restraint  upon  idolatry  in 
these  provinces,  the  people  are  certainly  less  devoted  to  their 
superstition  than  before  the  war.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  dis- 
cover, from  the  appearance  of  the  streets,  when  the  worship-days 
occur ;  and  the  number  of  priests  is  much  less  than  it  would  be 
among  an  equal  population  in  Burmah  Proper.  The  people  are 
evidently  ripening  for  some  change.  There  is  therefore  eminent 
necessity  for  following  up,  with  the  utmost  vigor,  the  means  for 
extending  Christianity.  The  morals  of  the  people  wovdd  greatly 
suffer  by  the  loss  of  then  religious  system,  if  no  other  were  to  be 
substituted.  Such  a  crisis  is  not  altogether  improbable,  and  the 
people  of  God  are  most  affectingly  called  upon,  by  the  state  of 
the  case,  to  send  out  more  teachers  forthwith. 

Still,  Boodhism  is  as  yet  by  no  means  a  neglected  sys- 
tem. New  pagodas  are  making  their  appearance  in  different 
parts  of  the  city.    There  are  twenty-nine  kyoungs,  containing 


STATE    OF    BOODHISM.  67 

somewhat  more  than  500  priests,  including  novitiates,  who  are 
plentifully  supported.  The  kyoungs  are  vastly  superior  to  the 
dwellings  of  the  common  people,  and  some  of  them  are  situated 
in  delightful  groves  with  ample  grounds.  Here  and  there  is  a 
sacred  banniau-tree,  carefully  nurtured,  and  occasionally  lighted 
with  lamps  at  night.  In  the  city  and  suburbs  are  seventy-eight 
pagodas. 

My  evening  walks  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson,  were  upon  the 
hills,  and  near  the  principal  of  these  pagodas.  The  ascent  is 
fatiguing,  though  part  of  the  way  is  facilitated  by  brick  stairs  12 
or  15  feet  wide.  The  pagoda,  as  usual,  is  entirely  solid.  Around 
its  base  are  smaller  ones,  and  numerous  shrines  built  of  brick 
nicely  stuccoed,  like  little  temples,  from  the  size  of  a  large  dog- 
house up  to  the  size  of  a  small  dwelling.  Within  and  around 
these  are  images  of  Gaudama,  precisely  like  the  pictures  of  him 
common  in  America,  generally  well  gilt.  Little  paper  flags,  &c. 
&c.  are  before  them,  —  the  offerings  of  the  devout.  Tall  flag- 
staffs  are  numerously  planted  on  the  crown  of  the  hill,  with 
various  streamers,  some  of  which  are  tasteful  and  elegant. 

A  large  and  substantial  house  stands  beside  the  pagoda, 
literally  filled  with  images  of  Gaudama,  most  of  them  of  colossal 
size.  These  are  made  of  brick,  with  a  thick  coating  of  plaster, 
perfectly  smooth,  and  resembling  marble.  There  are  some 
hundreds  of  these,  all  in  perfect  repair,  many  of  them  apparently 
placed  there  by  these  deceived  idolaters,  quite  lately.  The  num- 
ber continually  increases.  One  of  these  images  is  in  a  re- 
cumbent posture,  and  must  be  at  least  forty  feet  long.  Some 
of  the  images  represent  worshippers,  in  a  most  reverent  attitude, 
before  certain  figures. 

While  walking  among  these  distressing  evidences  of  folly  and 
misery,  we  often  saw  scenes  like  the  following :  —  A  poor  man 
struggled  up  the  back  part  of  the  mountain  with  a  little  child 
on  his  hip,  less  than  three  years  old,  plucking  a  few  green  twigs 
from  the  bushes  as  he  passed.  He  went  up  to  a  great  bell, 
suspended  in  the  area,  and,  taking  a  deer's  horn  lying  on  the 
ground  for  the  purpose,  struck  it  twice  or  thrice.  Then,  rev- 
erently entering  the  image-house,  he  prostrated  himself,  and 
taught  his  little  one  to  do  the  same,  which  it  did  so  readily  as 
to  make  it  certain  it  was  not  its  first  attempt.  He  then  prayed 
with  the  palms  of  his  hands  placed  together,  and  raised  to  his 
forehead,  while  the  poor  little  babe  lisped  out  some  of  the  same 
words.     At  the  conclusion,  he  walked   up  to  the  idol   he  had 


68  BURMA  H. 

addressed,  and  laid  before  it,  with  great  solemnity,  his  offering 
of  green  leaves,  and,  taking  up  the  babe,  descended  the 
mountain. 

O  ye  parents,  who  take  no  pains  to  teach  your  little  ones  to 
adore,  and  trust,  and  serve  the  eternal  God,  be  reproved  and 
abashed!  That  poor  idolater  may  confront  and  condemn  you 
at  the  last  awful  day ! 

Thank  God,  the  gospel  is  slowly  extending  its  happy  con- 
quests in  this  place.  Two  veiy  respectable  people  applied  for 
baptism  last  Lord's  day,  and  many  are  persuaded  that  Boodh 
is  no  God.  A  hundred  Cliristians  hold  forth  the  truth,  and  a 
teeming  press  presents  to  the  people  the  divine  testimony.  But 
we  must  pray  for  the  Spirit's  influence.  May  not  this  be  our 
chief  deficiency  ? 

The  mission  here  was  established  by  Mr.  Boardman  with  the 
first  settlement  of  the  town  by  the  British  in  1827.  Mr.  Jitdson 
came  in  a  few  months,  and  Mr.  Boardman  left  the  place  to 
commence  the  station  at  Tavoy.  It  is  now  the  principal  point 
in  our  mission,  having  the  printing-office,  five  houses  for  mis- 
sionaries, an  English  chapel,  a  large  teak-wood  zayat,  and  small- 
er zayats  in  different  parts  of  the  town.  Belonging  to  the 
station  are  Mr.  Judson,  Mr.  Hancock,  Mr.  Osgood,  and  Mr.  Ben- 
nett. The  latter  is  wholly  engaged  in  teaching  an  English  high- 
school  for  native  children,  and  is  nearly  supported  by  the  salary 
allowed  by  the  Company. 

The  printing-office  is  of  brick,  two  stories  high,  136  feet  long 
by  56  wide.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  J  ,  so  that  the  picture,  which 
was  taken  from  Mr.  Judson's  veranda,  shows  only  a  part.  It 
contains  four  hand-presses,  and  a  power-press,  equal  to  two 
more ;  twelve  small  founts  of  English  type,  one  of  Burman, 
one  of  Karen,  and  one  of  Taling.  For  these  last,  there  are 
punches  and  matrices  complete,  so  that  they  may  be  cast  anew 
at  any  time.  The  expense  has,  of  course,  been  enormous,  there 
being  about  one  thousand  matrices  for  the  Burman  fount  alone. 
A  new  set  of  punches  and  matrices  has  just  been  ordered  for 
the  Burman  character  on  a  size  reduced  one  third.  The  upper 
rooms  of  the  office  are  devoted  to  a  bindery,  storage,  &c.  The 
capabilities  of  the  bindery  are  fully  equal  to  the  work  of  the 
printing-office.  Every  part  of  the  labor,  in  printing  and  binding, 
is  performed  by  natives ;  of  whom,  on  an  average,  25  are  con- 
stantly employed. 


MAULMAIN. 


Printing-Office  at  Maulmain. 

The  native  church  under  Mr.  Judson's  care  has  more  than  a 
hundred  members.  Some  sixteen  or  eighteen  are  valuable 
assistants,  of  whom  a  part  are  generally  employed  at  other 
stations.  Such  as  are  employed  here,  meet  Mr.  Judson  every 
morning  at  sunrise,  and  give  an  account  of  their  labors  dur- 
ing the  previous  day,  often  rehearsing  the  very  conversations. 
An  excellent  opportunity  is  thus  obtained  for  enlarging  and  recti- 
fying their  views,  and  giving  them  helpful  ideas  in  particular 
cases.  On  Sunday,  the  congregation  consists  of  but  few  beside 
the  church-members.  If  any  attend  three  or  four  Sundays,  they 
are  pronounced  disciples  by  their  friends,  and  indeed  generally 
become  so. 

Scarcely  more  direct  missionary  labor  is  expended  on  this  city 
than  on  Tavoy.  Mr.  Hancock  is  not  yet  sufficiently  master  of  the 
language  to  be  able  to  preach,  and  Mr.  Osgood  has  of  course 
made  still  less  advance.  Nor  do  the  printing-office  labors  of 
these  brethren  allow  them  to  devote  much  time  to  study.  Mr. 
Judson  has  been  so  much  engrossed  with  revising  the  translation 
of  the  whole  Old  Testament,  and  proof-reading,  for  several  years, 
as  to  be  wholly  prevented  from  laboring  publicly  either  in  the 
zayat  or  from  house  to  house.  Mr.  Bennett  is  confined  to  the 
school,  the  labors  of  which  are  truly  arduous.  Thus  this  great 
city,  with  nominally  lour  missionaries,  has  no  evaugelical  labor 
done  for  it,  except  by  the  native  assistants. 


70  BURMA  H. 

Mrs.  Hancock  has  under  her  care  two  schools,  containing 
together  twenty-five  scholars,  a  few  of  them  females,  which  she 
examines  monthly.  One  of  the  teachers  is  a  disciple.  It  is  very 
common  for  the  pupils  to  he  withdrawn  after  a  while,  sometimes 
even  before  they  learn  to  read.  All  are  required  to  attend  wor- 
ship on  Lord's  days,  and  are  both  then  and  at  other  times  in- 
structed in  religion.  From  four  to  eight  of  the  scholars  are 
supported  by  the  mission,  at  an  expense  of  about  tln-ee  rupees  a 
month.  One  of  these  schools  has  been  in  existence  three  years, 
and  during  that  tune  six  of  the  scholars  have  passed  from  death 
unto  life.     The  other  school  is  but  of  four  months'  standing. 

Mrs.  Osgood*  has  two  schools  for  girls,  which  contain  together 
nineteen  scholars.  One  of  the  teachers  is  a  Christian.  Chris- 
tian instruction  is  imparted  very  much  as  in  the  boys'  schools. 
None  of  the  pupils  are  boarded  at  present.  One  of  these 
schools  has  existed  ten  months ;  the  other  has  just  now  gone'into 
operation.    No  conversions  have  taken  place. 

Mr.  Bennett's  school  is  large  and  flourishing.  He  possesses  a 
happy  talent  in  imparting  instruction,  and  the  stated  examinations 
abundantly  attest  his  diligence.  The  English  language  is  the 
principal  object,  and  many  of  the  pupils  have  made  surprising 
proficiency. 

The  labor  wliich  has  been  bestowed  on  schools  at  this  station 
shows  little  fruit.  There  are,  however,  a  few  pupils,  who,  having 
long  attended,  are  obviously  elevated  by  the  process.  I  give  a 
specimen  of  the  composition  and  spelling  of  one  who  was  a 
scholar  of  Mrs.  Boardman's  in  1830,  and  is  now  a  pupil  in  Mr. 
Bennett's  school,  and  a  promising  member  of  the  church.  It  is  a 
letter  to  one  of  the  missionaries  in  Tavoy,  and  is  given  as  he 
ivrote  it  in  English^  literatim.     The  penmanship  is  beautiful. 

"  Maulmein,  February  15,  1830. 
"  Your  young  brother  Moung  Bwah,  sends  to  you  benevo- 
lence, love,  and  in  the  faith,  grace,  mercy,  and  peace  from  God  our 
Father,  and  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.  Because  of  God,  love,  and  benevo- 
lence, my  soul  and  body  are  well.  I  am  still  in  Maulmein,  ever  learn- 
ing wisdom  and  instruction  of  the  teacher.  I  endeavor  to  follow  the 
teacher's  words,  and  learn  my  lessons  with  deligence,  and  not  to  be 
idle.  I  pray  Jesus  Christ  for  you  and  your's,  neighbour.  Pray  you  to 
God  for  me  ;  1  with  respect  beg  you  to.  Through  the  Saviour,  Lord 
Jesus  Christ's  mercy,  I  am  quite  still  in  God's  commandment. 

"  All  who  love  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ's  glory,  hope  in  our  way.     This 

*  Mrs.  Osgood  died  of  consumption,  Oct.  5,  1837,  having  been  less  than 
three  years  in  the  country. 


ENGLISH    INFLUENCE.  71 

world  is  like  a  wild  Island,  with  many  ferocious  wild  animals.  The 
Saviour  Jesus,  to  save  us,  come  from  the  Father's  nearness  with  the 
save-ship,  that  we  poor  sinner  might  be  saved.  But  we  every  day 
hope  in  God's  mercy,  and  desire  a  gentle  and  quite  mind. 

"  Before  time,  first  man  Adam,  first  woman  Eve,  two  persons  sinned. 
We  have  all  gone  out  of  the  way,  we  are  together  become  unprofit- 
able, there  is  none  that  doeth  good,  no,  not  one,  when  we  trust  in 
Jesus,  we  all  ride  the  save-ship,  and  free  from  sin,  and  wild  animal's 
harm.  That  nearness  to  the  Lord,  free  us  from  harm,  and  make  us 
quite  and  happy.  Then  we  are  near  the  Lord,  and  worship  with  re- 
spect. God's  mercy  on  me  that  I  may  grow  wiser  in  good  wisdom, 
my  elder  sister,  if  God  give  me  permission,  you  will  again  see  me,  then 
I  should  be  very  glad. 

"  Your  affectionately, 

"  MoUNG    BWAH." 

English  influence,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  improves  the  temporal 
condition  of  these  provinces.  It  has  abolished  those  border  wars, 
which  kept  this  people  and  their  neighbors  continually  wretched. 
None  but  those  familiar  with  the  country  can  describe  the  evils 
produced  by  a  Burman  war.  The  troops  are  drawn  from  the 
remotest  provinces,  and,  as  they  march,  laborers,  stores,  money, 
boats,  and  cattle,  are  taken  without  compensation.  They  have  no 
tents,  no  pay,  no  regular  rations,  and  suffer  every  sort  of  hardship. 
Every  where,  as  they  go,  the  people  fly  into  the  jungle  ;  and  such 
property  as  cannot  be  carried  away  is  plundered  without  restraint. 
Poverty  and  distress  are  thus  spread  over  the  whole  kingdom, 
even  by  a  petty  border  conflict.  Of  course,  at  the  seat  of  war, 
every  evil  is  magnified  a  hundred  fold.  The  mode  of  raising 
troops  is  the  worst  possible.  Each  chief  is  required  to  furnish 
so  many,  and  is  sure  to  get  rich  by  the  operation.  He  calls  first 
upon  those  who  have  money,  and  suffers  them  to  buy  themselves 
off,  taking  finally  only  those  who  have  no  money.  So,  if  he 
want  boats,  the  richer  boatmen  pay  a  bribe  and  get  off,  and  the 
poorer  must  go.  So  with  carts,  and,  in  fact,  every  thing.  The 
suppression  of  war  cuts  off  a  large  portion  of  the  chances  for 
these  extortions. 

hi  the  Tenasserim  provinces,  various  improvements  are  per- 
ceptible. Coin  is  getting  introduced  instead  of  masses  of  lead  and 
silver;  manufactures  are  improving;  implements  of  improved 
construction  are  used ;  justice  is  better  administered ;  life  is 
secure ;  property  is  sacred  ;  religion  is  free  ;  taxes,  though  heavy, 
are  more  equitably  imposed ;  and  courts  of  justice  are  pure, 
generally.  Formerly,  men  were  deterred  from  gathering  round 
them  comforts  superior  to   then*   neighbors,  or  building  better 


72  BURMAH 

houses,  for  fear  of  exactions.  Now,  being  secure  in  their  earnings, 
the  newly-built  houses  are  much  improved  in  size,  materials, 
and  workmanship.  There  are  none  of  those  traps  and  trammels 
which  embarrass  courts  in  England  and  America.  The  pre- 
siding officer  in  each  province,  Amherst,  Tavoy,  and  Mergui, 
sits  as  magistrate  on  certain  days  every  week ;  and  before  him 
every  citizen,  male  or  female,  without  the  intervention  of  law- 
yers, may  plead  his  cause,  and  have  immediate  redress.  Every 
where,  in  British  Burmah,  the  people  praise  English  justice  ;  but 
they  are  not  yet  reconciled  to  regular  taxation.  Though  the 
Burman  government,  or  its  oppressive  agents,  took  from  them 
more  than  they  pay  now,  yet  it  was  occasional ;  consisted  chiefly 
in  labor,  and  they  were  not  under  the  necessity  of  saving  any 
thing  against  a  certain  day  —  a  matter  to  which  they  have  been 
altogether  unaccustomed. 

Presuming  that  my  readers  would  be  glad  to  see  Mr.  Judson's 
residence,  and  desirous  of  giving  a  specimen  of  the  houses  of 
our  Burman  missionaries,  I  made  a  drawing,  which  is  given  in 
a  reduced  size  below.  It  contains  three  good-sized  rooms  and 
two  small  ones.  It  is  built  precisely  like  the  natives'  houses,  only 
larger  and  better,  and  cost  about  three  hundred  dollars.  All 
our  Burman  missionaries  use  similar  ones.  During  my  pleasing 
residence  with  this  great  and  good  man,  the  small  room  on  the 
extreme  left  was  my  chamber,  and  the  large  one,  with  two  little 
fir-trees  under  the  windows,  my  study.  The  centre  room  is 
the  dining-hall,  and  the  farthest  one  Mr.  J.'s  chamber.  His 
study  is  a  large  apartment  partitioned  off  from  one  end  of  the 
chapel.  The  kitchen,  or  "  cook-house,"  is  always  a  small,  sepa- 
rate building. 


Mr.  Judson'e  Hon 


73 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Population  of  Rangoon  ;  Commerce  ;  Prices  of  Living  —  Shoodagon  Pagoda 

—  Slaves  of  the  Pagoda  —  Sunrise  Worship  —  Rainy  Monsoon  — History 
of  the  Mission  —  Maubee  —  Labor  of  Native  Assistants  —  Interesting  Case 

—  Voyage  to  Pegu  —  Evidences  of  former  Greatness  —  Shoomadoo  Pagoda 

—  Voyage  up  the  Irrawaddy  —  Boats — Mode  of  Fishing  —  Prome  — 
Leper  Village —  Gaudama's  Foot  —  Burman  Energy  —  Earth-oil  Wells  — 
Shyan  Caravan — Ruins  of  Paghan  —  Attempt  to  buy  Beef — Buffalo 
Herdmen  —  Curiosity  of  Natives  —  Toddy  —  Arrival  at  Ava. 

On  the  14th  of  May,  the  sad  hour  of  bidding  adieu  to  the  dear 
missionaries  and  their  interesting  disciples  arrived;  and  I  em- 
barked for  Rangoon.  Every  day  had  increased  my  regard  for 
them,  and  the  probability  of  seeing  them  no  more  made  the  last 
few  days  truly  sorrowful. 

The  change  of  the  monsoon,  which  now  takes  place,  is  often 
accompanied  with  severe  squalls ;  but  these  coasting  vessels 
have  little  fear  of  them,  and  never  lay  up  on  that  account. 
Often  the  season  passes  without  any  that  are  serious,  as  it  has 
this  year.  We  had  two  or  three  flurries,  with  rain ;  but  they 
helped  us  on  powerfully,  and  the  17th  (of  May)  found  me  at  Ran- 
goon, without  accident.  The  entrance  of  the  river,  though  six 
miles  wide,  is  difficult  to  find,  the  channel  very  narrow,  and  the 
coast  very  shoal  for  a  great  distance  above  and  below ;  while  a 
perfectly  flat  shore,  scarcely  above  high  tides,  gives  the  mariner 
no  certain  land-marks.  There  are  no  pilots  to  be  had,  but  by 
sending  a  boat  to  the  city.  On  one  point  is  a  cluster  of  trees, 
which  has  been  called  "the  elephant,"  from  a  fancied  resem- 
blance to  that  animal ;  but  my  imagination  was  too  dull  to  dis- 
cern much  shape.  The  sands  have  extended  some  miles  to 
the  southward,  since  the  coast  was  first  surveyed. 

Having  passed  the  ordeal  of  the  custom-house,  without  any 
special  vexations,  I  found  Messrs.  Webb  and  Howard,  with  their 
wives,  in  usual  health,  and  received  from  them  a  kind  and  cor- 
dial reception. 

The  name  of  Rangoon  is  so  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  our 
mission,  and  occurs  so  often  in  the  narratives  of  travellers  on  this 
coast,  that  I  naturally  entered  it  with  feelings  of  peculiar  interest. 
Association  of  ideas,  of  course,  keeps  up  some  of  that  interest ; 
but  so  wretched  a  looking  town,  of  its  size,  I  have  no  where  seen. 
vol.  i.  7 


74  BURMA  H. 

The  city  is  spread  upon  part  of  a  vast  meadow,  but  little  above 
high  tides,  and  at  this  season  resembling  a  neglected  swamp. 
The  approach  from  the  sea  reveals  nothing  but  a  few  wooden 
houses  between  the  city  wall  and  the  shore.  The  fortifications 
are  of  no  avad  against  modern  modes  of  attack.  They  consist 
of  merely  a  row  of  timbers  set  in  the  ground,  rising  to  the  height 
of  about  18  feet,  with  a  narrow  platform  running  round  inside 
for  musketeers,  and  a  few  cannon,  perhaps  half  a  dozen  in  all, 
lying  at  the  gateways,  in  a  useless  condition.  Some  considerable 
streets  are  back  of  the  town,  outside  the  walls. 

The  entire  population  is  estimated  at  50,000,  but  that  is  proba- 
bly too  much.  There  is  no  other  seaport  in  the  empire,  but 
Bassein,  which  has  little  trade,  and  the  city  stands  next  in  im- 
portance to  Ava ;  yet  there  is  literally  nothing  in  it  that  can  in- 
terest a  traveller.  A  dozen  foreigners,  chiefly  Monguls,  have 
brick  tenements,  very  shabby.  There  are  also  four  or  five  small 
brick  places  of  worship,  for  foreigners,  and  a  miserable  custom- 
house. Beside  these,  it  is  a  city  of  bamboo  huts,  comfortable  for 
this  people,  considering  their  habits  and  climate  ;  but  in  appear- 
ance as  paltry  as  possible.  Mauhnain  has  already  many  better 
buildings.  The  eaves  of  the  houses  generally  descend  to  within 
six  or  eight  feet  of  the  ground ;  veiy  few  being  of  more  than 
one  story,  or  having  any  other  covering  than  thatch.  Cellars  are 
unknown,  and  all  the  houses  are  raised  two  or  three  feet  above 
the  ground  for  coohiess  and  ventilation.  As  the  floors  are  of 
split  bamboo,  all  dirt  falls  through,  and  what  is  not  picked  up  by 
crows,  dogs,  fowls,  &c,  is  occasionally  swept  out,  and  burned. 
For  nearly  half  the  year,  the  city  presents  a  most  singular  appear- 
ance, half  sad,  half  silly.  By  a  standing  law,  on  the  setting  in 
of  the  dry  season,  all  the  thatch  must  be  removed,  except  a  par- 
ticular kind,  not  common,  made  partly  of  split  bamboo,  which 
wfll  not  easUy  burn.  Were  it  not  for  the  people  in  the  streets, 
and  the  cloths  of  various  kinds  put  up  in  the  houses  to  keep  ofF 
the  sun,  it  would  seem,  at  these  times,  like  a  city  deserted. 

The  streets  are  narrow,  and  paved  with  half-burnt  bricks, 
which,  as  wheel-carriages  are  not  allowed  within  the  city,  are  in 
tolerable  repair.  There  is  neither  wharf  nor  quay.  In  four  or 
five  places  are  wooden  stairs,  at  which  small  boats  may  land 
passengers ;  but  even  these  do  not  extend  within  twenty  feet  of 
low-water  mark.  Vessels  lie  in  the  stream,  and  discharge  into 
boats,  from  which  the  packages,  slung  to  a  bamboo,  are  lugged 
on  men's  shoulders  to  the  custom-house. 

The  commerce  of  the  place  is  still  considerable,  though  great- 


PRICES    OF    LIVING.  75 

ly  crippled  by  enormous  port-charges,  and  absolute  prohibitions 
against  exporting  rice  or  the  precious  metals.  Specie  is  ex- 
ported, but  only  by  adroit  smuggling.  Could  rice  be  exported 
freely,  a  most  beneficial  trade,  both  to  government  and  people, 
might  be  earned  on,  the  agriculturist  receive  a  better  reward 
for  his  toil,  and  the  price  of  land  be  raised  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Paddy  is  now  selling  at  five  rupees  the  hundred  baskets ; 
that  is,  about  $2,50  for  a  hundred  bushels ! 

The  best  of  cleaned  rice  is  four  annas  a  basket  —  about  twelve 
cents  a  bushel !  Wheat,  as  good  as  I  have  ever  seen,  is  selling  at 
twenty  dollars  per  hundred  bushels.  Such  prices  would  send 
here  half  the  vessels  hi  Bengal  Bay.  How  strange  that  govern- 
ments must  always  be  dohig  damage,  by  dabbling  in  matters 
which,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  prosper !  —  However,  the 
policy  is  certainly  more  wise  than  that  of  Great  Britain,  which 
lets  some  of  her  subjects  annually  starve,  and  others  constantly 
suffer,  by  keeping  bread-stuffs  away. 

Other  necessaries  are  equally  cheap  in  Rangoon  —  fowls,  about 
one  dollar  per  dozen ;  black  tea,  brought  down  the  Irrawaddy 
from  China,  twelve  cents  a  pound ;  rice,  one  cent  per  pound ; 
coffee,  six  cents  per  pound ;  sugar,  six ;  bread,  same  as  in  Boston ; 
eggs,  fifty  cents  per  hundred ;  milk,  forty-five  cents  per  gallon  : 
wages,  six  dollars  per  month,  without  food  or  lodging ;  oil  for 
cooking  and  lamps,  fifty  cents  per  pound ;  washing,  four  dollars 
per  hundred ;  fuel,  about  seventy-five  cents  per  month.  Almost 
every  kind  of  British  manufactures  may  be  had  hi  the  bazar,  at 
rates  not  higher  than  they  cost  in  Boston.  Medicines  are  not 
easily  procured,  and  many  kinds  are  excessively  dear. 

During  the  long  wars  of  Em-ope,  in  the  days  of  Napoleon, 
many  vessels  were  built  here,  chiefly  by  the  English,  amounting, 
on  an  average,  from  1790  to  1802,  to  three  or  four  thousand  tons 
per  annum.  At  the  time  of  Colonel  Symmes's  visit,  in  1795,  there 
were  several  ships  on  the  stocks,  of  from  600  to  1000  tons' 
burden.     This  branch  of  business  is  now  almost  annihilated. 

Two  miles  from  Rangoon  is  the  celebrated  pagoda,  called 
Shoo-da-gon.  It  stands  on  a  small  hill,  surrounded  by  many 
smaller  pagodas,  some  fine  zayats  and  kyoungs,  and  many  noble 
trees.  The  hill  has  been  graduated  into  successive  terraces,  sus- 
tained by  brick  walls  ;  and  the  summit,  which  is  completely  lev- 
elled, contains  about  two  acres. 

The  two  principal  approaches  from  the  city  are  lined  on  each 
side,  for  a  mile,  with  fine  pagodas,  some  almost  vieing  for  size  with 
Shoodagon  itself.    These   are   in   every   state   of  repair;   from 


76  BURMAH. 

beautiful  white  new  ones  to  mere  grass-grown  heaps.  In  most 
of  them  the  apertures  still  remain,  through  which  the  English 
soldiers  penetrated,  to  take  the  treasure  always  deposited  in  them. 
Even  the  great  pagoda  did  not  escape  ;  but  it  is  so  perfectly  re- 
paired, as  to  show  no  signs  of  the  indignity. 

Passing  these  on  your  way  from  the  city,  you  come  to  a  flight 
of  tune-worn  steps,  covered  by  a  curious  arcade  of  little  houses 
of  various  forms  and  sizes,  one  above  another,  some  in  partial 
decay,  others  truly  beautiful.  After  crossing  some  terraces,  cov- 
ered in  the  same  manner,  you  reach  the  top,  and,  passing  a  great 
gate,  enter  at  once  this  sad  but  imposing  theatre  of  Gaudama's 
glory.  One's  first  impressions  are,  what  terrible  grandeur ;  what 
sickening  magnificence ;  what  absurd  imagery ;  what  extrava- 
gant expenditure ;  what  long  successions  of  devotees  to  procure 
this  throng  of  buildings  of  such  various  dates  ;  what  a  poor  re- 
ligion that  makes  such  labors  its  chief  meritoriousness.  Before 
you  stands  the  huge  Shoodagon,  its  top  among  the  clouds,  and 
its  golden  sides  blazing  in  the  glories  of  an  Eastern  sun.  Around 
are  pompous  zayats,  noble  pavements,  Gothic  mausoleums,  un- 
couth colossal  lions,  curious  stone  umbrellas,  gracefully  cylindri- 
cal banners  of  gold-embroidered  muslin  hanging  from  lofty  pil- 
lars, enormous  stone  jars  in  rows  to  receive  offerings,  tapers 
burning  before  the  images,  exquisite  flowers  displayed  on  every 
side,  filling  the  air  with  fragrance,  and  a  multitude  of  carved 
figures  of  idols,  worshippers,  griffins,  guardians,  &c. 

Always,  in  the  morning,  men  and  women  are  seen  in  every 
direction  kneeling  behind  their  gift,  and  with  uplifted  hands  reci- 
ting their  devotions,  often  with  a  string  of  beads  counting  over 
each  repetition ;  aged  persons  sweep  out  every  place,  or 
pick  the  grass  from  the  crevices ;  dogs  and  crows  straggle 
around  the  altars,  and  devour  the  recent  offerings ;  the  great  bells 
utter  their  frequent  tones ;  and  the  mutter  of  praying  voices 
makes  a  hum  like  the  buzzing  of  an  exchange.  The  whole  scene 
is  so  strange,  so  distressing,  that  one  is  relieved  to  stroll  away 
among  the  huge  trees,  and  gaze  from  the  parapet  on  the  unlim- 
ited scene  around.  It  is  one  wide,  flat  jungle,  without  a  single 
hill,  but  that  of  Syrian  in  the  distance  ;  but  it  is  nature.  It  is  the 
true  temple  of  the  true  God;  the  only  representation  he  has  given 
of  his  natural  perfections,  as  the  Bible  is  of  his  moral  ones.  All 
the  rest  is  distortion,  absurdity,  and  crime.  Of  interior  pagodas, 
(though  some  surpass  in  size  any  I  have  seen  elsewhere,)  there 
are,  in  Rangoon,  more  than  five  hundred,  occupying  as  much 
space  as  the  city  itself,  probably  more.     Most  of  them  stand  a 


PAGODA    SLAVES WORSHIPPERS.  // 

little  out  of  the  city,  interspersed  with  groves,  embowering  costly 
kyoungs  and  commodious  zayats.  The  latter  are  particularly 
numerous,  to  accommodate  the  hosts  of  worshippers  who  resort 
hither  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  hill  are  150  families  of  "  slaves  of  the 
pagoda,"  containing  about  two  hundred  men,  and,  as  their  chief 
told  me,  "plenty  of  women."  They  do  not  appear  to  be  poor  or 
despised,  and  their  quarter  of  the  city  is  not  distinguished  by  any 
particular  feature.  They  become  so,  not  always  because  of 
crime,  but  often  by  merely  incurring  the  displeasure  of  a  great 
man ;  or  he  gives  them  as  an  act  of  piety.  Most  of  them  are  so 
by  birth,  for  the  progeny  of  such  persons  are  forever  in  the 
same  condition.  They  are  not  allowed  to  marry,  except  among 
themselves. 

I  visited  the  pagoda  frequently,  about  sunrise,  as  it  is  the  only 
direction  hi  which  one  can  ride.  There  were  always  twenty-five 
or  thirty  worshippers  scattered  up  and  down  ;  and  on  the  regular 
worship  days,  several  hundred.  They  come  and  go  during 
the  cool  of  the  morning,  remaining  about  fifteen  minutes,  and 
amounting,  I  was  told,  in  the  whole,  to  two  or  three  thousand. 
A  few  remain  all  day  in  the  cool  zayats,  often  repeating  their 
worship,  and  spending  the  intervals  of  the  time  in  friendly  chat. 
Some,  as  an  act  of  particular  merit,  stay  all  night.  No  priests 
are  in  official  attendance,  nor,  indeed,  did  I  ever  see  any  there 
performing  their  own  worship.  The  act  of  worship  is  called 
shee-ko,  though  the  name  is  often  given  to  the  mere  act  of  pros- 
tration which  accompanies  it. 

Every  one  brings  a  present,  often  a  bunch  of  flowers,  or  only 
a  few  green  twigs,  plucked  on  the  way ;  but  generally  the  nicest 
eatables  ready  cooked,  beautiful  bunches  of  flowers,  articles  of 
raiment,  &c.  The  amount  of  offerings  here  is  veiy  great.  Stone 
vases,  some  of  which  will  hold  fifty  or  sixty  gallons,  stand  round 
the  pagoda,  into  which  the  devotees  carefully  lay  their  leafy 
plates  of  rice,  plantains,  cakes,  &c.  As  these  are  successively 
filled,  appointed  persons  from  among  the  pagoda  slaves  empty 
them  into  then*  vessels,  assorting  the  various  kinds.  The  beauti- 
ful flowers  remain  all  night,  and  are  swept  out  in  the  morning. 
No  one  ever  objected,  however,  to  my  gathering  them  at  pleasure. 
A  gift  once  deposited  is  no  more  regarded.  I  have  seen  crows 
and  dogs  snatch  the  gift  ere  the  offerer  had  well  done  his 
prayers,  without  the  shadow  of  resistance  being  offered. 

The  reproof  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  by  the  prophet  often  came 
strongly  to   my  mind  as  these  crowds   passed  on  with  their 
7* 


78  BURMAH. 

beautiful  flowers,  and  the  finest  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  —  "  She 
did  not  know  that  1  gave  her  corn,  and  wine,  and  oil,  and  multi- 
plied her  silver  and  gold,  which  they  prepare  for  Baal :  therefore 
I  will  take  away  my  corn  and  my  wine,  and  will  recover  my 
wool  and  my  flax."  Hosea  u.  8, 9.  How  boundless  the  goodness 
and  forbearance  of  God  !  "  Will  a  man  rob  God  ?  Yet  these  rob 
him  of  the  tithes  and  offerings "  bestowed  on  their  senseless 
images,  and  take  his  fruits  of  the  earth  to  do  honor  to  the  things 
his  soul  abhors.  I  could  not  but  feel,  as  1  gazed  upon  the  rich 
landscape  and  bright  heavens,  and  marked  the  joy  of  the  young 
men  and  maidens  as  they  passed  on,  that  He  who  then  forbore 
would  in  his  abundant  mercy  "  give  them  pastors  after  his  own 
heart,  who  shall  teach  them  knowledge  and  understanding." 

The  rainy  monsoon  has  been  considered  fairly  set  in,  since 
the  10th  of  May,  but  it  rains  as  yet  generally  only  towards  night, 
and  the  weather  is  every  way  delicious ;  eveiy  tree  being  'ever- 
green, a  few  showers  bring  forth  all  the  beauties  of  midsummer. 
Though  the  sun  is  nearly  vertical,  the  clouds  and  showers  so  cool 
the  air,  that  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  above  86°  or  87°  at 
noon,  and  goes  down  to  80°  before  morning.  1  have  now  passed 
the  ordeal  of  the  entire  hot  season ;  and  of  nothing  am  I  more 
convinced,  both  from  experience  and  observation,  and  especially 
from  the  testimony  of  very  many  intelligent  foreign  residents,  than 
that  the  climate  is  as  salubrious  and  as  pleasant  as  any  other  in 
the  world.  I  have  suffered  from  heat  greatly  more  in  Italy,  and 
even  in  Philadelphia,  than  I  have  ever  done  here,  and  have  never 
found  a  moment  when  I  could  not  be  perfectly  comfortable  by 
sitting  still.  To  go  abroad  in  mid-day,  is,  however,  more  intoler- 
able, and,  for  any  but  natives,  is  eminently  hazardous. 

The  mission  to  this  city  has  had  great  disadvantages,  and  the 
apparent  results  are  at  this  time  very  small.  The  first  mission- 
aries, who  were  English,  chose  a  situation  outside  the  town 
near  the  pagoda,  and  erected  a  building  far  too  sumptuous.  One 
afterward  chose  another  field,  and  the  other,  another  employment. 
The  station  was  never  effectively  occupied  till  by  Mr.  Judson, 
who,  being  without  native  assistants,  without  the  language,  with- 
out tracts,  without  experience,  and  living  in  the  same  house,  was 
here  many  years  before  he  began  to  make  direct  evangelical 
efforts  among  the  people.  Part  of  this  time  was  spent  in  acquir- 
ing the  Pali,*  or  sacred  language  of  the  Burmans,  on  which  he 
was  erroneously  led  to  place  a  high  value.  At  length  he  was 
able  to  preach,  and  some  souls  were  won ;  but  scarcely  had  a 

*  Pronounced  Pah-Lee ;  accenting  both  syllables  alike. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    MISSION.  79 

little  church  been  gathered,  before  the  war  broke  out,  in  which 
he  suffered  so  dreadfully,  and  which  suspended  all  missionary 
effort,  and  scattered  all  the  converts.  At  the  close  of  it,  he  did 
not  resume  his  place  in  Rangoon,  but  proceeded  to  the  provinces 
ceded  to  England,  where  he  has  remained.  The  flower  of  the 
church  followed  him  to  Maulmain. 

From  that  time  there  has  never  been  a  missionary  stationed 
here  who  could  fully  preach  in  Burman ! 

Mr.  Wade  was  at  the  station,  a  few  months,  in  so  bad  health 
as  to  be  thought  near  his  end,  and  sailed  for  America.  All  the 
others  have  spent  their  time  chiefly  in  study. 

The  spirit  of  persecution  has  never  intermitted  at  Rangoon, 
and  the  acts  of  it  very  seldom.  Mr.  Judson  never  had  public 
meetings  of  the  church,  either  for  worship  or  business,  and  the 
disciples  came  to  him  privately.  When  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bennett 
attempted  to  establish  a  school,  an  excitement  was  created,  which 
immediately  scattered  it.  The  master  was  publicly  whipped, 
and  the  old  pastor,  Ko  Tha-a,  was  imprisoned  and  put  into  the 
stocks,  and  released  only  by  paying  sixty  rupees.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Webb  took  the  station  two  years  ago,  on  the  removal  of  Mr.  Ben- 
nett to  take  charge  of  the  government  free-school  at  Maulmain. 
Though  he  had  only  made  a  good  beginning  in  the  language, 
yet,  with  the  aid  of  the  old  pastor,  and  a  native  assistant  from 
Maulmain,  he  began  to  look  out  and  draw  forth  the  veiy  few 
disciples  who  were  now  left,  and  to  meet  and  act  without  con- 
cealment. After  a  few  months,  and  before  any  new  conversions 
occurred  in  the  city,  persecution  was  recommenced,  which  put  a 
stop  not  only  to  the  meetings,  but  all  missionary  effort.  Mr. 
Webb  and  wife  had  gone  to  Maulmain  for  their  health,  and  Mr. 
Howard,  who  had  been  in  the  country  but  a  tew  months,  was  left 
in  charge  of  the  station,  when  the  troubles  began.  Ko  San- 
lone,*  the  preacher,  (the  old  pastor  has  been  deterred  from  public 
labors  since  his  sufferings,)  was  seized  while  preaching  on  the  ve- 
randa, and,  though  Mrs.  H.  procured  from  the  woon-gyee  an  order 
for  his  release,  the  inferior  rulers  refused  to  execute  it,  and  at 
last  succeeded  in  incensing  his  mind  also.  They  demanded 
Sanlone's  death,  and  possibly  might  have  procured  it,  had  he  not 
been  a  Maulmain  man,  and  of  course  a  British  subject.  Six  or 
eight  Karens,  who  formed  Mrs.  H.'s  school,  and  as  many  more 
who  had  at  that  time  visited  Rangoon  to  receive  baptism,  were 
seized,  punished  in  the  stocks,  and,  after  a  week,  sent  away  into 
the  jungle.     Search  was  made  for  disciples  throughout  the  city, 

*  Accent  on  last  syllable. 


80  BURMA  H. 

but  none  were  detected.  Various  tortures  were  inflicted  on  San- 
lone,  to  make  him  renounce  his  faith,  and  the  impression  through- 
out the  city  was,  that  he  would  be  put  to  death ;  but  after  several 
sums  of  money  had  been  paid  by  his  wife,  he  was  at  length  turned 
out,  with  chains  on  his  legs,  to  work  in  the  woon-gyee's  yard. 
After  a  time,  by  paying  more  than  two  hundred  rupees,  he  was 
set  at  liberty,  with  the  express  injunction  not  to  preach  or 
distribute  tracts  again  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the  woon-gyee. 
From  this  time,  none  of  the  disciples  durst  avow  themselves,  ex- 
cept the  old  pastor,  Sanlone's  wife,  and  a  few  znore.  No  meet- 
ings were  held ;  the  people  durst  not  come  near  the  missionaries, 
nor  receive  a  tract,  nor  even  engage  as  servants  in  their  families. 
A  poor  woman  who  took  care  of  Mrs.  Webb's  child  for  a  short 
time,  was  fined  fifteen  rupees  for  so  doing.  After  three  or  four 
months,  the  alarm  subsided.  The  people  now  accept  tracts,  and 
assistants  from  Maulmain  preach  unmolested ;  but  no  Rangoon 
native  Christian  dares  do  it,  or  give  tracts.  The  church  cannot 
be  assembled ;  but  few  members  can  be  found  at  all ;  and  the 
church  may  almost  be  said  to  be  extinct.  It  is  not  probable  that 
any  native  would  be  allowed  openly  to  confess  that  he  had 
changed  his  religion. 

In  the  meantime,  God  has  been  carrying  on  his  work  among 
the  adjacent  Karens,  particularly  at  Maubee,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Ko  Tha-byu.*  Many  have  been  converted;  the 
old  members,  though  fined  upwards  of  six  hundred  rupees,  and 
surrounded  by  reproach  and  injury,  continue  steadfastly  to  avow 
their  faith,  and  keep  up  their  meeting.  Mr.  Webb  has  bap- 
tized about  forty,  who  have  come  to  Rangoon  for  that  purpose  ; 
some  of  them  since  the  persecution.  Ko  Tha-a  has  been  out  to 
them,  and  baptized  twenty-nine  more ;  and  sixty  or  eighty  are 
now  asking  baptism.  Within  the  past  two  months,  they  have 
again  been  fined,  and  they  are  still  greatly  oppressed.  Here 
is  certainly  an  example  of  fortitude  and  meekness  worthy  to 
be  recorded  with  those  of  early  Christians.  Six  hundred  ru- 
pees could  only  be  extorted  from  these  miserable  Karens  by  the 
seizure  of  their  entire  substance.  Many  of  them  had  not  left  a 
bullock,  or  an  implement  to  till  the  ground.  The  case  furnishes 
an  answer  to  such  as  ask  evidence  of  the  reality  of  a  work  of 
grace  on  the  hearts  of  our  converts,  and  should  animate  us  to 
send  the  gospel  to  a  people  who  so  sincerely  receive  it. 

The  native  assistants  who  accompany  me  labor  diligently,  and 
are  greatly  pleased  with  appearances  so  far.     The  day  after  arri- 

*  Last  syllable  accented,  and  pronounced  like  v  in  imbue. 


INTERESTING    CASE.  81 

ving,  they  spread  nice  mats  on  the  porch  under  my  window,  and, 
taking  their  seats,  with  a  pile  of  tracts  beside  them,  soon  had 
an  audience.  They  have  continued  thus  eveiy  day,  having  al- 
most always  one  or  two,  and  sometimes  twenty  or  thirty,  to  lis- 
ten or  dispute.  So  little  labor  will  support  a  family  in  this  coun- 
try, that  many  are  always  at  leisure  to  sit  thus.  So  far  as  I  have 
seen,  they  uniformly  conduct  with  decorum  and  good  temper. 
Mr.  Webb  is  generally  at  hand  to  watch  the  course  of  debate, 
and  take  a  part  when  it  seems  useful.  After  eight  or  ten  days, 
two  of  them  proposed  a  walk  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles,  to  preach 
and  distribute  tracts  in  the  villages  round  about.  They  took 
a  goodly  quantity,  and  after  a  few  days'  absence  returned  de- 
lighted. In  every  village  they  were  well  received,  and  where 
they  stopped,  the  best  food  and  lodging  were  given  them  with  the 
kindest  hospitality.  Their  tracts  were  gone  long  before  they  got 
back,  and  eighty  or  ninety  persons  applied  in  vain.  They  met 
with  several  interesting  cases.  One  of  these  was  a  man,  who, 
being  on  a  journey,  by  chance  as  we  say,  stopped  at  a  house 
where  they  were  resting  themselves.  The  moment  he  saw  the 
tracts,  he  fell  upon  his  knees,  and  shee-koed  to  the  ground.  He 
received  two  or  three  with  the  greatest  reverence  and  gratitude, 
offering  several  rupees  in  return.  He  had  for  years  felt  bur- 
dened with  sin,  and  deeply  felt  the  impotency  of  the  Burman 
religion  to  grant  him  relief.  In  some  of  his  travels,  he  had  met 
a  man  who  had  a  little  book  which  disclosed  a  new  religion. 
On  becoming  anxious,  he  offered  twenty  rupees  if  any  woidd 
bring  him  such  a  one ;  but  he  sought  in  vain.  At  length,  some 
one  told  him  there  were  foreign  teachers  in  Rangoon,  who  had 
such  books  to  give  away.  He  immediately  travelled  there,  but 
sought  them  tlnmigh  the  city  in  vain,  and  returned  more  sad 
than  ever.  His  delight  at  now  meeting  with  the  books  and 
teachers  was  great.  With  a  mind  prepared  for  instruction,  he 
at  once  understood  and  received  the  truths  disclosed  to  him,  and 
sat  from  hour  to  hour  listening  to  the  wondrous  truths  of  the 
gospel.  He  was  furnished  with  the  "Life  of  Christ,"  the  "Digest 
of  the  New  Testament,"  and  one  or  two  smaller  tracts,  and  did 
not  leave  the  assistants  while  they  remained.  May  the  kind 
Providence  which  brought  him  to  that  house  make  him  a  monu- 
ment of  mercy,  and  an  instrument  of  good  to  benighted  Burmah ! 
All  travellers  accord  to  Burmans  the  praise  of  uncommon 
energy,  and  in  this  respect  they  doubtless  stand  very  far  above 
their  neighbors.  But  though  possessed  of  much  muscular 
power,  and  ready  at  times  to  exert  it  all,  their  activity  will  not 


82  BURMAH. 

compare  with  that  of  northern  men.  In  negotiations  of  all 
sorts,  they  are  particularly  slow,  crafty,  and  suspicious.  From 
the  day  of  my  arrival,  I  looked  out  for  a  boat  to  convey  me  to 
Pegu,  Ava,  &c,  and  several  times  thought  1  had  succeeded  in 
hiring  a  suitable  one;  but  have  been  finally  compelled  to  pur- 
chase. Being  a  mere  hull,  it  has  been  necessary  to  build  upon 
it  the  customary  appurtenances,  and  I  have  found  it  impos- 
sible to  expedite  the  business.  Through  the  kind  offices  of  Mr. 
Lanceigo,  collector  of  the  port,  I  have  an  excellent  and  experi- 
enced old  pen-in,  or  head  boatman,  who,  with  six  men,  engages 
to  take  me  to  Pegu  and  Ava  for  a  given  sum. 

On  the  first  of  June,  I  set  forward  to  visit  Pegu  and  adja- 
cent towns,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Webb,  two  of  the  na- 
tive assistants,  and  a  servant  A  clear  sky  enabled  us  to  get 
every  thing  on  board  without  wetting,  and  we  got  on  finely 
for  a  couple  of  hours,  when  a  squall  came  up,  which  irearly 
swamped  us;  but  it  was  soon  over,  and  we  baled  out  the 
boat,  and  proceeded  with  renewed  obligations  to  praise  Him 
"who  walketh  upon  the  wind  and  maketh  the  clouds  his 
chariot." 

The  comfort  and  confidence  with  which,  in  this  region,  one 
may  travel  for  half  the  year,  secure  from  storm  or  shower,  are  now 
reversed.  It  rains  daily.  The  atmosphere,  loaded  with  mois- 
ture, insinuates  its  dampness  every  where,  making  musty  and 
mouldy  the  very  clothes  in  one's  trunk.  Those  who  are  at  home 
here  can  do  very  well  by  wrapping  things  in  flannel  or  waxed 
cloths,  or  putting  them  in  tin  boxes,  &c.  But  the  traveller,  and 
the  voyager  in  a  small  boat,  has  none  of  these  conveniences. 

Entering  the  Pegu  River  about  an  hour's  pull  below  Rangoon, 
we  ascended  to  the  ancient  and  famous  city  of  Pegu  in  three 
tides.  Had  we  not  stopped  to  look  at  towns,  distribute  tracts, 
&c,  two  tides  would  have  answered,  by  which  I  judge  the  dis- 
tance to  be  about  sixty  miles.  The  river  empties  into  the  Ran- 
goon by  a  wide  mouth,  but  soon  narrows  to  two  hundred  yards, 
and  before  we  get  to  the  city,  to  as  many  feet.  Only  small  boats 
ascend  it  further.  The  banks  are  luxuriant  flats,  covered  with  a 
grass  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  (the  saccharum  spontaneum,)  much 
used  in  thatching.  For  the  first  forty  miles,  no  habitations  are  to 
be  seen.  Monkeys,  alligators,  cranes,  and  vultures,  were  numer- 
ous. Elephants,  deer,  wild  hogs,  tigers,  &c,  are  said  to  be 
abundant,  but  we  saw  none.  This  fair  and  fruitful  region  is 
almost  abandoned,  while  whole  nations  struggle  to  glean  from 
barrenness  and  frigidity  a  hard  subsistence. 


VOYAGE    TO    PEGU.  83 

Within  twenty  miles  of  Pegu,  we  found  villages,  and  gave 
tracts,  accompanied  with  exhortations  from  Mr.  Webb  and  the 
assistants.  In  these  towns,  no  tracts  had  ever  been  given,  no 
Christian  teacher  had  ever  been  seen.  Many  refused  our  books, 
suspecting  some  snare ;  but  tbe  most  received  them  gladly. 
Most  of  the  tracts  were  Extracts  from  the  Old  Testament,  Mark, 
Luke,  and  Lite  of  Christ.  The  latter  is  a  copious  harmony  of 
the  four  Gospels,  wholly  in  Scripture  language.  The  Lord  bless 
the  seed  of  his  own  truth!  The  people  are  principally  Peguans, 
(or  Ta-lings,  as  the  Burmans  call  them,)  and  speak  that  language 
chiefly,  though  nearly  all  of  the  men  understand  Burman.  There 
are  some  Karens  also,  and  further  inland  they  form  almost  the 
entire  population. 

I  foimd  the  once  proud  and  imperial  city  sunk  to  a  common 
village.  Zangnomang,  a  town  opposite,  which,  with  a  consider- 
able region  adjacent,  is  ruled  by  an  upright  Armenian  Christian, 
is  now  greater  in  size  and  prosperity.  In  fact,  on  that  side,  for 
many  miles,  is  a  constant  succession  of  thriving  villages. 

While  Pegu  was  the  metropolis  of  an  independent  kingdom, 
it  had  a  population  of  150,000  souls.  But  Alompra,  aware  that 
its  destruction  would  serve  to  perpetuate  his  conquest  of  the 
country,  destroyed  it,  leaving  only  the  sacred  edifices. 

Its  former  extent  may  still  be  traced ;  but  I  found  almost  the 
whole  site  covered  with  water  a  few  inches  deep,  owing  probably 
to  a  neglect  of  the  drains  and  sluices.  The  present  town  is  upon 
the  site  of  the  old,  and  consists  of  but  two  streets,  one  parallel 
to  the  river,  and  the  other  leading  out  to  the  great  pagoda.  The 
late  king  endeavored  to  restore  the  city  to  consequence,  as  the 
Peguans  are  no  longer  a  distinct  people.  For  this  purpose,  he 
removed  thither,  in  1790,  from  Rangoon,  the  seat  of  the  provincial 
government.  The  effort  proved  abortive.  The  merchants  and 
majority  of  the  people  remained  at  Rangoon,  where  all  business 
advantages  were  so  greatly  superior,  and  the  government  was 
soon  reseated  at  Rangoon.  The  description  of  the  city  given  by 
Colonel  Symmes,  who  visited  it  in  1795,  will  not  now  apply. 

Desolate  and  diminished  as  is  the  city,  its  huge  Shoo-ma-doo 
pagoda,  and  some  of  its  appendages,  are  in  good  preservation,  and 
worthy  of  all  admiration.  It  stands  on  a  fine  hill,  of  gradual  as- 
cent, the  summit  of  which  has  been  flattened  into  a  plain  of 
about  three  acres.  The  sides  are  sloped  into  two  terraces,  as- 
cended by  steps  of  hewn  stone.  The  top  is  occupied  not  only 
by  tlic  great  pagoda,  but  by  zayats,  kyoungs,  trees,  &c.  The  pyr- 
amid is  of  the  usual  form.     The  base  consists  of  two  octagonal 


84  BURMAH. 

stories,  much  larger  than  the  pagoda  itself,  and  wide  enough  to 
sustain  each  a  ring  of  sixty  pagodas,  about  thirty  feet  high,  simi- 
lar to  each  other,  though  not  alike,  and  many  of  them  much  in- 
jured by  time.  The  diameter  of  tliis  octagonal  base  is  400  feet, 
and  the  entire  height  of  the  building  3G0  feet.  This  is  the  pago- 
da represented  hi  my  Bible  Dictionary,  and  of  which  alone 
prints  are  common.  The  country  round  is  that  same  uniform  level 
which  distinguishes  the  whole  of  what  was  the  kingdom  of  Pegu. 

Having  made  considerable  alterations  in  my  boat,  suggested 
by  experience  in  going  to  Pegu,  I  left  Rangoon  for  Ava,  accom- 
panied by  Mr.  Howard,  as  interpreter,  on  the  14th  of  June.  The 
weather  was  fine,  and  before  the  end  of  the  flood  tide,  we  had 
rowed  twenty-five  miles  on  the  Panlang,  one  of  (lie  mouths  of 
the  great  river  of  Burmah.  The  country  was  flat,  inundated  at 
high  tides,  and  uncultivated,  till  toward  evening,  when  the  banks 
were  higher,  the  lands  laid  out  for  rice,  and  villages  numerous. 

Stopping,  at  the  expiration  of  the  next  tide,  at  Kew-new, 
twenty-five  miles  further,  we  found  a  cluster  of  large  villages, 
amounting  to  fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred  houses.  Innumerable 
boats,  large  and  small,  were  taking  in  rice,  salt,  fish,  &c,  for  the 
upper  country.  Hiring  two  small  canoes,  which  could  penetrate 
among  the  crowd  of  boats,  we  supplied  tracts  to  all  who  would 
accept  them  on  both  sides  of  the  river ;  thus  sending  the  truth 
to  perhaps  a  hundred  different  villages.  Before  getting  the 
canoes,  I  gave  to  all  the  boats  passing  by,  and  was  affected  to  see 
some  who  coidd  not  come  near,  plunge  into  the  river  and  swim 
to  me  for  them,  and,  bearing  them  back  with  upraised  hand,  sit 
down  instantly  to  read  them  aloud.  Some  women  applied  for 
books,  who  proved  their  claim  by  reading  fluently.  In  most  of 
the  boats,  large  and  small,  were  women  and  children,  who 
seemed  at  home,  and,  I  am  told,  spend  much  of  the  year  (in  some 
cases  all  of  it)  in  this  way.  In  the  small  craft,  they  generally 
steer  the  boat  while  the  husband  rows. 

The  boats  on  this  river,  though  of  all  sizes  up  to  200  tons,  are 
but  of  two  general  descriptions.  All  retain  the  canoe  shape, 
sharp  at  each  end.  Large  boats  have  one  mast,  and  a  yard  of 
long,  slender  bamboo,  to  which  is  suspended  a  square  sail.  The 
sail  is  made  in  sections,  the  centre  ones  only  being  used  in 
strong  winds,  and  the  Others  added  at  the  sides  when  necessary. 
Sometimes  a  small  sail  is  temporarily  fastened  above  the  yard  to 
the  ropes,  by  whieh  it  is  sustained.  The  deck  extends  from  five 
to  ten  feet  beyond  the  sides,  with  large  bamboos  fastened  be- 
neath ;  making  at  once  a  platform  for  the  men,  when  using  their 


ASCENDING    THE   IRRAWADDY. 


85 


setting-poles,  &c,  and  an  outrigger  to  prevent  their  upsetting. 
The  vessel  itself  is  wholly  covered  with  a  regular  Burman  house, 
well  thatched,  which  carries  part  of  the  cargo,  and  furnishes 
cabins  to  the  family  and  boatmen.  This  gives  them  just  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  pictures  of  Noah's  ark  in  children's  books.  Over 
this  roof  is  a  platform,  on  which  the  men  stand  to  work  the  sail. 
They  are  manned  by  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  men, 
and  sometimes  forty  or  more ;  the  captain,  or  owner,  having 
their  wives  and  whole  families  on  board.  A  better  idea  of  these 
boats  may  be  gained  by  the  picture  of  Sagaing,  in  which  two 
are  introduced. 


Ascending  the  Irrawaddy. 

My  boat  is  a  sample  of  such  as  persons  in  moderate  circum- 
stances use  for  going  from  town  to  town,  and  in  the  small  way  of 
trade  along  the  river.  It  is  a  canoe  hollowed  out  of  one  log,  for- 
ty-six feet  long,  deepened  by  a  single  plank  fastened  on  each  side. 
The  stem  and  stern  are  left  solid  for  three  or  four  feet,  and  curve 
upward  out  of  the  water,  especially  aft.  The  forward  half  is 
decked  with  bamboo  and  thatch.  As  Burmans  sit  cross-legged 
on  a  floor  to  row,  this  accommodates  them  in  using  both  oars 
and  poles,  and  furnishes  a  sleeping- place  beneath  for  the  native 
assistants.  The  boatmen  always  sleep  on  deck.  About  twelve 
feet  of  the  after  half  is  occupied  by  two  little  cabins  for  myself 
and  Mr.  II.,  one  for  sleeping,  and  the  other,  which  contains  a 
table,  chair,  &c,  serving  as  a  parlor.  The  sides  of  the  latter  are 
made  of  light  mats,  the  upper  half  turning  up  for  a  window. 
The  sleeping-room  is  but  three  feet  high,  as  baggage,  food,  &c, 
must  be  kept  under  it ;  but  the  floor  of  the  sitting-room  being 
vol.  i.  8 


86  BURMA  H. 

near  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  enables  us  to  stand  up  in  it.  Behind 
the  rooms  is  the  kitchen,  viz.  a  shallow  box  filled  with  earth ; 
beneath  which  is  wood  and  water ;  while  at  the  side  hangs  a 
hen-coop.  Round  the  rooms  is  an  outrigger,  to  enable  the  men 
to  pass  back  and  forth  without  intruding  on  me,  and  to  prevent 
her  oversetting.  This  last  appendage  is  not  common  to  boats  of 
this  size.  Finding  her  to  roll  heavily,  we  fastened  at  the  water- 
mark a  bamboo,  ten  or  eleven  inches  in  diameter,  running  nearly 
the  length  of  the  boat.  The  sail,  which  is  square,  is  fastened 
between  two  bamboos,  which  stand  up  abeam  of  each  other, 
in  the  form  of  the  letter  V. 

Such  is  my  home  for  much  of  this  "  rains."  For  the  first  few 
days,  I  was  so  cramped  for  room,  and  so  incommoded  with  rain, 
heat,  smoke,  and  musquitoes,  that  it  was  difficult  to  do  any  thing 
in  the  way  of  study.  But  now  I  am  quite  at  ease ;  the  mus- 
quitoes are  left  behind  ;  my  little  matters  are  all  adjusted,  and  I 
find  it  luxury  to  enjoy  the  entire  command  of  my  time  —  a  luxury 
for  many  years  almost  unknown. 

Ten  days'  diligent  progress  brought  me  within  a  day  or  two  of 
Prome,  where  the  unbroken  level  of  the  vast  delta  of  the  Irra- 
waddy  begins  to  be  relieved  by  the  occasional  sight  of  distant 
hills.  A  few  miles  onward,  they  approach  the  river,  where  their 
abraded  bases  present  the  now  novel  sight  of  stones  and  gravel. 
The  rocks  are  red  calcareous  sandstone,  quartz,  and  breccia,  the 
gravel  chiefly  quartz.  Undulations  now  begin  to  appear  in  the 
surface  of  the  country,  and  on  the  whole  the  scenery  is  attrac- 
tive. More  delightful  weather  could  not  be.  A  fine  shower  or 
two,  nearly  every  day,  lasts  half  an  horn-  or  so,  and  the  tempera- 
ture varies  agreeably  from  eighty  to  eighty-five  degrees  in  the 
day,  descending  two  or  three  degrees  at  night,  Avhile  at  all  times 
there  is  a  fine  breeze.  This,  for  the  hot  season,  as  it  now  is,  was 
much  cooler  than  I  had  expected.  The  banks  now  begin  to  be 
high,  and  dry  enough  to  admit  walking  along  the  shore,  and  1 
find  it  pleasant  to  pass  through  the  beautiful  groves  of  mango, 
tamarind,  and  palm-trees,  which  divide  the  villages.  Hitherto 
we  have  had  villages  in  sight  almost  every  moment,  sometimes 
several  at  a  time.  It  is  so,  still ;  but  on  ascending  the  bank,  we 
find  others,  not  visible  from  the  boat,  stretching  along  a  mile 
back  from  the  river.  Beyond  are  extensive  paddy-fields,  with 
large  herds  of  buffaloes. 

The  river  is  now  thirty  feet  above  its  lowest  stage,  and  spreads 
for  a  mile  or  two  on  each  side,  not  in  one  vast  sheet,  but  cutting 
up  the  country  into  innumerable  islands.     We  follow  the  remote 


MODE    OF    FISHING PROME.  87 

windings  to  avoid  the  powerful  current  of  the  main  stream, 
and  thus  find  many  villages  where  no  white  face  was  ever  seen. 
These  are  generally  small,  but  consist  sometimes  of  several  hun- 
dred houses.  As  no  missionary  has  gone  up  the  river  to  give 
tracts  in  the  rainy  season,  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  many  of 
these  people  now  for  the  first  time  receive  the  knowledge  of  the 
true  religion.  On  the  great  river,  we  often  find  persons  who 
have  had  tracts,  and  now  utterly  refuse  them.  But  in  these  by- 
ways, all  receive  them  with  gladness. 

I  feel  especially  anxious  to  furnish  the  boats  with  books. 
Issuing,  as  they  do,  out  of  every  creek,  they  will  cany  some 
knowledge  of  the  eternal  God  to  hundreds  of  villages  where  no 
missionary  is  likely  to  penetrate  for  years. 

Several  tunes,  lately,  I  have  observed  an  ingenious,  and  to  me 
novel  mode  of  fishing.  A  score  or  more  of  gourds  are  suffered 
to  float  down  the  stream,  from  each  of  which  depends  a  hook 
and  line.  The  fisherman,  in  his  little  canoe,  passing  from  one  to 
another,  takes  up  what  is  caught,  baits  the  hooks,  and  when  he 
has  followed  them  a  mile  or  two,  returns  with  his  fish,  or  begins 
again. 

A  strong  southerly  wind  brought  us  to  Prome  (Pyee-myu,  as 
the  natives  call  it)  early  on  the  afternoon  of  the  24th,  and  gave 
us  sufficient  opportunity  of  viewing  the  city.  For  eight  or  nine 
miles,  the  villages  had  been  contiguous,  some  of  them  very  large. 
We  walked  over  a  good  deal  of  the  city.  It  exhibits  every  where 
symptoms  of  poverty  and  decay ;  and,  from  an  estimate  made  on 
a  height  in  the  suburb,  I  should  judge  it  to  contain  less  than  five 
hundred  houses.  The  walls  are  mostly  fallen  down,  the  ditch 
filled  up,  and  the  stately  remains  of  ancient  superstition  hasten- 
ing to  ruin.  We  went  a  little  way  beyond  the  city  to  a  fine  hill, 
on. which  stands  a  pagoda  not  much  smaller  than  that  at  Ran- 
goon, and  gilded  from  top  to  bottom.  The  ascent  is  by  brick 
stairs,  covered  with  a  succession  of  zayats.  hi  some  respects,  it 
is  a  more  interesting  spot  than  the  hill  of  Shoo-da-gon.  The 
city  is  more  plainly  seen,  the  vicinity  is  far  more  beautiful,  and 
the  distant  mountains  form  a  fine  back-ground.  Around  the 
pagoda  are  many  smaller  ones,  containing  beautiful  marble 
images,  some  as  large  as  life.  A  very  handsome  temple  is  ap- 
propriated to  a  copy  in  stucco  of  the  impression  of  Gaudama's 
foot,  a  copy  of  which  is  given  in  another  part  of  the  volume.  A 
profusion  of  tees,  gi'.ded  streamers,  and  other  objects  usually 
seen  around  pagodas,  occupy  the  enclosure ;  and  the  whole  air 
of  the  place  is  that  of  solemn  antiquity.     In  one  of  the  zayats 


88  BURMAH. 

sat  an  old  man,  thin,  and  of  a  fine  intellectual  countenance,  eat- 
ing a  nice  dinner,  which  some  women  had  brought  him,  who 
were  sitting  near  to  return  with  the  dishes.  He  has  determined 
to  spend  his  remaining  days  or  years  on  that  venerated  hill. 
What  is  brought  him  he  eats.  When  nothing  comes,  lie  fasts. 
In  different  places  were  seen  persons  at  prayer,  or  piously  cut- 
ting up  the  grass  which  obtruded  itself  in  the  joints  of  the  flag- 
ging. The  bells,  struck  by  coming  worshippers,  yielded  deep, 
soft  tones,  and  the  chime  from  the  lofty  tee  was  particularly 
clear  and  sweet.  The  sun,  descending  with  uncommon  splen- 
dor, threw  his  mitigated  rays  under  the  roofs  of  the  ancient 
temples,  casting  twilight  pomp  upon  the  stately  idols  in  the  deep 
niches;  silence  reigned  among  the  retired  terraces  and  time- 
worn  shrines ;  the  tree,  fresh  breeze  diffused  luxurious  coolness, 
and,  as  the  shade  of  evening  gathered  on,  the  place  seemed  just 
such  as  a  devoted  Boodhist  would  choose  for  his  abstractions.  A 
Christian  could  not  but  recur  to  holy  themes,  and  be  warmed 
with  fervent  aspirations  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord. 

Descending  by  different  stairs,  a  polite  citizen  pointed  out  the 
evidences  of  a  magnificent  arcade,  which  was  accidentally  burnt 
several  years  ago.  It  was  the  rulers'  way  to  the  pagoda.  Over 
the  low  grounds  beyond  it  is  a  fine  causeway  of  brick,  some 
hundred  yards  long.  On  each  side,  groves  of  palm,  interspersed 
with  kyoimgs  and  little  bridges,  formed  altogether  a  scene  of 
great  beauty.  All  this  to  the  honor  of  a  frail  man,  who  died  and 
was  buried,  as  his  own  worshippers  admit ;  while  He  who  gives 
the  rain  in  its  season,  and  in  whom  they  live,  receives  no  rever- 
ence !  All  this  to  "  change  the  glory  of  the  incorruptible  God  into 
an  image,"  and  "  the  truth  of  God  into  a  lie  "  !  All  this  to  "  wor- 
ship and  serve  the  creature  more  than  the  Creator,  who  is  God 
over  all  and  blessed  forever  " !  O  that  this  people  may  soon  know 
the  riches  of  the  goodness  and  long-suffering  of  God !  Alas ! 
that  the  best  we  can  hope  of  this  unhappy  people,  is,  that,  having 
"  sinned  without  law,  they  shall  perish  without  law  " ! 

Before  reentering  the  city,  we  passed  through  a  little  village 
allotted  to  lepers.  Four  men  and  a  woman  seated  themselves  in 
a  row,  by  the  way-side,  as  we  came  up,  and  modestly  solicited 
alms.  Before  giving  any  thing,  1  stopped  some  minutes  to  ob- 
serve the  effects  of  this  terrible  disease.  They  made  no  clamor, 
did  not  repeat  their  solicitations,  showed  off  no  affectations,  but 
were  cheerful  and  entirely  without  pain.  Much  bodily  suffering 
is  not  endured  in  this  disease,  except  at  the  commencement.  One 
was  not  much  affected :  each  of  the  others  had  lost  all  of  their 


LEPERS'    VILLAGE  —  SCENERY.  89 

fingers,  and  most  of  their  toes.  They  were  thin  and  haggard. 
The  distressing  scene  brought  powerfully  to  mind  the  gracious 
cures  of  our  Divine  Master.  There  are  about  thirty-five  or  forty 
of  these  persons  in  the  city,  occupying  two  villages. 

A  couple  of  hours'  sail  from  Prome,  with  our  fine  monsoon, 
brought  us  to  a  narrow  pass  in  the  river,  resembling  the  high- 
lands of  the  Hudson.  On  one  of  the  highest  western  summits  is 
the  famous  pagoda  Poo-o-dong,  visible  among  the  trees.  Here 
Gaudama  lived,  and  here  is  shown  on  a  rock  the  print  of  his 
foot,  evidently  fabulous,  one  would  think,  even  to  a  Burman ;  for  no 
human  foot  was  ever  of  such  a  shape.  Copies  on  stone,  in  plas- 
ter, or  in  painting,  of  this  great  wonder,  are  preserved  in  many 
places,  and  regarded  with  great  veneration.  I  afterward  obtained 
one  of  these,  from  which  the  drawing  is  made. 

On  every  side,  for  some  days,  we  have  indigo  growing,  and  the 
large  jars  in  which  it  is  steeped,  frequently  stand  in  rows  beside 
the  river.  Both  soil  and  climate  here  are  said  to  be  eminently 
favorable  to  this  plant,  and  the  cultivation  of  it  in  experienced 
and  scientific  hands  would  certainly  prove  lucrative.  Most  of 
the  product  is  consumed  in  this  region,  which  is  particularly 
devoted  to  manufactures.  Large  quantities  of  cotton  cloth  are 
daily  seen  hanging  up  at  the  villages,  in  the  course  of  being 
dyed.  Some  of  it  is  of  a  brilliant  red,  procured  from  native 
woods  called  7iee-pe-zay  and  soo-ban.  These  are  preferred  even 
to  the  sapan  wood,  as  yielding  as  good  a  color,  and  more 
durable. 

In  every  respect  the  landscape  has  now  changed.  Instead  of 
an  interminable  level,  devoted  mainly  to  coarse  grass  and  paddy, 
without  trees,  without  birds,  and  without  houses,  except  in  large 
villages,  we  have  every  variety  of  beautiful  landscape ;  fine 
hills,  cultivated  in  patches,  even  to  the  summit,  scattered  houses, 
fenced  fields,  noble  trees  ;  with  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  firwls,  and 
numerous  birds.  Among  the  trees  the  beautiful  and  stately 
tamarind  now  begins  to  be  seen. 

The  number  of  trading  boats  on  the  river  is  astonishing.  We 
pass  scores  every  day,  and  sometimes  hundreds.  My  boat  being 
small,  in  mere  ballast  trim,  and  well  manned,  we  pass  every 
thing,  and  thus  have  an  opportunity  of  supplying  numbers  of 
them  with  tracts.  The  largest  of  them  cany  ten  or  twelve 
thousand  bushels  of  uncleaned  rice,  the  smaller  three  or  four 
hundred.  Their  chief  lading  seemed  to  be  rice,  salt,  and  gna-p.e. 
In  ascending,  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  drawn  by  the  crew 
with  a  rope  from  the  bank,  or  propelled  by  setting-poles  ;  sailing 


BURMA  H. 


onlv  when  the  wind  is  fair,  and  neither  too  strong  nor  too  weak. 
They  a-generahy  from  three  to  four  months  m  ascending 

'Tote'ct  ale^the  river  without  being  impressed  with  the 
v.    Annrl    skdl   energy,  and  good-humor  of  Burman  boatmen, 
S^ha^^SStae-   of  their  boats   to   the   navigation. 
S  ascendin [much  of  the  way  must  be  accomplished  by  setUng- 
pVef  Ft- ffiese  they  use  straight  bamboos,  of  a  species  which 
fs  almost  sohd,  and  very  strong.     The  end  is  applied,  not  to  the 
Son rof^ahoulder,  J^ith  us,  but  above  the  collar-bone  or  on 
•  the  top  of  the  shoulder>Bending  forward  till  their  hands  touch 
•■    the  deck  they  bring  the  resistance  perpendicular  to  the  spine,  and 
,     !  o  sess'far  greater  power  than  is  possible  by  our ^inode. 
Whenbut  slight  exertion  is  required,  the  pole  is  applied  ^ 
us     On  many  boatmen  and  coolies,  a  callus  is  formed  on  the 
Sp  of  the  shoulder,  which  looks  like  a  small  swelling     Getung 
abound  is  a  daily  occurrence,  and  sometimes  frequently  in  a  daj , 
STtoLconLual  shifting  of  the  sands,  and  ^r^- 
to  the  height  of  the  water.    In  such  cases,  the  men  aie  instantly 
n  t  e  water,  to  shove  off.    In  pulling  the  boat  by  ropes,  we  tie- 
"uXmee't  streams  and  nullahs,  over  winch  the,  J-£-££ 
a  moment's  hesitation.    If  a  bamboo  or  an  oar  fall  oveiboaid, 
they  instantly  plunge  in  and  recover  it.    In  fact,  they  seem  al- 
Xi  ;  and  Burman  costume  is  most  *«*££* 
to  aquatic  exigencies.     The  strength  and  energy  with  which  they 
amount  difficulties,  transcend  any  thing  I  ever  saw  among  t he 
boatmen  on  our  own  western  waters,  and  »  F^   ^J 
morality  they  are  immeasurably  superior.    In  this  trip  and  my 
arioufpreviusones,!  have  never  seen  a  quarreler  hear^a 
hard  word.     Cross  accidents  have  occurred,  and  we  have  ire 
quently  been  entangled  with  other  boats;  but  all ^difficulties ^have 
been  met  and  surmounted  with  good  temper,  and  even  hilaiitj. 

Familiarity  with  the  watery  element  seems  to  prevail  in  Bui  - 
xnah  wherever  there  are  streams.  I  have  seen  women  and  chft- 
oren Rimming  with  ease  and  confidence ;  and  several  tunes  htt  e 
elffidren,  scarcely  able  to  walk  alone,  frightened  -J^ 
foreigner,  have  plunged  into  the  water  to  swim  to  then  motile  s 
in  the  boats.  The  practice  of  mothers  taking  their  mfants  daily 
to  bathe,  renders  them  perfectly  fearless  of  the  water. 

June  27.  For  some  days  the  river  scenery  has  been  increasingly 
interesting.  The  country  seems  generally  under  tillage ;  cities 
;  1  line  the  shores,  and  the  hills  are  covered  with  fine 
forests.    Italy  itself  might  justly  be  proud  oi  the  scenery.    The 


PETROLEUM      WELLS.  91 

improvements  and  population  appear  to  extend,  however,  in 
some  places  at  least,  but  a  short  distance  from  the  river. 

Before  sunset,  June  28,  came  to  for  the  night  at  Yay-nan- 
goung,  a  village  important  only  for  its  trade  in  petroleum.  The 
wells  being  but  two  miles  from  the  village,  I  immediately  set  out 
to  walk  to  them.  The  way  was  well  beaten  by  bullock  carts, 
often  crossing  the  bed  of  the  torrent,  (now  dry,)  whence  the 
village  derives  its  name.  A  more  rugged  and  desolate  region 
can  scarcely  be  imagined.  The  rocks  are  sandstone,  pudding- 
stone,  and  petrifactions ;  the  soil,  sand  and  blue  clay.  Small 
hills  on  every  side  rise  abruptly,  like  waves  in  a  chopping  sea, 
sterile  and  unsightly.  One  plant  only  seemed  to  find  a  congenial 
soil.  It  resembled  a  prickly  pear,  growing  to  the  height  of  thirty 
feet,  with  stem  a  foot  in  diameter. 

The  wells  are  very  numerous,  said  to  be  more  than  400, 
occupying  a  space  of  about  12  square  miles.  They  are  from 
200  to  300  feet  deep,  of  small  calibre,  and  sustained  by  scantling. 
The  temperature  of  the  oil,  when  first  raised  to  the  top,  is  89°. 
Men  do  not  go  down,  but  an  earthen  pot  is  lowered  in  and  drawn 
up  over  a  beam  across  the  mouth,  by  two  men  running  off  with 
the  rope.  The  pot  is  emptied  into  a  little  pool,  where  the  water 
with  which  it  is  largely  mixed  subsides,  and  the  oil  is  drawn  off* 
pure.  It  is  exported  in  earthen  jars,  containing  about  30  pounds. 
The  price  now,  including  the  pots,  is  about  a  tical  for  2|  viss, 
or  about  50  cents  for  ten  pounds.  A  well  yields  about  400  or 
500  visa  per  day,  and  is  worked  by  three  or  four  men.  Sonic- 
tunes  700  are  obtained.  The  amount  depends  on  the  quantity 
of  water  drawn  up  with  the  oil.  A  duty  of  one  twentieth  is  paid 
to  government. 

This  most  useful  oil  is  very  extensively  used  for  lamps  and 
torches,  and  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  empire  whither  it  can 
be  taken  by  water.  It  is  also  used  for  preserving  wood,  mat 
partitions,  palm-leaf  books,  &c.  from  insects  and  from  the 
weather,  and  is  aii  admirable  article  for  these  purposes.  Even  the 
wliite  ants  will  not  attack  wood  which  has  been  brushed  with  it. 

For  several  days,  we  have  noticed  on  the  shore  great  quantities 
of  petrified  wood,  and  have  gathered  specimens,  which  exhibit 
the  fibres  and  cells  perfectly.  Some  trunks  of  trees,  ten  or 
twelve  feet  long,  lie  in  the  edge  of  the  water,  entirely  petrified. 
Teeth,  bones,  &e.  are  found  in  the  same  state.  The  inhabitants 
assured  nae  that  they  sometimes  picked  up  petrified  leaves. 

Sal-lay,  u  day's  sail  above  the  oil  wells,  though  not  large,  is  an 
important  city.     It   is  the   metropolis  of  a  fertile  district,  and 


92  BURMAH. 

drives  a  considerable  trade  in  jaggery,  cutch,  cotton,  onions,  &c. 
Here,  as  at  several  places  before,  we  found  Shyans,  comfortably 
bivouacked  on  shore,  end  bartering  blue  jackets,  stick  lac,  &c, 
for  salt  and  salt-fish.  Their  commodities  are  brought  in  carts, 
and  in  panniers  on  the  backs  of  bullocks.  They  seemed  in  no 
haste,  were  engaged  in  little  manufactures  for  sale,  and  would 
probably  remain  till  the  close  of  the  rains.  They  are  instantly 
distinguished  from  Burmans,  by  wearing  a  regular  round-about 
jacket  and  wide  trousers  of  blue  nankeen,  reaching  to  the  knees, 
The  jackets  are  frequently  quilted  very  neatly.  I  have  seen 
various  companies  of  them  in  different  places,  trading  in  the 
same  manner.  They  always  appear  decidedly  superior  to  Bur- 
mans  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  There  is,  however,  great 
difference  in  this  respect  between  the  different  tribes.  The  in- 
formation I  have  obtained  respecting  this  nation,  from  the  peo- 
ple themselves,  and  other  sources,  with  what  I  may  hereafter 
collect,  will  appear  hi  another  place. 

The  scenery  since  leaving  the  oil  wells,  is  wholly  changed. 
The  hills  are  more  naked,  and  the  whole  country  wears  a  pecu- 
liar aspect  of  desolation  ;  villages  are  few,  and  the  population 
evidently  sparse.  In  some  places,  the  western  shore  rises 
abruptly  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  hundred  feet,  of  very  soft 
sandstone.  The  eastern  bank  is  less  elevated.  Thousands  of 
birds  have  made  perforations  in  the  side  for  their  nests.  Among 
these,  the  common  sparrow  and  the  wild  pigeon  seemed  most 
numerous.  Inland  are  rugged  and  bleak  hills,  covered  with 
shrubs  and  stunted  trees.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  the  debris  of 
sandstone  and  breccia,  with  very  little  loam. 

The  remains  of  the  once  magnificent  Pa-ghan  stand  in  the 
midst  of  this  region,  so  destitute  apparently  of  the  means  of  sup- 
porting human  life.  Such  a  locality,  however,  have  some  of  the 
greatest  cities  in  the  world,  and  still  more  frequently  the  ruins 
of  great  cities.  Man's  presence  and  power  can  make  a  garden 
in  a  desert,  and  his  departure  brings  desolation  over  the  fairest 
scenes.  This  city  is  said  to  have  been  founded  A.  D.  107 ;  but 
none  of  the  rums  have  ascribed  to  them  a  higher  date  than  A.  D. 
860.  An  American  could  scarcely  assign  half  this  age  to  azry 
building  of  brick.  But  these  bricks  are  uncommonly  fine,  the 
masonry  exceedingly  massive,  and  the  chunnam,  or  stucco  with 
which  they  were  coated,  almost  indestructible,  in  so  mild  a  cli- 
mate. The  edifices,  being  regarded  with  religious  veneration, 
have  been  preserved  from  all  intentional  dilapidation.  The 
plants  and  trees,  too,  which  overgrow  deserted  edifices  elsewhere, 


R17INS    OF    PAGHAiN.  L)3 

and,  by  insinuating  their  roots  into  crevices,  hasten  then  ruin,  are 
here  not  seen.  This  last  peculiarity  has  been  thought  to  arise 
from  the  influence  of  the  adjacent  earth-oil  wells  and  springs,  on 
the  atmospbere. 

As  would  be  expected  by  all  who  have  seen  a  Burman  city, 
these  ruins  are  of  sacred  edifices  only.  The  frail  bamboo  houses 
of  the  people  perish  almost  as  soon  as  deserted.  1  entered  the 
place  from  the  north,  where  a  common  cart-way  crossed  the 
crumbled  ridge  of  a  great  wall.  Gullies  and  torrents  cut  up  the 
environs  on  tins  side,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  city  never  ex- 
tended over  this  region.  Every  spot,  however,  which  would  ac- 
commodate a  pagoda,  has  one  upon  it.  Within  the  wall,  tbe 
ground  is  level,  though  very  high,  and  commanding  a  wide  pros- 
pect. Here,  for  the  first  time,  I  saw  buildings  which  could  be 
called  temples ;  many  of  tbe  pagodas  being  built  hollow,  with 
noble  rooms  devoted  to  images  and  image  worship.  Some  of 
these,  as  well  as  those  which  are  solid,  are  of  the  noblest  descrip- 
tion ;  little  injured  by  time,  with  here  and  there  some  remains  of 
the  exterior  gilding  in  sheltered  places.  We  entered  some,  and 
found  superb  carved  and  gilded  ceilings,  sheltering  at  once  great, 
ghastly,  half-crumbled  Gaudamas,  and  herds  of  cattle.  Marks 
of  fire,  in  some,  showed  them  to  be  used  by  the  people  for  occa- 
sional homes,  or  perhaps  by  herdmen. 

I  could  not  attempt  to  count  these  venerable  piles.  They  are 
thickly  scattered,  not  only  over  all  the  site  of  the  city,  but  for 
miles  around.  Many  of  them  are  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high. 
One,  which  seems  to  have  been  occasionally  repaired,  is  two 
hundred  and  ten  feet  high.  The  difference  between  their  shape 
and  that  of  those  in  the  lower  provinces  is  very  striking.  In- 
stead of  the  solid  mass  of  masonry,  rising  with  a  tapering  spire, 
these  are  ponderous,  wide-spread  buildings,  whose  noble  inte- 
riors entitle  them  to  the  name  of  temples.  The  arches  are  lofty, 
in  both  Grecian  and  Gothic  forms,  and  the  ceilings  in  many 
cases  gilded  and  ornamented  with  painting  and  tracery.  The 
exterior  is  equally  unlike  the  pagodas  of  Pegu,  from  the  profusion 
of  labored  cornices,  turrets,  and  spires,  which  are  scattered  over 
the  whole  surface.  The  general  resemblance  is  to  that  given  in 
the  chapter  on  Burman  religion. 

It  is  evident  that  great  reverence  yet  exists  for  this  spot ;  for 
many  of  the  pagodas,  of  a  size  scarcely  inferior  to  their  venerable 
neighbors,  are  certainly  modern,  and  a  few  are  new.  Such  a 
feature,  in  a  landscape  of  ruins,  is  truly  rare,  and  keeps  the  mind 
fastened  on  the  sad  thought  that  the  cold  and  gloomy  system 


94  BURMAH. 

which  reared  these  "  vain  oblations,"  has  not  passed  away  with 
the  infatuated  generation  who  constructed  them. 

That  the  people  should  come  to  these  abandoned  shrines,  and 
add  others  also,  to  be  left  unhonored  by  the  passing  throng,  is 
perhaps  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  that  on  this  spot  this  religion 
was  first  proclaimed  in  Burmah.  Ah-ra-han,  the  successful 
missionary  of  Boodhism,  here  proclaimed  its  doctrines  nearly  a 
thousand  years  ago.  At  this  place,  (then  the  metropolis,)  under 
the  patronage  of  King  Ah-nan-ya-tha-mon-zan,  he  taught  his 
"new  religion;"  and  its  spreading  influence  utterly  supplanted 
polytheism,  and  all  the  ancient  superstitions.  Thus  may  man, 
with  kingly  aid,  change  the  forms  of  human  faith  ;  but,  oh,  how 
hopeless  are  our  efforts  to  change  the  hearts  of  this  people, 
without  divine  aid  !  God  grant  that  the  period  of  Boodhist  de- 
lusions may  soon  cease,  and  leave  these  new  structures  only  to 
mark  the  melancholy  prevalence  of  former  sin ! 

The  boatmen  having  intimated,  some  days  ago,  that  cattle 
were  very  plenty  here,  and  that  I  might  get  a  calf  cheap,  I  in- 
quired if  they  wanted  veal  themselves.  They  rather  reluctantly 
confessed  then  desire,  knowing  me  to  be  aware  of  then  religious 
scruples ;  but  I  readily  agreed  that,  if  they  would  procure  me  a 
calf,  my  Madras  servant  should  kill  it,  so  that  they  might  eat 
without  compunction.  Accordingly,  at  Nouug-oo,  the  penin 
bought  a  fat  yearling  for  a  rupee  and  a  half,  (67i  cents.)  But 
as  the  late  owner  was  leading  it  to  the  river,  half  a  dozen  of  the 
neighbors  set  up  a  clamor,  because  he  had  sold  his  beast  to  be 
killed ;  a  crowd  gathered,  the  penin  slunk  away,  and  the  disap- 
pointed owner  led  back  his  heifer !  The  proper  way  to  get  meat 
is  to  shoot  any  fat  annual  you  see,  then  pay  its  owner  for  the 
damage,  and  bear  off  your  prize.  The  owner  in  such  case  es- 
capes blame,  and  is  gratified  to  get  the  money. 

In  this  region,  cattle  are  veiy  numerous,  both  buffaloes  and 
the  braminy  breed.  We  were  offered,  at  the  next  village,  a  fine 
pair  of  very  fat  oxen  for  six  rupees.  The  roads  are  good  here, 
and  much  inland  transportation  is  carried  on.  We  every  evening 
saw  herds  brought  over  from  the  islands,  where  they  had  been 
pastured  dining  the  day.  It  was  amusing  to  observe  the  skill  of 
the  herdmen  in  swimming  them  across  the  wide  and  rapid 
current.  With  a  short  stick,  they  swam  behind,  making  them 
keep  their  heads  up  stream,  bringing  up  those  who  lag,  jumping 
often  on  their  backs,  and  walking  from  one  to  another;  now 
standing  up  on  an  ox,  now  sitting  at  ease  upon  him,  now  dash- 
in  g  down  or  up  for  a  straggler,  and  seeming  to  be  as  much  in 
their  element  as  the  buffaloes  themselves. 


CURIOSITY    OF    NATIVES  TODDY.  95 

It  has  often  been  very  amusing  to  see  the  consternation  or  the 
curiosity  of  the  people,  many  of  whom  have  never  seen  a  white 
man  before.  Even  the  dogs  set  up  an  unusual  barking ;  but  the 
fiercest  of  them  run,  if  I  stop  a?  moment.  I  have  sometimes  put 
to  partial  flight  a  herd  of  buffaloes,  to  whom  my  white  face  and 
white  dress  are  as  terrific  as  to  the  dogs.  As  I  sit  to  eat  in  the 
boat,  a  range  of  women  and  children  often  squat  on  the  ground 
to  gaze.  If  I  go  toward  them,  they  generally  vanish.  Often, 
on  entering  a  house  among  the  Karens,  on  some  of  my  tours, 
the  whole  family  would  run  away,  and  leave  me  hi  sole  posses- 
sion. Many  times,  as  I  walk  along  the  bank,  and,  by  turning  a 
corner,  come  suddenly  upon  young  girls  drawing  water,  they  in- 
stantly leave  their  pots  and  fly.  To  those  who  are  too  old  to 
feel  terror,  I  am  generally  an  object  of  curiosity.  They  turn  up 
my  pantaloons,  admire  the  seamless  stockings,  feel  under  my 
vest,  and  wonder  that  we  should  wear  so  many  garments. 
Sometimes  they  call  me  a  nat.  I  am  constantly  struck  with  their 
politeness.  They  desist  from  any  thing  on  the  slightest  intima- 
tion ;  never  crowd  around  to  be  troublesome  ;  and  if,  on  showing 
my  watch,  pencil-case,  or  any  thing  which  particularly  attracts 
them,  there  are  more  than  can  get  a  sight,  the  outer  ones  stand 
aloof  or  keep  seated,  and  thus  wait  till  their  turn  comes,  or,  as 
is  oftener  the  case,  when  I  have  not  time  to  wait,  forego  the 
sight  altogether,  without  any  signs  of  turbulence. 

After  passing  Paghan,  the  palmyra  is  very  common.  This  is 
the  species  of  palm  which  here  yields  the  toddy,  and  is  therefore 
called  by  foreigners  toddy-tree.  To  many  of  them,  slight  perpen- 
dicular ladders  are  fastened,  by  which  the  owner  ascends  every 
morning  to  obtain  the  sap  from  a  cut  made  for  the  purpose.  But 
the  regular  climbers  want  no  such  aid.  They  tie  their  feet  to- 
gether, about  six  inches  apart,  and  thus  can  apply  the  soles  of  each 
foot  to  the  tree.  Locking  their  fingers  together,  they  clasp  the 
trunk  with  their  arms,  and  thus  ascend  with  rapidity  and  ease. 
The  sap  or  toddy  is  generally  drank  immediately,  when  it  is  sweet 
and  wholesome,  or  made  into  sugar,  which  resembles  that  ob- 
tained with  us  from  the  maple.  When  suffered  to  stand  four  or 
five  hours,  it  ferments,  and  becomes  more  intoxicating  than  wine ; 
but  is  rarely  used  in  this  state  by  Burmans,  and  almost  never  to 
the  point  of  intoxication.  From  Paghan  to  Ava,  this  species 
of  palm  is  very  abundant,  and  produces  a  large  amount  of  jaggery, 
which  sells  for  two  thirds  of  a  cent,  our  money,  per  pound. 

July,  5th,  183<),  brought  us  in  sight  of  the  "golden  city,"  after  a 
voyage  of  three  weeks.     The  distauce  is  about  400  miles,  by 


96  BURMAH. 

my  computation,  though  it  is  generally  made  500.  Since  leaving 
the  Delta,  it  has  seldom  rained,  and  only  in  warm  and  transient 
showers.  We  had  some  perils,  at  one  time  having  the  mast  and 
sail  carried  away  in  a  squall,  and  several  times  rolling  heavily 
in  rough  places,  so  as  to  dip  water  on  both  sides.  We  were 
never  without  apprehensions  of  robbers,  who  always  infest  the 
river  more  or  less.  Several  times,  when  we  had  moored  for  the 
night,  the  chief  of  the  village  came  to  assure  us  that  many  bad 
men  lived  in  that  neighborhood,  and  that  we  could  not  be  safe 
without  moving  farther  to  where  many  boats  might  be  lying,  or 
a  village.  On  several  occasions,  suspicious  boats  hovered  round, 
which,  my  men  affirmed  were  robbers,  but  I  was  never  attacked. 

Thus  a  voyage  in  which  I  expected  only  discomfort  and  peril, 
has  been  performed  with  safety,  and  many  conveniences.  How 
foolish  are  uncomfortable  anticipations,  while  we  have  reason  to 
think  we  are  in  the  path  of  duty ! 

On  the  way  up,  we  have  visited  and  distributed  tracts  in 
eighty-two  towns,  cities,  and  villages ;  supplied  G57  boats  and 
vessels,  many  containing  families,  and  from  fifteen  to  thirty  men  ; 
beside  handing  them,  in  a  multitude  of  cases,  to  persons  along 
shore.  Generally,  we  moored  before  sundown  at  some  village, 
where  the  assistants  would  divide  themselves,  and,  getting  two 
or  three  congregations,  spend  the  evening  in  preaching  and  dis- 
cussions. In  general,  the  tracts  were  received  with  the  utmost 
avidity,  and  those  who  got  one  would  often  clamor  for  another. 
Scores  waded  or  swam  to  the  boat  after  them ;  and  often  we  were 
so  thronged  with  applicants,  when  moored  to  the  shore,  that  we 
could  scarcely  eat  or  sleep.  But  this  fact  is  far  from  proving  a 
general  desire  among  the  people  for  the  knowledge  of  the  new 
religion.  A  tract  is  in  every  respect  a  curiosity.  They  have 
never  seen  such  paper,  their  own  books  being  made  of  palm-leaf, 
or  black  pasteboard,  which  is  written  upon  with  a  steatite  pencil. 
The  minting  is  a  great  curiosity.  The  shape  of  the  book  is  a 
curiosity.  Besides,  it  is  property,  and  no  Burman  will  refuse  a 
gift,  without  a  strong  reason. 


Burman    Ox   Carl. 


97 


CHAPTER  V. 


Ava  —  Splendid  Kyoungs  —  Pagodas  —  Priests  —  Palace  —  Population  — 
Arts  —  Prices  —  The  Mck-a-ra  Prince  —  Mea-wa-de  Woon-gyee  —  The 
Burman  Pontiff" — Sur-ra-wa  Prince  —  Climate  of  Ava — History  of  the 
Mission  in  Ava  —  Present  State  of  Mission — Safety  of  the  Missionaries  — 
Roman  Catholics — Sagaing — Marble  Quarries  —  Mengoon  Pagoda  — 
Umerapoora. 

My  stay  in  Ava  amounted  to  four  weeks.  The  concerns  of 
the  mission,  and  the  acquisition  of  information  respecting  the 
country  and  its  tributaries,  occupied,  of  course,  all  business  hours. 
Daily  habits  of  active  exercise,  however,  gave  me  an  opportunity 
of  making  such  observations  on  the  city  and  vicinity  as  naturally 
find  a  place  in  the  diary  of  a  traveller. 

The  name  of  the  city  is  Ang-wa,  or  Awa,  pronounced  by 
Europeans  Ava,  a  term  which  they  sometimes  apply  also  to  the 


fc\VER. 


1000  yds 


Ground  Plot  of  Ava. 


kingdom.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  twenty  feet  high, 
embracing  a  space  of  about  seven  miles  in  circumference. 
Within  this  is  a  considerable  area,  enclosed  by  a  better  wall, 
with  a  broad,  deep  ditch,  called  "  the  little  city."  This  space  is 
chiefly  occupied  by  the  palace,  hall  of  justice,  council-house,  and 
the  dwellings  of  some  of  the  nobility,  but  contains  also  some 
well-built  streets,  and  many  inhabitants.  The  palace  itself,  and 
public  buildings,  are  enclosed  in  a  third  wall,  which  is  itself  en- 
vol.  i.  9 


98  BURMAH. 

closed  in  a  stockade.  A  very  large  part  of  the  city  is  outside  of 
all  these  walls,  on  the  margin  of  the  rivers.  On  the  east  is  the 
river  Myet-nga,  or  Little  River,  a  fine  stream,  a  hundred  and  fifty 
yards  hroad,  extending  far  into  the  interior.  The  Irrawaddy, 
opposite  the  city,  is  without  islands,  and  compressed  to  a  breadth 
of  eleven  or  twelve  hundred  yards. 

The  sacred  edifices,  as  usual,  are  the  prominent  objects,  which, 
on  every  side,  seize  the  attention.  They  are  almost  as  numerous 
as  at  Paghan,  and  some  of  them  of  equal  size.  Viewed  from  the 
river  above,  their  white  and  gilded  spires  give  the  city  an  exceed- 
ingly imposing  appearance,  which  is  not  realized  on  entering  it. 

1  shall  not  attempt  minute  details  respecting  these  edifices; 
but  Ava  has  little  else  to  describe.  Here  are  no  hospitals, 
prisons,  schools,  societies,  factories,  &c,  whose  principles  or 
modes  would  aid  the  philanthropist,  or  throw  fight  on  Bun  nan 
character;  no  literature,  nor  literary  men,  to  describe;  nor- even 
sects  whose  opinions,  practices,  numbers,  &c.  might  be  usefully 
traced.  I  will  try,  however,  to  give  my  reader  some  further 
ideas  of  Ava. 

One  of  my  first  visits  was  to  Bong-jeaw,  a  kyoimg  or  monas- 
tery built  by  the  present  king.  There  are  three  separate  houses, 
each  as  large  as  a  common  church,  connected  by  galleries,  and 
occupying  a  noble  enclosure  in  the  midst  of  the  city.  The  roofs 
have  of  course  the  royal  and  sacred  peculiarity  of  successive 
stages,  one  above  another.  Every  part,  except  the  very  tiles,  is 
richly  carved  in  bass-relief,  and  covered  with  gold.  Every  inch 
of  surface  in  the  interior,  except  the  floor,  is  similarly  carved  and 
gilded.  The  effect  is  dazzling,  but  rather  childish  than  sublime. 
We  found  the  pong-hee,  ra-han,  or  president,  in  a  vast  apartment, 
with  lofty  ceiling  supported  by  many  pillars,  reclining  on  the 
floor  near  the  principal  image,  with  his  couch,  books,  writing 
apparatus,  betel-box,  &c.  by  his  side.  He  was  modest,  sensible, 
and  frank,  utterly  unlike  the  great  majority  of  his  brethren,  so 
far  as  I  have  hitherto  known  them.  He  conversed  freely  for 
half  an  hour,  and  seemed  much  pleased  with  our  visit.  While 
we  were  there,  a  young  priest  came  and  worshipped  him,  pre- 
cisely as  die  idol  is  worshipped,  and,  on  going  away,  presented 
an  offering  of  flowers,  which  he  took  in  his  hand,  and  laid  on  a 
vase  near  him,  which  was  already  piled  with  flowers,  apparently 
received  the  same  way. 

I  afterwards  inspected  several  other  kyoungs,  quite  as  splendid. 
Certainly  none  but  the  monarch  himself  has  so  splendid  a 
dwelling  as  the  priests. 


PAGODAS  —  PRIESTS.  99 

The  pagodas  are  even  more  various  in  their  shapes  than  at  Pa- 
ghan,  and  far  surpass  in  taste  and  beauty  any  I  have  seen.  Most 
of  them  are  over  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  some  more  than 
two  hundred.  Of  one  of  them  I  made  a  drawing,  which  will  be 
given  in  another  place.  Colossal  images  of  bell-metal,  marble, 
and  brick,  covered  with  stucco,  are  innumerable.  One  which 
had  just  been  finished  out  of  a  solid  block  of  white  marble,  is 
truly  stupendous.  I  had  no  mode  of  taking  his  vast  proportions, 
but  measured  his  hand,  and  found  the  breadth  twenty  mches.  As 
hie  proportions  were  just,  this  would  make  his  height,  had  he 
been  in  a  standing  posture,  about  thirty-five  feet ! 

It  is  said  there  are  hi  the  city  twenty  thousand  priests,  including 
novitiates  ;  and  the  number  and  size  of  the  monasteries  seem  to 
sanction  the  computation.  The  queen's  monastery  has  five  hun- 
dred ;  and  that  which  I  have  described  above  had  three  hundred 
regular  priests,  and  about  the  same  number  of  novitiates.  It 
should  be  remembered,  they  are  in  fact  colleges,  and  nearly  all 
who  are  receiving  a  regular  education  are  in  them  as  novices. 

These  buildings  are  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  city, 
enclosed  by  fine  brick  walls  and  shady  walks.  They  are  the 
only  specimens  of  beauty  and  grandeur  which  the  city  can  boast, 
except  the  pagodas,  the  palace,  and  a  few  zayats.  Aristocratic 
feelings  prevail  even  in  these  abodes  of  pretended  sanctity  ;  and 
into  some  of  them,  none  but  youth  of  the  higher  classes  are  ad- 
mitted. A  number  of  our  disciples,  who  have  been  novitiates, 
speak  unfavorably  of  the  morals  of  the  priesthood.  Dressed  like 
other  citizens,  they  may  go  any  where  after  dark  without  being 
recognized. 

The  palace  is  entirely  of  wood.  It  consists  of  nearly  a  hun- 
dred buildings,  of  different  sizes,  and  occupies  a  space  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  long,  and  almost  as  broad.  The  roofs  all  have 
the  royal  order  of  architecture.  The  hall  of  audience  is  in  a 
sumptuous  and  convenient  building,  standing  on  a  terrace  of 
stone  and  mortar,  which  constitutes  the  floor,  and  is  coated  with 
stucco,  hard  and  polished.  Lofty  pillars,  richly  carved,  support 
the  roof,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  building,  are  covered  with  gold. 
The  roof  rises  like  a  steeple,  with  many  stages,  and  is  a  hun- 
dred and  ninety-five  feet  high. 

hi  looking  at  such  buildings,  or  at  the  numerous  boats  of  his 
majesty  and  the  nobility,  of  which  every  part,  and  even  the  oars, 
ure  covered  with  gold,  one  wonders  whence  all  this  wealth  is  de- 
rived, and  is  distressed  that  it  should  In:  so  absurdly  bestowed. 
The  money  expended  in  pagodas,  kyoungs,  temples,  and  gold  and 


100 


silver  bawbles,  would  fill  the  country  with  canals,  bridges,  and 
durable  houses. 

The  streets  of  Ava  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are 
wide,  straight,  and  clean,  but  not  paved.  The  centre  is  kept 
smooth  and  clean  for  foot-passengers,  while  the  sides  are  appro- 
priated to  wheel-carriages,  elephants,  &c.  Much  of  the  labor  of 
transportation  is  done  by  bullock  carts.  Their  bodies  are  framed 
of  timber,  with  bamboo  yoke,  and  the  wheels  of  wood,  without 
tire.  (See  page  96.)  I  saw  no  horses  used  for  draught ;  but  hand- 
some bullock  carriages  are  used  by  the  wealthy.  They  are  with- 
out seats,  of  course,  and  the  floor  is  nicely  matted  or  cushioned. 
The  animals,  being  used  only  for  this  purpose,  trot  along  quite 
briskly.     Around  then*  necks  are  strings  of  bells.     The  houses 


Eniman   Gentlen 


are  not  generally  better  than  in  other  large  towns,  but,  thatch 
being  entirely  prohibited,  they  look  more  respectable.  The 
roofs  are  covered  with  short  pieces  of  bamboo,  so  arranged 
as  to  look  exactly  like  shingles.  Great  men  generally  live  in  the 
centre  of  some  square,  surrounded  by  the  houses  of  their  many 
retainers.  Most  of  them  have  a  good  brick  building,  of  two  or 
three  rooms,  intended  not  for  occupancy,  but  as  a  fire-proof 
depository  for  their  valuables.  These  have  very  lately  become 
common,  and  with  some  fine  brick  monasteries  just  erected,  and 
a  sort  of  arsenal  now  in  progress,  indicate  a  general  introduction 
of  brick  houses.  Nothing  but  the  absurd  prohibition  of  the 
government  has  prevented  this  long  ago.  In  some  of  these  en- 
cl  isures  are  pleasant  gardens  and  fruit-trees. 

As  to  the  population  of  the  city,  I  was  at  much  pains  to  obtain 
correct  information.  The  accounts  obtained  from  government 
officers  did  not  differ  much  from  each  other.     They  said  a  cen- 


POPULATION ARTS.  101 

sus  was  recently  taken,  which  gave  30,000  houses  for  the  city 
and  suburbs,  without  including  any  adjacent  villages,  and  that 
ten  per  cent,  ought  to  be  added  for  omissions.  They  com- 
puted seven  persons  to  a  house,  and  thus  make  the  popidation 
200,000.  As  the  government  actually  receives  taxes  on  30,000 
houses,  thei-e  does  not  seem  room  for  estimating  the  number 
lower;  but  1  am  confident  it  must  include  the  district.  Mr. 
Crawford  allows  only  30,000.  A  severe  fire  occurred  just  be- 
fore my  arrival,  which  was  reported  by  the  proper  officers  to 
the  king,  as  having  destroyed  1,000  houses,  beside,  huts  and 
temporary  residences.  I  examined  the  ground  carefully,  and 
compared  it  with  the  rest  of  the  city,  over  all  of  which  I  rode, 
repeatedly.  The  result  of  the  whole  induces  me  to  estimate  the 
population  of  Ava  at  about  100,000.  The  whole  city  and  king- 
dom being  divided  into  tens  of  houses,  under  an  officer,  and 
every  ten  of  these  officers  being  under  a  superior,  who  has  charge 
of  them  and  their  hundred  houses,  a  census,  at  least  under  the 
very  eye  of  government,  must  be  tolerably  correct.  Taxes  are 
assessed  on  families  as  such,  without  regard  to  wealth.  The 
head  man  is  the  tax-gatherer.  If  he  can  tax  one  hundred  bouses, 
and  report  only  ninety,  he  puts  the  balance  into  his  pocket  A 
Burman  census  is  thus  almost  always  less  than  the  truth. 

The  city  abounds  with  shops,  containing  nearly  even-  article 
of  foreign  goods,  and  an  ample  number  of  mechanics;  though  in 
some  particular  branches  there  are  none.  I  purchased  speci- 
mens of  carpentry,  jewelry,  tin-ware,  toys,  das,  lackered  boxes, 
earthen-ware,  gongs,  &c,  which  were  highly  creditable  to  their 
skill.  Their  boat-building,  carving,  sculpture,  gilding,  basket- 
making,  and  weaving,  are  as  good  and  ingenious  as  in  America, 
for  aught  I  could  see,  making  due  allowance  for  the  differences 
of  form,  &c,  established  by  national  custom.  I  got  some  paint- 
ings executed  in  their  best  style  by  native  artists,  one  of  whom  is 
the  king's  painter,  which  are  about  equal  to  the  pictures  on  com- 
mon clocks  and  looking-glasses.  In  landscapes  they  fail  utterly, 
having  no  idea  of  perspective.  Many  of  our  trades  are  wholly 
unknown  to  the  Burmans. 

The  market  is  abundantly  supplied  with  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
fresh  fish,  of  various  excellent  kinds.  Beef  and  veal  are  gener- 
ally to  be  had,  but  not  every  day.  Fowls  are  much  dearer  than 
at  Rangoon,  costing,  generally,  a  tical  (about  50  cents)  for  four. 
Rice  is  also  nearly  double  the  price  which  it  bears  at  Rangoon. 
Wages  are  five  ticals  ($2,50)  a  month  for  men,  or  four  annas 
(124c.)  per  day  ;  the  laborer  finding  his  own  food. 
9* 


102  BURMAH. 

Having  seen  much  of  humble  life,  in  retired  villages,  and 
among  individuals  of  this  class,  with  whom  I  am  constantly 
coming  in  contact,  I  was  glad  to  multiply  opportunities  of 
noting  the  condition  and  manners  of  the  great.  My  second  visit 
of  this  kind  was  to  the  widow  of  the  governor  of  the  city,  who  so 
greatly  befriended  Mrs.  Judson  in  her  trials  here  during  the  late 
war.  She  was  surrounded  by  retainers,  and  had  as  visitors  at 
her  house  some  distinguished  females ;  but,  except  in  the  costly 
jewels  about  her  person,  and  various  valuables  in  her  coon-box, 
was  not  to  be  distinguished  from  common  people.  Her  house, 
in  America,  would  have  been  deemed  the  abode  of  poverty. 
She  was  glad  to  see  one  who  had  been  personally  acquainted 
with  Mrs.  J.,  and  several  times  remarked  that  she  had  always 
loved  her  as  a  daughter.  She  listens  respectfully  to  religious 
subjects,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  shaken  hi  her  attaclnnent 
to  Boodhism. 

My  next  visit  of  the  kind  was  to  the  Mek-a-ra  prince,  son  of 
the  late  king,  and  uncle  to  the  present  one.  He  is  grandson  to 
the  famous  Alompra,  and  is  said  to  bear  a  remarkable  family 
likeness  to  that  monarch  and  his  descendants.  He  received  us 
with  great  urbanity,  and  readily  gave  me  information  on  various 
points,  for  which  I  had  prepared  myself  with  questions.  My 
having  been  the  intimate  friend  of  Dr.  Price,  whose  memory 
he  cherishes  with  very  affectionate  respect,  seemed  of  itself  a 
passport  to  his  regard. 

He  is  much  the  most  literary  Burman  in  the  kingdom.  He 
reads  English,  is  a  good  mathematician,  is  well  acquainted  with 
geography,  and  has  considerable  mechanical  ingenuity.  In  his 
library  are  a  number  of  good  English  books,  among  which  is  a 
complete  set  of  Rees's  Cyclopaedia.  He  has  also  various  instru- 
ments, models,  &c.  Withal,  Burman-like,  he  is  an  alchemist. 
Mathematics  is  his  favorite  science,  and  he  rejects  every  tbing 
which  cannot  be  demonstrated  like  a  problem.  I  carried  for  my 
present*  some  small  charts,  exhibiting  a  condensed  view  of  lan- 
guages and  their  classification,  governments  and  then-  condition, 
heights  of  mountains,  lengths  of  rivers,  &c,  with  which  he  ex- 
pressed himself  pleased,  and  upon  which  he  asked  Mr.  Kincaid 
many  questions,  indicating  both  an  excellent  intellect  and  exten- 
sive information.  He  gave  me  minutely  the  last  census,  and  his 
own  opinion  respecting  the  amount  of  population,  voluntarily 

*  In  all  visits  to  the  principal  men,  it  is  expected  that  a  person  when 
first  introduced  will  make  an  offering.  Indeed  it  is  common  under  any 
circumstances. 


VISITS     TO     THE     GREAT.  10'i 

writing  for  me  the  items  on  the  spot.  lie  is  said  to  be  remark- 
ably free  from  national  prejudices.  A  slight  evidence  of  this  oc- 
curred now.  We  all  (Messrs.  Kincaid,  Simons,  and  myself)  sat 
on  the  floor,  of  course,  on  a  rug  which  was  laid  down  for  our  ac- 
commodation ;  and  I  was  pretty  comfortable,  with  my  back  against 
a  post.  But  one  of  my  feet  was  before  me  ;  and  his  wife  pointed  the 
attention  of  a  servant  to  that  fact.  The  prince  instantly  forbade 
that  I  should  be  disturbed,  and  begged  me  to  sit  in  any  posture 
which  I  foimd  most  convenient.  Sitting  with  the  feet  towards 
another  is  considered  particularly  disrespectful,  and  a  Burman 
woidd  hardly  dare,  for  the  price  of  his  head,  to  take  such  an  atti- 
tude before  one  of  the  royal  family.  1  have  since  learned  to  sit  a 
la  mode,  i.  e.  with  my  feet  behind  me,  on  one  side,  or  crossed  in 
front,  as  a  tailor. 

Though  far  from  being  a  bigoted  Boodhist,  the  prince,  with  all 
his  reading,  seems  to  be  decidedly  attached  to  that  system.  Mr. 
Kincaid  gave  him  Gallaudet's  book  on  the  soul,  just  issued  from 
our  press  at  Maulmain,  translated  by  Mrs.  Bennett.  He  received 
it  with  pleasure,  but  said  he  could  not  believe  it,  unless  it  proved 
the  matter  clearly,  by  making  it  just  as  plain  as  that  two  and  two 
make  four.  I  told  him  it  presented  a  different  kind  of  evidence,  and 
endeavored  to  explain  the  difference  between  a  mathematical 
and  a  moral  certainty.  But  it  was  all  in  vain,  till  I  begged  him 
just  to  take  his  pencil,  and  prove  to  me,  by  figures,  that  he  was 
not  a  dead  man !  He  looked  perfectly  nonplused  for  a  moment, 
then  burst  into  a  laugh,  and  seemed  by  further  explanations  to 
get  the  idea.  He  promised  to  read  the  book  with  earnest  atten- 
tion, and,  on  taking  leave,  begged  Mr.  Kincaid  would  bring  me 
again. 

Under  the  auspices  of  Colonel  Burney,  I  had  a  very  pleasant 
interview  with  the  Mea-wa-de  woon-gyee.  He  has  long  been 
chief  woon-gyee,  or  prime  minister,  though  much  of  his  power  is 
engrossed  by  Sale  Men,  the  queen's  brother.  The  venerable  old 
man,  whose  countenance  is  very  fine,  received  us  veiy  kindly, 
and  with  evident  pleasure.  Colonel  Burney  had  told  him  that  I 
had  visited  various  parts  of  Europe,  and  he  is  very  fond  of 
hearing  of  foreign  countries.  He  spoke  of  the  great  distance  of 
America,  and,  taking  up  his  circular  coon-box,  pointed  out  accu- 
rately, as  on  a  globe,  the  relative  positions  of  Burmah,  America, 
England,  &c.  He  added,  however,  perhaps  on  account  of  his 
retainers  present,  "  Our  system  has  a  Myenmo  mount,*  and  puts 
your  country  so  and  so."     In  accepting  my  presents,  he  said  he 

*  See  chapter  on  Burman  religion. 


104  BURMAH. 

knew  not  what  to  give  us  Americans  and  English,  for  we  seemed 
to  have  every  thing  already ;  and  neither  he  nor  any  other 
sent  me  any  thing.  Producing  a  gilded  casket,  he  exhibited, 
apparently  in  corroboration  of  bis  remark,  various  handsome 
articles,  chiefly  of  English  manufacture,  which  had  been  given 
him ;  among  the  rest,  a  watch  presented  by  the  famous  General 
Bandula,  just  before  the  contest  with  the  British,  in  which  he 
lost  his  life.  There  was  also  his  Tsal-o-ay,  which  he  handed  us 
to  inspect,  and  then  wore  during  the  rest  of  the  interview.  He 
spoke  of  our  country  with  much  approbation,  and  expressed  a 
strong  desire  that  we  should  open  commercial  relations.  It  was 
replied  that  their  present  restrictions  on  exports  disabled  our 
vessels  from  selling  their  cargoes ;  that  if  specie  and  rice  were 
allowed  to  be  exported,  they  could  pick  up  what  little  lac,  ivory, 
&c.  there  might  be  in  the  market,  and,  selling  the  rest  of  their 
goods  for  rice  or  specie,  proceed  elsewhere  to  complete  their 
homeward  cargo ;  but  he  could  not  see  the  propriety  of  sending 
away  rice  or  specie.  The  wisdom  and  candor  manifested  on 
several  topics  which  came  up,  encouraged  me  to  lay  before  him 
the  oppressive  conduct  of  the  rulers  at  Rangoon,  and  especially 
at  Maubee,  toward  the  missionaries  and  disciples.  He  declared 
himself  entirely  ignorant  of  these  transactions,  and  much  dis- 
pleased. I  remarked,  among  other  things,  that  he  knew  the 
Karens  had  no  religion  ;  that  then-  conversion  threw  no  slur  on 
the  state  religion ;  that  Christianity  must  make  better  subjects 
of  these  wild  and  uncivilized  people ;  and  that  in  our  country  en- 
tire freedom  of  religious  opinions  was  allowed  without  injury. 
He  assented  fully,  and  said,  if  1  would  have  a  full  statement  of  the 
case  written  and  laid  before  him,  he  would  sift  it  to  the  bottom, 
and  effectually  prevent  the  repetition  of  such  acts.  This  was 
accordingly  done  afterward  through  Colonel  Burney. 

This  woon-gyee  was  a  poor  boy,  and  has  risen,  chiefly  by  his 
own  merit,  through  many  grades  of  office,  to  his  present  premier- 
ship ;  thus  furnishing  a  strong  exemplification  of  a  peculiarity 
in  this  government,  resembling  a  boasted  trait  in  our  own.  No 
offices  or  titles  here  are  hereditary  but  the  kingship. 

During  the  visit,  two  Shyan  Chobwaus  came  in,  and  gave  me 
an  opportunity  of  extending  my  information  respecting  routes 
to  China.  These  men  are,  in  point  of  fact,  kings,  at  home,  but 
they  approached  the  minister  with  the  greatest  deference.  They 
were  waited  on  by  the  late  Burman  governor  of  Bamoo,  another 
of  the  routes  by  which  I  am  seeking  to  ascertain  the  accessible- 
ness  of  China. 


VISITS    TO    THE    GREAT.  105 

A  visit  to  the  Tha-then-a-byng',  or  supreme  pontiff  of  the 
empire,  was  less  pleasant.  I  was  not  surprised;  much  less 
displeased.  He,  of  course,  saw  in  me  a  patron  and  strengthener 
of  the  mission  —  an  object  he  naturally  abhors.  He  afterward 
gave  as  a  sort  of  excuse  for  his  reserve,  that  we  did  not  sheeko  at 
our  entrance.  If  this  was  really  his  difficulty,  it  adds  a  proof  to 
many  I  have  had  already,  of  the  excessive  pride  of  these  priests. 
His  monastery  was  as  splendid  as  Burmans  know  how  to  make 
it ;  carved  and  gilded  in  every  pail,  within  and  without. 

The  Sur-ra-wa  prince,  to  whom  Mr.  Kincaid  next  introduced 
me,  received  me  with  the  greatest  urbanity.  He  is  the  only  full 
brother  of  the  present  king,  a  few  years  younger,  and  is  more 
likely  to  succeed  him  than  the  proper  heir  apparent.*  He  is  said 
exactly  to  resemble  the  king,  and  certainly  there  could  scarcely 
be  a  more  intelligent  and  manly  countenance.  The  Alompra 
forehead,  which  distinguishes  this  family,  slopes  backward  some- 
what too  rapidly  for  a  good  head,  but  is  high,  and  has  great 
breadth.  When  speaking,  his  countenance  is  lighted  up  with 
great  animation.  Though  less  literary  than  his  uncle,  the  Mekara 
prince,  he  is  considered  more  talented,  and  to  possess  more 
general  information.  He  spoke  in  high  terms  of  our  country, 
and  acknowledged  the  impolicy  of  the  restrictions  on  exports, 
and  other  impediments  at  Rangoon.  In  remarking  on  various 
countries  and  their  institutions,  he  showed  not  only  an  enlight- 
ened, but  a  reflective  and  strong  mind.  Respecting  the  tribes 
between  here  and  China,  he  gave  me  much  valuable  information. 
The  object  of  my  visit  to  the  golden  city  being  explained  to  him, 
I  expressed  much  satisfaction,  in  finding  our  missionaries  here 
fully  protected  and  enjoying  all  the  rights  of  citizenship.  He 
immediately  drew  a  comparison  between  the  liberal  usages  of 
this  country,  in  receiving  and  protecting  all  foreigners,  and  the 
policy  of  China,  in  excluding  them ;  invited  me  to  place  teach- 
ers in  the  adjacent  cities ;  and  recommended  me  to  travel  in  the 
interior,  and  see  more  of  the  country. 

During  the  interview,  his  lady  was  introduced,  with  a  lovely 
infant,  two  or  three  years  old ;  and  nothing  occurred  to  indicate 
that  odious  haughtiness  which  so  generally  attaches  to  men  of 
his  rank  in  the  East  On  taking  leave,  he  invited  us  to  visit  his 
garden  next  day,  which  we  did ;  for  I  deem  a  garden  a  test  of 
civilization.  We  found  a  large  space,  perhaps  an  acre,  well  laid 
out,  with  raised  brick  foot-paths,  plastered,  and  resembling  stone. 
Marble  tanks,  artificial  ponds,  with  gold  and  crimson  fish,  numer- 

*  He  ascended  the  throne,  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  in  1837. 


106  BURMAH. 

ous  water-courses  and  reservoirs,  and  several  men  engaged  in 
drawing  water  from  wells,  showed  how  much  attention  to  irriga- 
tion is  necessary  to  a  garden  at  Ava.  He  had  the  peach,  apple, 
coffee,  fig,  and  many  other  foreign  fruits,  heside  the  varieties  of 
luscious  ones  which  are  native.  In  an  adjacent  enclosure  he 
had  wild  animals  and  some  singular  hirds,  perfectly  gentle,  and 
going  at  large.  On  the  whole,  it  was  a  tasteful  and  pleasing  spot. 
Men  of  rank,  in  this  city,  generally  have  such  gardens,  on  which 
they  bestow  great  expense.  I  visited  one  or  two  others,  which 
had  handsome  zayats  in  them,  where  the  owner  reposed  some- 
times as  in  a  summer-house,  or  received  his  ultimate  friends. 

Not  to  multiply  accounts  of  visits  to  great  men,  it  will  be 
enough  to  remark  that  I  found  all,  to  whom  I  was  introduced, 
intelligent  and  affable.  Having  read  of  them  as  gorgeously 
arrayed  on  days  of  state  ceremony,  I  was  disappointed  to  find 
them  dressed  precisely  like  other  men,  i.  e.  with  waist-cloth  and 
turban  only.  These,  however,  were  of  the  best  materials.  If  it 
was  the  cool  of  the  day,  they  wore  also  the  en-gy,  or  muslin  coat. 
Their  dwellings  now  are  temporary  buildings,  outside  of  the 
city  wall,  and  are,  in  fact,  mere  shanties.  By  what  is,  perhaps,  a 
necessary  precaution,  in  such  a  government,  when  the  king  goes 
out  of  the  city,  all  the  nobles  must  go  out  also,  and  stay  out  till 
he  returns.  He  is  now  residing  at  his  water-palace,  so  called  — 
a  collection  of  wooden  houses,  one  story  high,  between  the  city 
wall  and  the  water. 

During  my  whole  visit  here,  Colonel  Burney  was  hi  the  habit 
of  sending  to  me  the  distinguished  persons  who  called  upon 
him,  who  could  give  me  information,  from  then-  own  knowledge, 
of  the  tribes  between  this  city  and  China.  Among  others  was 
the  lately  famous  Dupha  Gam,  who  rules  the  largest  part  of  the 
Singphoos.  He  came  with  a  sera-dau-gyee,  or  chief  secretary, 
and  rode  a  horse  richly  caparisoned.  The  skirts  of  the  saddle 
were  circular,  a  yard  in  diameter,  and  completely  gdded.  In 
other  respects,  he  had  no  marks  of  a  prince  but  his  intelligence. 
Among  other  inquiries,  I  asked  if  he  would  protect  Christian 
teachers,  and  suffer  them  to  give  books,  if  we  sent  some  to  his 
tribe.  He  assured  me  that  he  would,  and  that  all  quiet  foreign- 
ers were  secure  hi  any  part  of  his  dominions.  Beside  a  small 
present  of  penknife,  scissors,  &c,  he  accepted  a  copy  of  the 
New  Testament,  an  assortment  of  tracts,  and  a  map  of  the 
world,  lately  lithographed  by  the  missionaries,  with  the  names  in 
the  Burman  language.  Mr.  Kincaid  endeavored  to  impress  on 
his  mind  some  leading  truths  of  religion. 


CLIMATE    OF    AVA.  107 

Beside  the  information  gained  from  such  persons,  it  was  no 
small  advantage  to  have  the  populace,  who  followed  them,  see 
the  mission  thus  noticed  hy  great  men,  and  see  their  numerous 
retinue  going  away  with  our  books  and  tracts  in  their  hands. 
The  influence  of  such  a  sight  can  only  be  realized  by  those  who 
have  seen  the  profound  respect  paid  by  Orientals  to  persons  in 
authority. 

The  climate  of  Ava,  most  of  the  year,  is  delightful.  The  cool 
season  lasts  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  early  part  of 
April.  During  this  period,  heavy  fogs  prevail  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, but  they  soon  disperse,  and  leave  a  sunny  sky.  The  ther- 
mometer at  night,  and  toward  morning,  descends  to  45°  or  50° ; 
sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  to  40° ;  rising  hi  the  middle  of 
the  day  to  60°  or  70°.  Toward  the  end  of  April,  it  begins  to  be 
hot,  and  the  last  of  that  month,  and  whole  of  May,  are  the  trying 
portion  of  the  year.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  85°  to  100°, 
rising  sometimes  even  to  110°,  in  a  fair  exposure  at  mid-day ; 
but  it  is  always  many  degrees  cooler  at  night.  About  the  1st  of 
June,  some  dashes  of  rain  occur ;  the  sky  is  always  cloudy,  and 
the  periodical  inundation  of  the  river  spreads  vast  sheets  of 
water  over  the  low  grounds.  These,  with  the  south-west  mon- 
soon, which  rarely  intermits,  spread  a  cool  freshness  on  every 
side.  The  present  is  the  rainy  season  on  the  coast,  and  on 
the  mountains  north  of  Ava,  but  around  the  city  it  rarely  rains  ; 
in  some  years,  so  little  as  to  cut  off  all  crops,  and  create  almost  a 
famine.  It  was  during  this  period  that  my  time  was  spent  in 
Ava,  and  more  delicious  weather  could  not  be.  The  thermome- 
ter has  not  been  above  93°,  and  rarely  above  87°.  The  average  at 
mid-day  has  been  about  83°  or  84°.  Before  morning,  I  always  find 
it  necessary  to  draw  over  me  a  flannel  sheet.  The  river  is 
now  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  above  its  common  level.  About 
the  middle  of  August,  the  waters  begin  to  subside ;  the  clouds 
are  less  dense  ;  and  for  a  short  time  very  hot  weather  returns,  but 
not  so  oppressive  as  in  May.  The  cool  season  then  sets  in,  as 
above  mentioned.  The  river  owes  its  rise  not  so  much  to  rain  hi 
the  upper  country,  as  to  the  rapid  melting  of  the  snow  on  the 
lofty  mountains  connected  with  the  Himalaya  range,  where  the 
Irrawaddy  rises,  in  common  with  the  Kyendween,  Burampooter, 
and  great  Camboja  rivers. 

Missionary  efforts  were  begun  in  this  city  by  Messrs.  Judson 
and  Price  in  1822  ;  but  Mr.  Judson  very  soon  returned  to  Ran- 
goon.    Immediately  on  rejoining  Mr.  Price,  with  Mrs.  Judson,  hi 


108  BURMAH. 

1824,  the  war  broke  out,  during  which  the  missionaries  were 
called  not  to  act  for  Christ,  but  to  suffer.  At  the  close  of  the  war, 
Mr.  Judson  proceeded  to  Amherst.  Thus  scarcely  any  thing 
was  done  to  create  a  general  knowledge  of  Christianity,  or  to 
convert  individuals ;  Dr.  Price  being  chiefly  engrossed  with  his 
medical  profession,  and  a  school  of  noblemen's  children.  He 
was,  however,  a  faithful  and  laborious  man,  so  far  as  his  bodily 
strength,  wasted  by  a  slow  consumption,  would  permit.  He 
preached  to  his  retainers,  and  such  as  would  come  to  his  house, 
every  Sabbath,  and  impressed  religion  on  many  with  whom  he 
came  in  daily  contact,  but  never  went  among  the  common  people 
as  an  evangelist.  Had  he  lived  to  complete  the  education  of  the 
youth  intrusted  to  him,  he  would  have  done  an  incalculable  ser- 
vice to  the  country.  He  had  obtained  permission  to  carry  sev- 
eral of  them  to  Calcutta,  to  finish  their  studies  at  Serampore : 
and,  though  worn  down  by  disease,  could  not  be  dissuaded  from 
making  it  the  last  effort  of  his  life.  In  spite  of  weakness,  which 
confined  him  almost  constantly  to  his  bed,  he  finished  all  his 
arrangements,  and  the  day  of  sailing  arrived.  He  arose  and 
dressed  as  usual.  But,  though  he  could  disregard  debility,  he 
could  not  escape  death.  On  that  morning,  his  attendants,  having 
left  him  for  a  short  time,  returning,  found  him  dead  in  his  chair ! 
The  British  resident  has  since  tried  in  vain  to  obtain  another  set 
of  youths  to  go  to  Calcutta  for  education. 

No  conversion  occurred  at  Ava,  nor  indeed  can  the  mission  be 
regarded  as  fairly  begun,  till  the  arrival  of  Mr.  Kincaid,  in  June, 
1833.  He  had  been  in  the  country  since  November,  1830,  and  had 
so  far  acquired  the  language,  as  to  be  able  to  pray  and  expound  a 
little,  but  had  not  attempted  to  deliver  regular  discourses.  He 
took  a  large  quantity  of  tracts  and  books,  of  which  he  gave  away 
17,000  on  the  way  up :  this  was  the  first  general  distribution 
made  on  the  river.  A  house  was  obtained ;  preaching  was  kept 
up  regularly  on  the  Sabbath,  and  every  week  evening ;  and  Ko 
Shoon  and  Ko  Sanlone,  excellent  assistants  from  Maulmain,  oc- 
cupied public  zayats,  and  taught  from  house  to  house.  The 
first  convert  was  Mali  Nwa  Oo,  wife  of  a  disciple  whom  Dr. 
Price  had  brought  with  him  from  Rangoon.  She,  with  another, 
was  baptized  in  October  of  the  same  year.  Since  then,  twelve 
others  have  been  received  into  the  church  ;  all  Burmans  but  one, 
an  Indo-Briton.  Mr.  Kincaid's  published  journals  make  any  fur- 
ther history  of  this  station  unnecessary,  except  to  say,  that  in 
September,  1835,  Mr.  Simons  joined  the  station,  and  has  been 


PRESENT    STATE    OF    THE    MISSION.  109 

employed  chiefly  in  teaching  school,  and  giving  tracts  to  such  as 
came  to  the  house.  He  has  not  yet  so  far  acquired  the  language 
as  to  preach,  or  communicate  much  with  the  natives. 

The  present  aspect  of  the  station  is  full  of  encouragement. 
Mr.  Kincaid  is  completely  at  home  in  the  language,  and  the  na- 
tive assistants,  among  whom  is  Ko  Shoon  again  for  a  season,  are 
laboriously  engaged.  Beside  these,  Ko  Gwa,  the  deacon,  a  wise 
and  valuable  old  man,  is  employed  much  of  his  time  very  usefully 
in  private  conversation  through  the  city.  He  had  charge  of  the 
late  king's  bearers,  amounting  to  several  hundred  men,  and 
possesses  not  only  a  large  acquaintance,  but  some  influence. 
Two  or  three  of  the  other  members  are  of  very  respectable 
worldly  standing,  and  three  young  men  give  promise  of  becom- 
ing useful  in  the  ministry.  They  are  studying  English,  geog- 
raphy, &c.  at  the  mission-house,  under  Mrs.  Simons,  and  two  of 
them  will  probably  join  the  school  at  Tavoy. 

All  the  disciples  except  two  who  reside  forty  miles  off",  and 
one  who  is  often  kept  away  in  attendance  upon  his  sister,  a  maid 
of  honor  in  the  palace,  are  regularly  at  worship  every  Sunday, 
and  attend  the  concert  of  prayer,  and  such  other  meetings  as 
may  be  appointed. 

Ava  is  a  great  centre,  to  which  persons  resort  from  every  part 
of  Burmah  and  its  tributary  states.  Many  of  these  come  to  the 
mission  for  books,  not  so  much  to  hear  about  "  the  new  religion," 
as  to  see  white  foreigners,  especially  ladies.  Except  Mrs.  Jud- 
son,  (who,  of  course,  was  little  seen  abroad  during  the  war,  and, 
as  the  governor's  widow  stated,  part  of  the  time  wore  the  full 
Burman  costume,  to  avoid  molestation,)  no  white  female  has  ever 
been  seen  here,  till  the  establishment  of  the  British  Residency. 
There  they  dare  not  go  to  satisfy  then-  curiosity,  and  they  flock 
to  the  mission-house,  for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
tract.  During  my  stay,  there  were  always  some  in  the  house, 
often  a  complete  throng,  staring  at  every  thing,  feeling  every 
thing,  wondering  at  eveiy  thing.  Often,  when  their  attention 
is  secured  for  a  moment  to  divine  truth,  they  begin  to  feel 
your  hands,  or  examine  the  intricacies  of  your  raiment,  or  the 
joints  of  your  table,  and  you  perceive  your  words  are  lost  upon 
them.  Sometimes  they  seem  absorbed  with  wonder  at  the  tract 
you  have  given  them,  and,  in  trying  to  find  out  how  it  is  put  to- 
gether, pull  it  to  pieces  before  your  eyes.  Many  have  heard  that 
Mr.  Kincaid  has  globes  and  an  orrery,  and  come  avowedly  to 
see  those.  Our  mode  of  eating  is  an  especial  marvel ;  and  we 
generally  have  many  spectators  in  the  room,  or  at  the  door. 
vol.  i.  10 


110  BURMAH. 

Such  facts,  together  with  those  I  have  already  mentioned  in  rela- 
tion to  tracts,  must  be  remembered  by  the  friends  of  missions  at 
home,  lest  they  make  very  erroneous  inferences  from  the  naked 
statements  of  missionary  journals. 

It  has  been  inferred  from  these,  that  persons  have  come  hun- 
dreds of  miles  for  a  tract,  or  to  hear  of  Christ,  from  its  being  sta- 
ted, that  a  person  from  such  or  such  a  distant  point  came  for 
tracts,  &c. ;  whereas  the  person,  being  at  the  station  on  other  busi- 
ness, came  as  a  matter  of  curiosity.  It  has  been  inferred,  too,  that 
a  general  spirit  of  inquiry  has  been  excited  throughout  the  empire. 
Alas !  the  veiy  contrary  is  the  fact.  In  general^  tracts  are  received 
more  cordially  at  first  than  ever  afterward ;  and  often,  on  visiting 
a  village  a  second  or  third  time,  few  will  accept  a  tract  at  all.  A 
writer  in  America  has  stated  that  "  whole  villages  have  been  con- 
verted unto  God."  There  has  been  no  such  event.  Two  Chris- 
tian villages  have  been  formed  by  collecting  converted  Karens 
together,  and  others  may  yet  be  formed ;  but,  as  a  general  meas- 
ure, it  is  deemed  unsafe  and  undesirable.  The  great  stumbling- 
block  with  Burmans,  as  with  those  to  whom  apostles  preached, 
is  "Christ  crucified."  They  cannot  get  the  idea  of  an  eternal 
God ;  and  that  Christ  was  a  man  seems  to  put  him  on  a  footing 
with  Gaudama.  They  bring  up  the  fact  of  his  being  "  born  of 
a  virgin,"  just  as  infidels  do.  Thus  that  glorious  doctrine, 
which,  to  such  of  them  as  come  to  feel  the  power  and  guilt  of 
sin,  is  the  sweet  theme  that  fills  then  heart  with  peace,  is,  to  the 
multitude,  the  "  hard  saying,"  which  they  cannot  bear. 

Yet  there  are  some  prominent  encouragements  at  this  station. 
That  tracts  and  books  may  be  distributed  from  hence  to  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  empire,  is  a  veiy  important  circumstance. 
That  they  come  from  the  imperial  city,  gives  them  augmented 
influence.  That  they  are  frequently  taken  by  head-men  and 
principal  citizens,  gives  more.  That  government  is  fully  aware 
of  our  missionary  efforts,  having  had  Mr.  Kincaid  several  times 
before  them,  gives  the  people  an  impression  that  his  conduct  now 
is  at  least  winked  at.  It  is  ascertained  also  that  some  thirty  or 
forty  persons  in  the  city  are  so  entirely  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  Christianity,  as  to  have  forsaken  the  forms  of  Boodhism,  and 
worship  in  secret,  as  they  affirm,  the  eternal  God.  They  dare 
not  come  to  public  worship,  and  some  of  them  not  even  to  the 
missionary;  but  they  receive  gladly  the  visits  of  the  native  assist- 
ants, and,  we  may  hope,  will  yet  become  decided  Christians. 

As  to  the  personal  safety  of  the  missionaries,  there  is  no  ap- 
parent ground  of  apprehension.     The  government  would  not 


PRESENT    STATE    OF    THE    MISSION.  Ill 

drive  them  from  the  country,  much  less  offer  personal  violence. 
Their  late  humiliation  by  the  British  has  greatly  altered  then  tone 
toward  white  foreigners.  It  is  altogether  probable  that  the 
threats  of  the  woou-gyees,  and  orders  to  stop  giving  books,  are 
intended  merely  to  exempt  themselves  from  blame.  If  it  should 
come  to  the  king's  ears,  that  missionaries  are  giving  books,  and 
he  should  choose  to  be  angry,  they  wish  to  be  able  to  appeal  to 
their  record,  and  show  that  the  missionaries  have  continued  hi 
spite  of  prohibition.  To  forbid  a  thing,  is  often,  with  Burman 
officers,  their  final  measure,  after  which,  having  thus  tin-own  off 
the  responsibility,  they  are  often  pleased  to  see  their  orders  dis- 
regarded. At  present,  too,  the  question,  who  shall  be  the  next 
king,  is  probably  one  of  engrossing  magnitude  to  the  rulers.  It 
is  also  to  us.  If  a  certain  candidate  succeed,  Boodhism  will  re- 
vive on  every  side ;  if  another,  toleration  will  probably  be  al- 
lowed. Let  us  earnestly  commend  the  result  to  Him  who  exalt- 
eth  kings  at  his  pleasure.  If  the  missionaries  should  be  driven 
away,  it  would  probably  be  by  such  measures  biing  taken  with 
the  natives,  as  to  render  a  further  stay  useless.  One  of  the  high- 
est officers  proposed,  it  is  said,  in  a  late  conversation  respecting 
the  crowds  who  came  for  books,  the  crucifixion  of  some  six  or 
eight  caught  so  doing,  and  that  they  be  suspended  before  Mr. 
Kincaid's  door  till  they  rotted  away.  There  is  much  reason, 
however,  to  think  this  was  said  for  mere  effect ;  for  the  speaker 
is  known  to  be  specially  indifferent  to  Boodhism. 

Near  Ava  are  eight  or  nine  hundred  Catholics,  chiefly  the  de- 
scendants of  French  and  other  prisoners,  brought  by  Alompra 
from  Syrian,  at  his  conquest  of  that  place  in  1756.  They  are 
settled  in  six  small  villages,  the  chief  of  which  is  Kyun-ta-yuah, 
which  has  one  hundred  houses.  In  1784,  two  priests  were  sent 
by  the  Propaganda.  The  troubles  of  Europe  prevented  their  re- 
ceiving any  remittances  for  thirty  years ;  but  their  scanty  wants 
were  supplied  by  their  poor  flock,  and  by  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine. They  were  quiet,  literary  men,  and  much  respected. 
One  died  in  1823,  and  the  other  in  1832.  Their  places  have  been 
supplied  by  young  priests  from  Italy.  I  cannot  find  that  here, 
or  elsewhere  hi  Burmah,  the  Catholics  make  much  effort  to 
gain  converts  to  the  Christian  faith  ;  and,  though  half  a  century 
has  elapsed  since  the  arrival  of  the  first  missionaries,  they  have 
never  given  their  people  any  portion  of  the  Scriptures  in  their 
vernacular.  The  service  is  in  Latin,  of  course  ;  but  such  as 
preach,  do  so  in  Burman.     These  Catholics  live  and  dress  just  as 


112  BURMA  H. 

other  Burmans,  and  are  only  to  be  distinguished  from  them  by 
their  deeper  poverty  and  grosser  immorality. 

A  visit  to  Sagaing,  opposite  to  Ava,  and  once  the  metropolis, 
gave  me  not  only  an  opportunity  of  noting  what  my  official  duty 
required,  but  of  visiting  the  tomb  of  Dr.  Price.  The  intimacy 
that  subsisted  between  us,  and  the  fine  points  in  his  character, 
came  vividly  before  me  as  I  walked  over  the  fallen  walls  of  his 
dwelling,  or  in  Ins  garden  in  ruins, 

"  And  still  where  many  a  garden-flower  grows  wild," 

or  under  the  huge  tamarinds  which  shaded  his  walks.  'Twas  a 
dark  day  for  Burmah  when  he  died !  The  Lord  has  blessed  his 
memory  by  the  conversion  of  his  two  sons,  now  in  America. 
May  they  become  apostles  for  Burmah ! 

The  population  of  Sagaing  is  perhaps  50,000,  and  the  small 
district  or  township  belonging  to  it  about  80,000  more.  There 
seems  to  be  no  obstacle  to  the  immediate  settlement  of  a  mis- 
sionary, except  that  we  have  no  one  familiar  with  the  language 
who  can  be  spared.  Many  Chinese  reside  here,  who  read  tracts 
and  Bibles  in  their  own  language.  The  few  we  have  been  able 
to  distribute  in  this  vicinity,  for  a  few  months  past,  have  been 
most  gratefully  received,  and  sundry  individuals,  in  applying  for 
others,  have  proved  they  had  been  attentively  read. 

In  several  respects,  this  city  is  a  more  eligible  location  for  our 
mission  than  Ava.  The  view  which  is  here  given  was  taken 
from  Mr.  Kincaid's  door  in  Ava.  The  great  abundance  of  fruit- 
trees  which  are  allowed  to  occupy  every  vacant  spot,  conceals 
the  houses,  and  makes  the  picture  resemble  a  champain  country, 
rather  than  a  great  city.  In  this  very  thing,  however,  it  conveys 
a  correct  idea  of  Burman  cities  and  towns  in  general.  On  the 
extreme  right  is  seen,  dimly  because  of  the  distance,  the  famous 
Schway-kyet-yet,  mentioned  on  a  subsequent  page. 

Three  miles  north-west  of  the  city  are  the  quarries  of  statuary 
marble  from  which  most  of  the  stone  images  of  Gaudama 
are  made.  It  is  also  used  for  water-spouts,  and  other  purposes 
about  sacred  edifices,  and  shines  conspicuously  round  all  the  pa- 
godas in  this  part  of  the  country,  in  the  polished  claws  and  grin- 
ning teeth  of  the  huge  lions  (so  called)  which  guard  the  pre- 
cincts. The  real  lion  is  unknown  in  Burmah,  and  these  images, 
which,  though  of  all  sizes,  are  perfectly  alike,  are  the  most 
atrocious  caricatures  of  the  king  of  beasts.  A  picture  of  one 
is  given  in  the  chapter  on  Burman  religion. 


MENGOON    PAGODA KINGS    BOAT. 


113 


From  eight  to  fifteen  miles  farther  north  is  a  region  resem- 
bling the  "  licks  "  of  our  western  country,  where  vast  quantities 
of  salt  are  made. 

Five  miles  south-west  from  Sagaing,  and  about  a  mile  from  the 
great  manufactory  of  idols,  is  the  Kyoung-moo-dau-gyee  pagoda, 
famous  for  its  size.  Its  shape  is  precisely  like  a  thimble,  one 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  high,  and  one  thousand  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base.  It  looks,  in  ascending  the  river,  like  a  little 
mountain.  An  inscription  within  the  enclosure  gives  the  date  of 
its  erection,  which  corresponds  to  our  A.  D.  1626. 

The  Mengoon  pagoda,  above  Umerapoora,  would  be  vastly 
larger  if  finished,  surpassing  some  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt. 
When  not  more  than  half  advanced,  the  king  grew  so  cool  to- 
ward Boodhism,  and  had  so  exhausted  his  means  and  the  liber- 
ality of  the  nobles,  that  he  abandoned  the  undertaking.  His 
Brahminical  astrologers  furnished  him  an  excellent  pretext  by 
giving  out  that  so  soon  as  finished  he  would  die,  and  the  dynasty 
be  changed.  The  lions  were  finished,  and  though  intended,  of 
course,  to  bear  the  usual  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  edifice,  they 
are  ninety  feet  high.  A  huge  bell  was  also  cast  for  it,  stated,  in 
the  thirty-fifth  volume  of  the  authorized  Burman  History  or 
Chronicles,  to  weigh  55,500  viss  (about  200,000  lbs.) ;  but  the 
chief  woon-gyee  declared  to  me  that  its  weight  was  88,000  viss. 


King's    Boat. 


On  the  way  to  Umerapoora,  we  saAv  the  royal  barges,  a  draw- 
ing of  one  of  which  is   given   above,  and  visited   the  pagodas 
15* 


114  BURMAH. 

and  zayats  of  Shway-kyet-yet,  or  "the  scratch  of  the  golden 
fowl."  The  group  stands  on  a  hluff  jutting  iuto  the  river,  oppo- 
site the  range  of  hills  back  of  Sagaing,  which  terminate  at  the 
shore..  The  whole  is  now  in  fine  order,  some  having  been  lately 
re-coated  with  stucco,  and  the  whole  fresh  whitewashed.  It 
forms  the  most  beautiful  object  from  Ava,  resembling,  at  that 
distance,  a  noble  palace  of  white  marble. 

Here  Gaudama  wears  a  form  not  given  to  him  elsewhere,  1 
believe,  except  in  paintings,  viz.  that  of  a  cock.  The  legend  is 
that,  when  he  was  in  that  form  of  existence,  he  was  king  of  all 
fowls,  and,  passing  that  place,  he  scratched  there  !  Hence  the 
sanctity  of  the  spot,  and  hence  the  noble  structures  which  dis- 
tinguish it !  The  face  of  the  stone  cocks  which  ornament  the 
niches,  is  somewhat  human,  the  bill  being  brought  up  to  his 
eyes,  like  a  huge  hooked  nose.  In  the  zayats  at  this  cool  and 
delightful  retreat,  commanding  the  best  view  of  Ava,  and  much 
of  the  river  above  and  below,  we  found  a  number  of  well-dressed 
men  reposing  on  clean  mats,  to  whom  we  preached  "  Jesus  and 
the  resurrection."  They  readily  accepted  tracts,  and  we  left 
them  intently  perusing  them. 

A  short  row  further  brought  us  to  Umerapoora,  seven  miles 
above  Ava,  on  the  same  side  of  the  river,  which  here  takes  a 
sudden  bend  to  the  north.  It  extends  back  to  a  noble  lake,  and 
is  shaded  charmingly  with  trees.  The  location  is,  however,  very 
inferior  to  that  of  Ava.  A  low  island  and  an  extensive  flat  ob- 
struct the  harbor,  and,  except  at  high  water,  the  lake  behind  has 
not  a  good  entrance  from  the  river.  At  Ava,  the  shore  is  bold, 
and  the  water  always  deep,  and  the  Myet-nga,  or  Little  River, 
which  passes  through  the  eastern  suburb,  is  a  fine  navigable 
stream,  opening  a  trade  to  the  interior,  for  two  hundred  miles. 

Umerapoora  was  nearly  desolated  by  a  dreadful  fire  in  1823 ; 
but  though  within  the  walls  it  remains  desolate,  the  suburbs  have 
grown  to  a  city  at  least  as  populous  as  Ava  itself.  A  large  num- 
ber of  Chinese  reside  here,  and  carry  on  a  considerable  trade 
with  their  own  country  by  the  annual  caravans.  They  are  Boodh- 
ists,  as  most  of  the  common  Chinese  are,  and  have  a  showy 
temple,  with  an  adequate  supply  of  priests.  We  sought  refuge 
there  in  a  shower,  and  were  courteously  received.  They  listened 
to  the  good  news  with  decorum,  and  accepted  Burman  tracts,  in 
which  language  many  of  them  read.  During  our  visit,  a  number 
of  Burmans  came  and  made  then  offerings  and  shecko  to  the  image. 
There  are  various  wonders  at  Umerapoora,  such  as  the  great 
and  boasted  bell,  (Burmans  are  marvellously  fond  of  vast  bells ;) 


UMERAFOORA.  115 

the  brass  cannon,  almost  the  largest  in  the  world  ;  the  stupendous 
brazen  image  of  Gaudama,  brought  from  Arracan  ;  the  girl  men- 
tioned in  Mr.  Kincaid's  journal,  and  by  Major  Crawfurd,  as  being 
covered  with  long,  fine  hah-,  &c. ;  but  I  could  not  spend  the  time 
necessary  to  see  them,  and,  procuring  a  bullock  cart,  rode  about 
to  see  the  localities,  extent  of  population,  &c. 

It  seems  important  to  locate  at  least  two  missionaries  at  this 
place,  not  only  for  the  100,000  inhabitants,  but  for  the  thousands 
of  Chinese  who  may  here  be  reached.  One  of  the  missionaries 
might  study  Chinese,  and  be  prepared  at  a  future  day  to  accom- 
pany the  caravan  to  Yunnan.  The  government  would  not  in- 
terfere to  prevent  the  conversion  of  foreigners,  and  the  con- 
verts which  we  are  bound  to  hope  and  believe  would  be  made, 
might  become  most  efficient  missionaries  to  their  countrymen. 

A  few  miles  back  of  the  city,  the  Chinese  have  some  planta- 
tions of  sweet  cane,  and  manufacture  a  large  quantity  of  excel- 
lent brown  and  yellow  sugar.  I  purchased  some  as  good  as  our 
best  yellow  Havanna,  at  about  four  cents  a  pound. 

The  immediate  cognizance  of  the  king  secures  this  part  of 
the  empire  from  many  of  the  severe  oppressions,  under  which 
more  distant  sections  constantly  groan ;  and  tends  in  several 
other  ways  to  increase  its  comparative  population.  It  is,  be- 
yond doubt,  the  most  densely  inhabited  part  of  the  kingdom. 
Those  whom  I  deemed  best  able  to  inform  me,  stated  that  within 
a  radius  of  twenty  miles,  there  must  be  at  least  half  a  million 
of  people. 

On  the  third  of  August,  1836,  came  the  sad  adieu  to  the  kind 
friends  in  Ava,  who  for  a  month  had  left  nothing  untried  to  make 
my  stay  pleasant,  and  aid  my  official  duties.  To  Colonel  H.  Bur- 
ney,  the  British  resident,  I  am  under  many  obligations,  not  only  for 
attentions  and  assistance  in  the  acquisition  of  information,  but 
for  personal  kindnesses,  bestowed  in  the  most  delicate  manner. 
To  him,  and  scarcely  less  to  Mrs.  B.,  the  mission  is  largely  in- 
debted. At  Tavoy,  of  which  province  Colonel  B.  had  charge 
some  years,  they  were  as  parents  to  the  lamented  Boardman.  At 
Rangoon,  where  he  has  occasionally  resided,  since  holding  his 
present  appointment,  they  were  not  less  kind  to  the  missionaries, 
even  watching  them  day  and  night  in  their  sickness.  At  Ava,  our 
brethren  and  their  families  not  only  receive  daily  and  expensive 
kindnesses,  but  are  ever  so  treated  as  to  give  them  the  highest 
possible  estimation  among  the  people. 

The  first  two  days  of  the  descending  voyage  passed  delight- 
fully.     My  boat,  too  small  for  two,  is  ample  for  one,  and  I  soon 


116  BURMAH. 

got  all  my  matters  nicely  adjusted.  Secure  from  interruption, 
and  being  alone,  little  exposed  to  distraction,  it  was  encouraging 
to  be  able  to  get  to  work  in  good  earnest,  to  arrange  and  digest 
the  board  of  memorandums  gained  during  the  past  busy  month. 
It  creates,  too,  something  like  a  feeling  of  home  to  be,  any  where, 
"monarch  of  all  you  survey,"  and  to  be  surrounded  by  none  but 
such  as  you  may  command ;  and  especially,  there  is  satisfaction 
in  reviewing  your  steps  after  an  errand  is  pleasantly  accomplished. 
With  all  these  advantages,  the  river,  now  forty  feet  above  its  com- 
mon level,  bore  me  along  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  and 
so  loftily,  that  I  could  see  over  the  country  far  and  near ;  the 
banks  being  but  a  foot  or  two  above  the  flood.  Instead  of  being 
dragged  along  by  ropes,  under  a  sultry  bank,  seeing  only  such 
houses  and  trees  as  stood  on  the  brink,  or,  if  under  sail,  "  hug- 
ging the  shore,"  to  avoid  the  current,  we  now  swept  gallantly 
down  the  mid  stream,  higher  from  the  top  of  the  boat  than 
the  level  country,  and  seeing  the  noble  hills  to  their  very  base. 
The  whole  landscape,  refreshed  by  occasional  rains,  presents,  at 
this  season,  scenes  which  are  not  surpassed  on  the  Rhine,  or  on 
our  own  more  beautiful  Connecticut. 

7th.  Alas !  a  traveller  has  little  cause  to  give  patience  a  furlough 
because  he  gets  a  visit  from  pleasure.  Here  I  am,  the  fourth  day 
of  the  trip,  moored  not  "  under  the  lee,"  but  alongside  of  a 
sandy  island,  just  enough  "a-lee"  to  get  a  constant  drizzle  of 
sand  upon  every  thing,  and  into  every  thing,  and  not  enough  to 
shelter  us  from  the  huge  waves  that  render  it  impossible  to  do 
any  thing,  while  the  wind  has  full  sweep  at  me,  and  will  not 
sufler  a  paper  to  lie  in  its  place.  The  men  have  done  their  best 
to  "keep  moving  ;"  but  the  wind  defies  both  oars  and  tide.  Yes- 
terday we  had  much  ado  to  make  headway  against  it,  and  it 
probably  will  not  alter  much,  as  it  is  the  midst  of  the  monsoon. 
It,  however,  generally  subsides  before  night,  and  we  must  catch 
our  chances.  If  my  Master  be  not  in  haste  to  get  me  to  Ran- 
goon, why  should  I  be  ?  My  eyes,  partly  from  over-use,  and 
partly  from  the  glare  upon  the  water,  have  become  bad  again ; 
and  as  there  is  no  one  to  speak  to,  1  am  ensconced  here,  deprived 
of  book,  pen,  and  conversation.  If  this  order  of  things  should 
continue,  I  shall  soon  have  a  satiety  of  my  lordly  lonesomeness. 

August  13.  Through  divine  goodness,  I  am  now  in  sight 
of  Rangoon,  having  made  the  passage  in  eleven  days,  without 
accident.  For  the  sake  of  expedition,  I  floated  a  good  deal  in  the 
night,  as  the  wind  then  always  subsided,  and  we  made  better 
progress  than  hi  the  daytime  with  six  oars.     But  the  boatmen 


RETURN    TO    RANGOON.  117 

were  sadly  uneasy  at  doing  so,  and  we  were  constantly  assailed 
by  accounts  of  recent  robberies  and  murders.  At  one  village,  we 
found  in  the  house  of  the  head-man  several  persons  who  had 
that  afternoon  been  robbed  of  their  boat,  and  all  it  contained. 
Frequently,  as  we  passed  a  village,  the  officers  would  call  out 
that  we  must  wait  for  other  boats  aud  proceed  in  company. 
Sometimes  they  would  take  a  boat,  and  come  out  to  compel 
me  to  stop,  saying  that,  if  I  was  murdered  or  robbed,  they  might 
have  to  answer  for  it  with  their  heads.  I  always  answered  that 
I  must  proceed ;  and,  making  them  some  little  presents,  they  would 
desist.  On  several  occasions,  they  had  no  sooner  left  me,  and  it 
was  perceived  along  shore  that  I  was  going  on,  than  a  little  fleet 
of  boats  would  put  off",  and  I  went  abundantly  escorted.  They 
had  all  probably  been  detained  for  the  same  reasons,  aud,  sup- 
posing me  well  armed,  as  foreigners  always  are,  were  glad  of 
my  protection. 

What  a  wretched  government  is  this,  which,  while  it  taxes  and 
burdens  the  people  to  the  very  utmost,  grants  them,  in  return,  no 
security  for  person  or  property !  Hence  the  huddling  together  in 
little  wretched  villages.  A  Burman  with  any  thing  to  lose  would 
not  dare  to  live  on  a  farm  even  one  mile  from  a  village.  No  such 
case  probably  exists  in  the  empire.  The  very  poorest,  and  the 
Karens,  who  are  always  very  poor,  venture  to  live  in  villages  of 
three  or  four  houses  in  the  jungle,  and  cultivate  patches  of  rice. 
The  people  at  large  live  in  the  bondage  of  constant  fear.  Not 
only  is  thieving  common,  but  robbing  by  bands.  Thirty  or  fifty 
men,  well  armed  and  disguised,  surround  a  house,  while  a  de- 
tachment plunders  it,  and  permit  no  one  to  go  to  their  aid.  On 
the  rivers,  robberies  are  even  more  frequent,  as  the  chance  of  de- 
tection is  less.  We  have  scarcely  a  missionary  family  that  has 
not  been  robbed.  So  much  was  said,  by  some  of  my  kind  Eng- 
lish friends  in  Rangoon,  of  the  folly  and  danger  of  going  un- 
armed, as  I  had  hitherto  done,  and  of  the  imputations  which 
would  be  cast  upon  them,  if  they  suffered  me  to  go  in  this  man- 
ner, that  I  consented  to  borrow  a  pair  of  pistols  and  a  bag  of 
cartridges.  I  never  opened  my  bag  of  cartridges  till  to-day,  when, 
seeing  alligators  along  shore,  and  desirous  to  see  if  they  were  as 
impenetrable  as  travellers  assert,!  went  to  my  bag,  but  found  they 
were  all  musket  cartridges,  and  not  one  would  go  in !  Surely,  in 
closing  this  part  of  my  mission,  I  may  sing  of  the  mercy  of  the 
Lord,  and  cherish  an  increased  confidence  that  his  goodness  will 
lead  me  "all  my  journey  through." 


118 


CHAPTER  VL 

Chittagong  —  Cox's   Bazar  —  Akyab  —  Kyouk  Phyoo  —  Ramree  —  Arracan. 

There  being  no  mode  of  getting  into  the  Arracan  and  Chitta- 
gong  provinces  but  by  way  of  Calcutta,  my  next  voyage  was  to 
that  city ;  but  to  avoid  disjoining  the  notes  on  Burmah,  I  post- 
pone any  account  of  Bengal,  and  will  finish,  in  this  chapter,  my 
travels  on  this  side  of  the  bay. 

I  embarked,  November  27,  1836,  from  Calcutta  for  Chittagong. 
The  voyage  consumed  a  fortnight. 

This  town  lies  about  ten  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  on 
the  right  bank,  and  is  the  head  quarters  of  a  Company's  regiment, 
and  the  civil  officers  of  the  province.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Johannes, 
who  has  labored  here  for  sixteen  years,  in  connection  with  Ser- 
ampore,  received  me  with  great  hospitality,  and  in  a  few  days  I 
was  provided  with  a  passage  one  stage  further  on  my  way. 

Chittagong,  or  Islam-a-bad',  is  situated  on  and  among  small 
abrupt  hills,  which  furnish  beautiful  sites  for  the  mansions  of  the 
English,  some  of  which  command  a  view  of  the  sea.  The  na- 
tives live  along  the  valleys,  among  plaintain,  olive,  mango,  orange, 
and  almond  trees,  with  neat  gardens  of  esculents.  The  streets 
are  in  good  order,  and  the  bazar  abundantly  supplied  with  every 
sort  of  domestic  and  foreign  produce.  The  town  includes  12,000 
people,  and  immediately  adjacent  are  many  populous  villages. 
The  language,  the  mode  of  building,  and  the  general  aspect  of 
every  thing,  is  decidedly  Bengalee.  About  three  hundred  ves- 
sels, chiefly  brigs  of  from  forty  to  a  hundred  tons,  are  owned  in 
the  place,  and  many  vessels  from  other  places  resort  there.  The 
chief  exports  are  rice  and  salt  I  saw  lying  at  anchor  several 
large  Maldive  boats  of  indescribable  construction.  These  vessels, 
with  a  deck  made  of  thatch,  venture  annually,  during  this  fine 
season,  from  those  distant  islands,  bringing  cowries,  tortoise-shell, 
cumela,  coco-nuts,  and  coir  for  rope ;  and  carry  away  rice  and 
small  manufactures.  No  missionary  has  ever  been  sent  to  that 
numerous  and  interesting  people. 

Mr.  Johannes  preaches  in  English  and  Bengalee,  both  of  which 
are  vernacular  to  him,  but  devotes  most  of  his  time  to  a  very 
large  school,  which  was  commenced  by  Rev.  Mr.  Peacock,  in 
1818.     It  was  intended,  and  has  always  been  continued,  for  poor 


CHITTAGONG.  119 

Roman  Catholic  children ;  but  there  have  generally  been  a  few 
Bengalees.  Several  of  the  pupils,  on  finishing  at  school,  have 
obtained  places  under  government.  Only  two  scholars  have 
ever  been  converted. 

Accompanying  Mr.  Johannes  into  the  bazar  to  preach,  we  soon 
had  an  audience  of  ten  or  fifteen,  who  paid  good  attention,  and 
asked  some  questions,  but  seemed  firm  in  their  own  faith.  A 
Mussulman  Yogee  passing  by,  smeared  with  cow-dung  and  Gan- 
ges mud,  I  felt  anxious  to  converse  kindly  with  him,  and  did  so 
for  some  time  through  Mr.  Johannes.  His  countenance  was 
anxious  and  care-worn,  and  he  declared  that  the  sole  object  of 
his  life  was  to  appease  the  severity  of  the  angel  of  death.  1 
pointed  him  to  the  Lamb  of  God,  and  endeavored  to  make  clear 
to  his  understanding  the  way  of  life.  It  was  not  necessary  to 
dwell  on  his  sinfulness  and  need  of  a  Savior,  for  he  was  burdened 
with  conscious  guilt.  But  he  was  afraid  to  give  up  his  auster- 
ities, and  depend  on  free  grace ;  and  ended  with  the  usual  con- 
clusion, that  our  religion  is  excellent  for  us,  but  their  religion  is 
better  for  them. 

There  have  for  ages  been  a  mixed  progeny  of  Portuguese  in 
Chittagoug,  who  have  multiplied  to  about  two  thousand  souls. 
They  have  two  places  of  worship,  and,  at  present,  one  priest, 
who,  being  ignorant  both  of  Bengalee  and  English,  is  restricted 
to  the  mere  performance  of  his  Latin  ritual.  This  class  show  no 
anxiety,  in  general,  for  the  conversion  of  the  pagans,  and  in  many 
cases  are  less  moral,  if  possible,  than  the  heathen  themselves. 

The  district  of  Chittagoug  is  about  120  miles  long,  and  60  wide. 
It  seems  to  have  belonged  originally  to  Tiperah,  and  to  have  be- 
come a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Bengal  early  in  the  16th  century, 
after  which  it  was  annexed  to  the  Mogul  dominions.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  Company  by  Jafiier  Ali  Khan  in  1760.  The  popu- 
lation is  about  1,000,000,  of  which  two  thirds  are  Mussulmans ; 
and  the  residue  chiefly  Hindus.  There  were  formerly  many 
Mugs,  but  since  the  tranquillization  and  security  of  Arracan  under 
British  rule,  most  of  these  have  returned  to  their  country. 

Most  of  Chittagong  is  fertile,  and  rice  is  largely  exported. 
Salt  is  made  and  exported  in  great  quantities,  and  much  is  used 
on  the  spot  in  curing  fish,  which  abound  on  the  coast.  The  in- 
habitants are,  hi  general,  wretchedly  poor,  but  the  Company  de- 
rive annually  from  the  province  about  1,200,000  rupees.  The 
taxes  being  collected  not  on  the  system  of  Arracan  and  the  Te- 
nasserirn  provinces,  but  on  the  Zemindar  system  of  Bengal,  the 
people  pay  perhaps  nearly  double  that  sum. 


120  BURMA  H. 

Finding  a  coasting-vessel  of  about  thirty  tons,  bound  to  Akyab, 
I  embraced  the  opportunity  of  going  that  far  toward  my  destina- 
tion, and,  after  an  uncomfortable  voyage  of  five  days,  reached  the 
place. 

A  little  to  the  south  of  Chittagong,  we  passed  the  mouth  of 
the  Cruscool  river,  where  is  situated  the  Mug  village  of  Cox's 
Bazar,  containing  perhaps  six  hundred  houses.  Here  the  excel- 
lent Coiman  labored  a  few  months  and  died.  Loath  to  quit  the 
place  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains,  and  spend  that  long  period 
away  from  his  people,  he  remained,  and  fell  at  his  post.  The  in- 
salubrity of  this  spot  to  foreigners  seems  not  easily  accounted 
for.  It  stands  only  two  or  three  miles  from  the  open  sea,  on 
lofty  ground,  at  the  termination  of  the  "  White  Cliffs,"  and  has 
no  jungle  very  near.  Colman's  bungalo  stood  on  a  hill  facing  the 
sea,  and  there  seemed  no  reason  why  a  temperate  and  prudent 
man  might  not  remain  safely.  But  this  whole  coast  seems  dead- 
ly to  foreigners. 

Of  such  cases  as  that  of  Coiman,  I  have  learned  the  particu- 
lars of  some  twenty  or  more,  who,  trusting  to  caution  and  a  di- 
vine blessing  on  well-meant  endeavors,  and  willing  to  hazard  all 
things  for  the  heathen,  have  staid  where  others  dare  not  stay, 
and,  sooner  or  later,  fallen  by  the  country  fever.  The  Lord  for- 
give those,  who,  without  having  seen  a  mission,  pronounce  the 
whole  scheme  mercenary.  An  idle,  luxurious,  and  selfish  mis- 
sionary I  have  not  yet  seen. 

No  missionary  has  resided  at  Cox's  Bazar  since  Mr.  Colman's 
decease.  Mr.  Fink  has  sometimes  visited  the  place,  and  for  a  few 
months  two  native  assistants  were  stationed  there.  About  twen- 
ty of  the  inhabitants  had  become  Christians  before  Mr.  Colman's 
arrival,  some  of  whom  removed  to  Akyab.  The  rest  are  dead, 
excluded,  or  scattered.  The  town  must  be  an  out-station  from 
Chittagong.     The  population  is  constantly  diminishing. 

At  Akyab,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Fink,  a  converted  native  of  Ternate, 
who  has  been  a  missionary  here  for  ten  years,  in  connection  with 
Serampore,  received  me  into  his  large  family  with  great  kind- 
ness. The  English  officers,  as  every  where  else,  bestowed  upon 
me  every  attention  in  their  power,  and  added  many  valuable 
facts  to  my  stock  of  official  memoranda. 

The  city  is  situated  on  the  northern  mouth  of  the  Arracan,  or 
more  properly  the  Kulladine  River,  about  a  mile  from  the  sea, 
and  has  a  spacious  and  secure  harbor.  It  is  the  commercial  me- 
tropolis of  Arracan,  and  generally  has  much  shipping  in  port 
Rice  is  obtained  in  unlimited  quantities  among  the  numerous 


AKTAB.  121 

islands  which  form  the  Delta  of  the  Kulladine,  and  Comhermere 
Bay.  It  costs,  on  an  average,  cleaned  from  the  husk,  ten  rupees 
per  hundred  arees,  and  the  export  amounts  annually  to  more 
than  300,000  rupees.  The  price  of  paddy,  or  uncleansed  rice,  is 
about  five  rupees  a  hundred  arees.  A  considerable  quantity  of 
salt  is  exported,  which  is  here  bought  at  three  maunds  for  a 
rupee,  or  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  for  forty-five  cents. 
The  population  of  the  city  is  about  eight  thousand,  of  whom 
many  are  Bengalees,  and  some  Chinese. 

The  district  of  Akyab  comprises  the  whole  of  Arracan  as  far 
south  as  Combermere  Bay;  but  in  all  this  region  only  about 
twenty  thousand  dongs  are  cultivated.  Each  dong  of  tilled  land 
will  produce  about  two  hundred  and  eighty  bushels  of  paddy, 
yielding  the  cultivator  about  seventy  or  eighty  rupees,  when 
delivered  at  market. 

The  number  of  mendicants  in  the  whole  district,  according  to 
the  last  census,  is  thirty-one  Mugs,  and  two  hundred  and  ten 
Mussulmans.  Of  loose  women,  there  are  but  two  Mugs,  while 
of  the  comparatively  few  Bengalees,  there  are  over  fifty.  These 
wretched  beings  are  licensed  for  five  rupees  each  per  annum  —  a 
system  which  is  pursued  in  other  parts  of  the  Company's  territory. 
In  relation  to  this  licensing  prostitutes,  so  common,  not  only  in 
India,  but  Europe,  I  wish  all  concerned  in  making  such  laws 
could  be  reproved  in  the  language  of  that  truly  great  man,  Presi- 
dent Bwight,  hi  his  sermon  on  the  seventh  commandment:  — 
"  Who  could  believe  that  princes  and  other  rulers  of  mankind 
have  taxed,  and  licensed,  these  houses  of  ruin  ?  Who  could 
believe  that  sin  would  be  thus  bartered  in  the  market ;  and  dam- 
nation be  held  up  as  a  commodity  for  bargain  and  sale  ;  that  the 
destruction  of  the  human  soul  would  be  publicly  granted  and 
authorized  as  a  privilege  ;  and  that  patents  would  be  made  out, 
sigued  and  sealed,  for  peopling  more  extensively  the  world 
of  woe  ?  " 

Mr.  Fink  maintains,  with  the  aid  of  his  wife  and  son  and  a 
native  assistant,  three  schools  —  one  for  males,  and  another  for 
females,  in  the  vernacular ;  and  one  for  boys  in  English.  All  are 
in  a  weak  state,  and  present  few  encouraging  appearances.  No 
conversion  has  occurred  in  either  of  the  schools.  He  has  bap- 
tized here  eleven  Arracanese  and  two  East  Indians.*  The  whole 
number  of  members  in  his  church  is  about  forty.     Of  these 

*  The  term  now  generally  applied  to  those  in  whom  native  and  European 
blood  is  mixed,  and  who  used  to  be  called  "  country  born." 
VOL.   I.  11 


122  BURMAH. 

many  reside  at  Kroo-day,a  village  on  tlie  other  side  of  the  island, 
eight  miles  distant,  containing  ten  or  twelve  families,  most  of 
whom  are  Christians.  Four  of  the  natives  are  employed  as  as- 
sistants, who  daily  distribute  tracts,  and  preach  from  house  to 
house.  None  are  at  present  known  to  be  seriously  examining 
the  claims  of  Christianity. 

The  principal  articles  of  living  are  cheap  in  this  province. 
Bread  as  good  as  that  of  our  bakers  is  supplied  daily,  at  one  ru- 
pee for  fourteen  loaves  a  little  smaller  than  those  sold  with  us 
for  six  and  a  quarter  cents ;  fowls,  one  rupee  per  dozen ;  ducks, 
eight  for  a  rupee ;  best  cleaned  rice,  one  rupee  per  bushel ;  eggs, 
six  cents  per  dozen ;  milk,  about  fifteen  pints  for  a  rupee ;  ser- 
vants' wages,  six  rupees  per  month,  without  board.  Fuel  costs 
about  one  rupee  per  month. 

I  embraced  the  opportunity  at  Akyab,  as  at  other  places,  of 
preaching  to  the  few  who  understand  English,  (about  a  dozen, 
including  Mr.  Fink's  family,)  and  to  the  natives  through  Mr.  Fink. 
In  addressing  native  Christians,  (for  in  general  none  others  attend 
public  worship,)  I  generally  question  them  respecting  the  great 
truths  of  religion,  and  mid  them,  as  might  be  expected,  mere 
babes  in  knowledge,  but  often  very  intelligent  and  firm.  A 
weekly  exercise,  on  the  plan  of  our  Bible  classes,  would  prove, 
at  every  station,  of  great  utility. 

No  vessel  being  ready  for  Kyouk  Phyoo,  1  hired  a  fishing-boat, 
leaving  Mr.  Fink  to  engage  me  a  passage  in  the  fust  vessel  for 
Madras.  With  eight  stout  oar-men,  and  a  promise  of  buckshee 
(presents)  if  they  made  great  haste,  I  arrived  in  twenty-three 
hours ;  the  time  being  usually  from  two  to  three  days.  The  little 
Ilindustanee  I  endeavored  to  pick  up  in  Calcutta  proves  every 
day  important,  but  on  this  occasion  quite  necessary,  as  not  a  soul 
in  the  boat  speaks  a  word  of  English.  The  Hindustanee  is  the 
universal  language  of  India,  understood  by  some  persons  in 
eveiy  region,  and  spoken  generally  by  servants.  Foreigners  ac- 
quire it  in  preference  to  any  of  the  other  vernaculars.  Fifty  or 
sixty  traveller's  phrases,  with  sundry  single  words,  enable  me  to 
get  along  somehow,  but  often  leave  me  at  a  loss  in  cases  of 
special  necessity. 

Through  divine  goodness  in  restoring  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Comstock 
from  late  severe  illnesses,  I  found  them  at  their  post  in  Kyouk 
Phyoo,  hi  health,  and  was  received  with  great  joy.  A  week  soon 
rolled  away  in  friendly  and  official  intercourse,  and  resulted,  as 
in  previous  cases,  in  a  strong  personal  regard,  which  made  part- 
ing truly  painful.    We  visited  all  the  adjacent  villages,  and  set- 


KYOUK    PHYOO.  123 

tied  various  plans,  which  I  trust  will  prove  important  and  suc- 
cessful. I  availed  myself  of  my  present  improvement  in  voice, 
to  preach  to  the  military  gentlemen  of  the  station,  and  such 
others  as  understood  English,  and  had  an  audience  of  about 
twenty  —  the  only  sermon  they  had  heard  during  the  two  years 
of  the  regiment's  stay  in  Arracan. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Comstock  arrived  at  Kyouk  Phyoo,  and  began 
the  first  labors  of  our  Board  in  Arracan  in  March,  1835,  having 
previously  studied  Burman  in  America,  and  during  the  voyage, 
under  Rev.  Mr.  Wade.  He  now  begins  to  converse  freely  with 
the  natives,  and  to  preach  a  little.  He  has  distributed  tracts,  and 
conversed  with  the  people  not  only  at  Kyouk  Phyoo,  but  at  some 
sixty  or  seventy  villages  in  the  district.  In  March,  1836,  he  began 
two  schools,  which  have  had  an  average  of  twenty-five  scholars. 
The  repeated  sicknesses  of  both  himself  and  wife  have  inter- 
rupted them  very  much,  and  considerably  reduced  the  attend- 
ance. The  scholars,  with  two  or  three  adults,  form  Mr.  Com- 
stock's  audience  on  the  Sabbath.  Part  of  the  day  is  spent  with 
the  pupils  in  Sabbath  school  exercises.  Several  of  the  boys 
evinced  a  good  proficiency  in  reading,  writing,  geography,  and 
arithmetic,  and  answered  questions  on  the  principal  points  of 
Scripture  truth  with  great  correctness.  No  conversion  is  known 
to  have  taken  place  at  this  station,  and  but  one  individual  seems 
to  be  seriously  examining  the  claims  of  Christianity.  This,  how- 
ever, is  by  no  means  discouraging,  when  it  is  considered  that 
Mr.  Comstock  came  here,  nearly  ignorant  of  the  language,  only 
eighteen  months  ago,  and,  of  course,  has  not  been  able  to  com- 
municate divine  truth  to  any  advantage,  nor  has  he  enjoyed  the 
services  of  a  native  assistant.  1  procured  one  for  him  at  Akyab, 
and,  with  this  aid  and  his  present  knowledge  of  the  language, 
have  no  fears  of  his  success,  if  health  be  spared  to  him. 

This  port  is  a  watering-place  for  numerous  trading  vessels  from 
Bassein  and  other  places  in  Burmali,  on  their  way  to  Chittagong 
and  Calcutta.  They  generally  stop  several  days,  and  traffic  a 
little.  Many  of  them  carry  forty,  fifty,  or  even  more  men.  These 
often  resort  to  Mr.  Comstock's  house,  to  hear  about  the  new  reli- 
gion, and  receive  tracts.  Some  of  them  come  from  places  which 
no  missionary  has  yet  visited.  As  the  region  round  Kyouk 
Phyoo  is  barren,  and  thinly  peopled,  almost  every  eatable  and 
many  manufactures  are  brought  from  adjacent  places,  and  from 
Aeng,  which  extends  still  more  the  opportunity  of  distributing 
Gospels  and  tracts.  The  employment  on  public  works,  &c.  be- 
ing greater  than  the  supply  of  resident  laborers,  many  come 


124  BDRMAH, 

every  dry  season,  and  return  to  their  families  at  the  beginning  of 
the  rains ;  by  whom  the  truth  may  be  disseminated.  The  very 
extensive  archipelago  to  the  east  and  north  of  Kyouk  Phyoo, 
enables  a  missionary  to  reach  much  of  the  population  by  water, 
in  a  convenient  boat.  Thus,  although  the  population  ot  the  town 
is  small,  not  exceeding,  probably,  with  adjacent  villages,  2,000 
souls,  it  is  an  important  location  for  a  missionary.  It  moreover 
has  the  advantage  of  a  European  physician,  and  a  bazar 
containing  every  necessary. 

Ramree,  at  the  south-east  end  of  the  island,  about  twenty-four 
hours'  sail  from  Kyouk  Phyoo,  stands  on  a  large  creek  of  the 
same  name,  eighteen  or  twenty  miles  from  the  mouth,  and  has 
7,000  inhabitants,  compactly  located.  It  occupies  both  banks  of 
the  creek,  connected  by  noble  bridges,  and  enjoys  a  large  bazar, 
and  much  commerce.  Though  very  hot,  from  its  being  low  and 
surrounded  by  hills,  it  bears  a  high  character  for  salubrity;  and 
latterly  has  been  preferred,  in  this  respect,  even  to  Kyouk  Phyoo. 
One  or  two  British  officers  reside  here.  It  has  all  the  advan- 
tages, as  a  missionary  station,  which  have  just  been  attributed  to 
Kyouk  Phyoo,  beside  having  a  much  larger  population,  and 
ought  to  be  occupied  as  soon  as  possible.  The  large  and  very 
populous  island  of  Cheduba  is  immediately  adjacent. 

Eastward  of  Ramree,  about  half  a  day,  is  a  considerable  sect, 
who  maintain  that  there  is  one  eternal  God,  who  has  manifested 
himself  in  the  different  Boodhs.  They  deny  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  affirm  that  at  death  the  future  state  of  every  human 
being  is  eternally  fixed.  They  worship  images  of  Gaudama, 
merely  as  images,  to  remind  them  of  Deity.  They  have,  however, 
kyoungs  and  priests,  and  conform  to  all  the  Burman  usages, 
though  rejected  as  heretics  by  then  countrymen.  There  has 
been  no  attempt  made  to  ascertain  their  number,  though  it  is 
certainly  considerable.  Many  tracts  and  portions  of  Scripture 
have  been  distributed  among  them,  and  some  have  expressed 
strong  desires  for  the  visits  of  a  missionary. 

Sandoway,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  that  name,  which  em- 
braces all  the  southern  part  of  Arracan,  is  situated  on  the  San- 
doway River,  about  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  4,000,  chiefly  Burmans  and  half-Bnrmans ;  the  rest  are 
Mu<*s.  No  spot  in  India  is  considered  more  healthful  than  this. 
From  hence  a  missionary  might  operate  extensively,  not  only  in 
south  Arracan,  but  up  the  Bassein  River,  and  the  islands  at  its 
mouth,  in  Burmah  Proper.  The  British  officer  there  is  anxious 
for  the  settlement  of  a  missionary,  and  would  afford  him  every 


ARRACAN.  125 

possible  facility.  It  is  the  only  spot,  beside  those  which  have 
been  named,  where  a  missionary  could  hope  to  live  during  the 
sickly  season  ;  except  perhaps  Aeng,  where  a  British  commis- 
sioner, &c.  reside  throughout  the  year,  though  at  great  hazard. 
No  officer  has  been  able  to  retain  his  health  there,  and  several 
have  died. 

Of  the  province  of  Arracan,  I  need  not  add  much  to  the 
remarks  on  particular  districts  which  have  already  been  given. 
It  is  called,  by  the  natives,  Rekhein,  and  is  bounded  north  by  the 
River  Naaf,  and  a  line  from  near  its  sources,  eastward  to  the 
A-nou-pec-too-miou,  or  Yomadong  Mountains,  which  divide  it 
from  Burmah  the  whole  length  down  to  Cape  Negrais.  On  the 
west  is  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  length  is  about  470  miles.  The 
breadth  never  exceeds  100,  and  sometimes  is  only  10,  —  average 
about  60.  It  is  estimated  to  contain  about  17,000  square  miles, 
of  which  but  one  twenty-fourth  part  is  cultivated,  though  almost 
eveiy  part  is  capable  of  tillage. 

The  population  is  usually  given  in  books  at  300,000,  but, 
by  the  last  official  returns,  is  only  237,000.  The  country  is  di- 
vided into  four  districts,  viz.  Akyab,  Ramree,  Sandoway,  and 
Aeng ;  of  which  Akyab  has  108,166  inhabitants  ;  Ramree,  68,934 ; 
Sandoway,  22,976 ;  and  Aeng,  11,751.  In  addition  to  these,  there 
are  hill  tribes,  not  regularly  numbered,  amounting  to  about 
25,000. 

The  country  appears  to  have  preserved  its  independence  from 
the  earliest  periods,  though  often  invaded  and  overrun,  for  a 
time,  by  its  more  powerful  neighbors.  In  1783,  Minderagyee, 
emperor  of  Burmah,  resolved  on  annexing  it  to  his  dominions. 
Raising  an  overwhelming  force,  he  invaded  it  in  various  places, 
both  by  sea  and  land,  and,  though  vigorously  resisted,  completely 
conquered  all  the  more  level  portions  on  the  sea-board,  and  took 
the  monarch  prisoner.  Several  hill  bribes,  however,  remained 
free,  and  do  so  to  this  day. 

Among  the  spoil  on  this  occasion,  the  most  valued  articles,  and 
those  which  perhaps  had  a  large  share  in  inducing  the  war,  were 
a  colossal  bronze  image  of  Boodh,  and  a  cannon  measuring 
thirty  feet  long,  and  ten  inches  in  calibre.  These  were  trans- 
ported in  triumph  to  Umerapoora,  the  then  capital,  and  are  still 
shown  there  with  much  pride. 

Since  the  cession  of  the  country  to  the  British,  the  descend- 
ants of  the  old  royal  family  of  Arracan  have  several  times  en- 
deavored to  regain  the  government  During  the  present  year, 
( 1836,)  an  attempt  of  the  kind  was  made.  Some  of  the  hill  tribes, 
11* 


126  BURMAH, 

and  various  robbers,  &c,  joined  tbe  conspirators,  and  an  army  of 
considerable  force  was  mustered.  Some  villages  were  burnt, 
and  the  city  of  Arracan  taken;  but  the  sepoys  drove  them 
from  the  place  without  coming  to  any  pitched  battle,  and  the 
leaders  at  length  took  refuge  in  Burmah,  and  ended  the  struggle. 
The  government  at  Ava  has  given  up  most  of  the  chiefs,  who  are 
now  in  prison  at  Akyab. 

This  province  has  always  been  deemed  particularly  unhealthy 
to  foreigners,  though  the  natives  have  as  few  diseases,  and  as 
little  sickness,  as  in  other  parts  of  Burmah.  Kyouk  Phyoo, 
Ramree,  and  Sandoway,  are  certainly  salubrious  points,  partic- 
ularly the  latter.  Most  of  the  face  of  the  country  is  rugged 
mountain,  covered  with  forest  and  jungle.  The  soil  of  the  low 
lands  is  luxuriant,  and  well  watered  by  beautiful  streams  from 
the  mountains.  The  coast  is  particularly  desolate ;  and  except 
at  three  or  four  places,  shows  no  sign  of  any  inhabitant.  The 
ranges  of  hills  along  the  sea-board  are  composed  of  gray  sand- 
stone, intermixed  with  ferruginous  clay.  Coral  abounds  along 
the  whole  coast. 

The  proximity  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea  precludes  large 
rivers.  The  only  one  of  importance  is  the  Kulladine,  which 
rises  about  in  the  parallel  of  Chittagong,  and,  after  a  southerly 
course  of  250  miles,  including  its  windings,  disembogues  by  sev- 
eral mouths,  the  principal  of  which  is  at  Akyab.  The  Arracan 
River  discharges  by  the  same  delta.  The  innumerable  islands 
which  extend  from  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Arracan,  to  that  of 
Kyouk  Phyoo,  give  complete  access  to  most  of  the  agricultural 
region. 

Arracan  was  once  famous  for  coco-nuts,  but  in  former  wars 
they  were  nearly  exterminated.  There  are  now  scarcely  any 
trees  of  this  sort  in  the  province,  and  quantities  are  imported. 
The  fruits  and  vegetables  are  much  the  same  as  in  Burmah,  but 
in  general  less  abundant,  and  of  inferior  quality.  Oranges  (called 
by  the  natives  sweet  limes)  are  very  plenty  and  excellent.  The 
proper  lemon,  I  was  told,  is  not  found,  but  there  are  sour  limes 
as  large  as  ostrich  eggs,  with  skin  as  tliick  as  that  of  the  shat- 
tuck.  In  some  places  there  are  mangoes,  and  the  jack  is  pretty 
common.  The  wild  fig  is  excellent.  Other  fruits  are  much  the 
same  as  in  Burmah,  but  scarcer  and  of  inferior  quality.  The 
annual  fall  of  rain  is  about  two  hundred  inches.  The  seasons 
are  the  same  as  those  of  Pegu. 

Arracan  was  formerly  the  principal  city,  and  very  large.  It  is 
now  reduced  to  3,000  inhabitants,  and  is  still  diminishing.     Its 


ARRACAN.  127 

trade  has  passed  to  Akyab,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  a  site  se- 
lected by  the  English  for  its  advantageous  position  for  health 
and  commerce,  and  now  rapidly  growing.  The  old  city  has 
been  always  fatal  to  foreigners,  though  a  favorite  residence 
with  the  Mugs.  The  Burmans,  who  used  to  come  with 
the  governor  when  the  country  was  then*  province,  could  not 
endure  it.  When  the  British  took  it  and  established  a  camp 
there,  two  full  European  regiments  were  reduced,  in  a  few 
months,  to  three  hundred  men  in  both,  —  and  even  of  sepoys  and 
camp-followers  from  forty  to  fifty  died  per  day.  Perhaps  the 
particular  circumstances  of  that  army  gave  force  to  the  pesti- 
lence, for  nearly  the  same  dreadful  diminution  attended  the  army 
in  Rangoon,  confessedly  one  of  the  healthiest  places  in  the  world. 

This  country  is  regarded  as  the  parent  hive  of  the  Burman 
race  and  language.  They  are  certainly  much  less  intelligent 
than  the  Burmans,  and  the  country  less  prosperous,  doubtless  in 
consequence  of  frequent  and  desolating  wars,  and  long  oppres- 
sion. The  written  language  is  precisely  the  same  as  the  Bur- 
man  ;  but  the  pronunciation  of  many  letters  is  so  different,  as  to 
make  a  dialect  not  very  intelligible  to  Burmans.  Why  the  lan- 
guage and  people  are  called  Mugs,  rather  than  Jlrraecmese,  is  not 
very  clear.  I  was  generally  assured  that  it  is  derived  from  a  race 
of  kings,  who  reigned  at  the  tune  the  country  first  became  much 
known  to  Europeans.  They  regard  the  term  as  a  contemptuous 
nickname,  and  universally  call  themselves  Mrammas.  This  name 
they  declare  to  be  usurped  by  the  Burmans,  whom  they  call 
Ouk-tha,  or  people  of  the  low  country.  The  Burman  in  turn 
takes  this  epithet  as  an  insult 

Many  Bengalees  are  settled  in  the  maritime  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, who  retain  their  own  faith.  They  are  called,  by  the  Arraca- 
nese,  Kidd-yekein.  Their  morals  are  far  worse  than  those  of 
the  natives. 

The  trade  of  the  country  never  was  considerable,  till  since  the 
late  removal  of  transit  duties.  It  is  now  large  and  increasing. 
There  is  no  mint  in  the  province,  as  erroneously  stated  by  Ham- 
ilton, but  Company  rupees  and  pice  are  the  uniform  currency. 

The  taxes  are  very  burdensome,  and  levied  on  almost  eveiy 
thing  —  land,  fruit-trees,  fishing-nets,  spirit-shops,  boats,  buffaloes, 
toddy-trees,  ploughs,  hucksters,  traders,  physicians,  astrologers, 
the  right  of  collecting  wax  and  honey,  of  cutting  timber,  &c. 
&c  All  the  monopolies  are  now  abolished,  except  opium  and 
salt.  The  opium-vender  must  buy  only  of  government,  and 
must  also  pay  twenty-five  rupees  per  annum  for  a  license.     For- 


128  burma  i  r. 

merly  the  inhabitants  were  forced  to  make  a  certain  quantity  of 
salt,  and  sell  it  to  the  government  for  two  annas  a  maund, 
which  was  carried  to  Bengal,  where  also  it  is  a  monopoly,  and 
where  none  could  be  bought  except  from  government  at  forn- 
ix) six  rupees  per  maund  —  a  clear  profit,  in  that  short  distance, 
of  about  forty  times  the  price.  The  people  are  not  now 
forced  to  make  it,  but  all  they  do  make  must  be  sold  in  the  prov- 
ince, or,  if  exported,  must  be  sold  only  to  government  at  twelve 
annas  the  maund.  The  entire  revenue  derived  by  the  Company 
from  Arracan  amounts  to  about  600,000  rupees  per  annum. 

Slaves  were  much  more  numerous  under  the  Burman  govern- 
ment than  at  present,  and  modifications  of  the  system  have  been 
established  very  much  like  those  of  the  Tenasserim  provinces. 
Such  as  were  taken  in  war,  have  been  released.  Persons  may 
sell  themselves  for  money,  but  cannot  sell  one  another,  or  their 
children.  Fifteen  rupees  per  annum  is  now  required  to  be  de- 
ducted from  the  debt  of  a  man,  and  eight  from  that  of  a  woman. 

Though  the  Arracauese  are  Boodhists,  and  as  tenacious  of 
their  system  as  others,  yet  they  seem  less  devoted  to  its  pre- 
scribed observances.  Little  money  or  time  is  spent  in  religion. 
I  saw  no  pagoda  in  the  province,  except  a  small  one,  left  half 
built,  near  Akyab ;  nor  any  person  carrying  offerings,  or  attend- 
ing to  his  religion  in  any  other  way.  The  kyoungs  which  I  saw 
are  but  wretched  huts.  There  are,  more  in  the  interior,  pagodas, 
&c.  in  greater  abundance ;  but  Mr.  Fink,  who  has  travelled 
much  in  the  province,  has  seen  but  three  new  pagodas  in  the 
whole  district  of  Akyab,  for  ten  years  past.  His  opinion  is,  that 
the  influence  of  Boodhism  is  sensibly  on  the  decline,  while  no 
other  system  is  taking  its  place.  At  Akyab  are  only  about  twenty 
priests.  At  Ramree,  which  is  the  episcopal  residence  and  reli- 
gious metropolis  of  all  Arracan,  there  are  not  more  than  two 
hundred. 

Among  many  incidents  illustrative  of  the  declining  power  of 
Boodhism  over  this  people,  Mr.  Fink  related  the  following.  In 
one  of  his  excursions,  a  man  complained  to  him  (Mr  Fink  holds  an 
office  under  government)  of  his  neighbor  for  demolishing  an  idol. 
The  man  defended  himself  by  the  following  representation :  —  He 
had  been  fishing  at  some  distance  from  home,  and  was  returning 
with  a  club  in  his  hand  to  defend  himself  from  wild  beasts.  As 
he  approached  the  village,  and  was  passing  by  an  image  of 
Gaudama,  he  saw  some  of  his  buffaloes  wandering  into  the  for- 
est. Commending  his  net  and  string  of  fishes,  therefore,  to  the 
care  of  the  idol,  he  set  off  to  recover  his  beasts.     This  object  ac- 


ARRACAN.  129 

complished,  he  returned  ;  but  as  he  drew  near,  a  huge  bird  de- 
scended, and  bore  away  his  string  of  fish.  Angry  at  the  image, 
and  excited  by  his  loss,  he  upbraided  it  for  stupidity,  and  dealt 
upon  it  such  blows  with  his  club,  as  knocked  oft'  its  head.  Mr. 
Fink,  of  course,  endeavored  to  show  the  folly  of  both  him  who 
still  venerated,  and  him  who  had  rudely  broken  the  idol. 

To  one  who  has  observed  the  awful  reverence  paid  by  idola- 
ters to  their  idols,  this  incident  is  not  merely  amusing.  A  few 
years  ago,  no  man  in  Arracan  would  have  dared,  under  any 
temptation,  to  commit  such  an  act,  and  especially  to  excuse  him- 
self for  it.  This  little  fact,  too,  shows  that,  as  in  Popery,  so  in 
Boodhism,  though  the  more  enlightened  regard  the  image  only  as 
an  image,  and  a  remembrancer  of  Deity,  the  common  people  pay 
it,  truly  and  literally,  divine  honors. 

Some  thousand  of  tracts  and  portions  of  Scripture  have  been 
distributed  in  Arracan,  and  the  truth  proclaimed  in  many  places ; 
but  it  is  known  that  large  numbers  of  the  tracts  have  been  de- 
stroyed, and  no  general  spirit  of  investigation  prevails.  The  few 
native  Christians  in  connection  with  Mr.  Fink  are  all  that  are 
known  among  the  300,000  Arracanese. 

Toward  the  hills  is  the  Mroo  or  Mroong  tribe,  about  five 
thousand.  Beyond  these,  on  the  lower  hills,  are  the  Kyens, 
amounting  to  fifteen  thousand ;  and  beyond  these,  on  the  Yoma- 
dong  Mountains,  are  the  Arungs  or  Arings,  amounting  to  ten 
thousand.  Of  these  tribes  and  others  on  the  borders  of  Burmah 
mention  will  be  made  in  another  place. 

None  of  them  have  received  the  "  good  news,"  and  little  of 
them  is  known  to  the  British  government.  Missionaries  among 
either  of  them  would  be  obliged  to  reside  half  the  year  on  the 
sea-board,  on  account  of  the  insalubrity  of  their  country  in  its 
present  uncleared  state. 

The  return  to  Akyab  was  rendered  less  dreary  than  the  voyage 
down,  by  the  society  of  brother  Comstock.  There  was  no  more 
room  indeed ;  as,  though  I  had  a  larger  boat,  there  were  now  two 
of  us  ;  and  the  monsoon  being  against  us,  we  were  much  longer. 
But  Christian  converse  is  sweet  in  this  land  of  idols  and  ini- 
quity. As  we  now  were  obliged  to  stop  at  night,  and  for  cook- 
ing, it  gave  an  opportunity  of  seeing  some  of  the  people  in  their 
villages,  and  presenting  them  the  first  tracts  they  had  ever  seen, 
as  well  as  walking  a  little  among  the  solitudes  of  everlasting 
green. 

The  region  between  Kyouk  Phyoo  and  Akyab  is  an  extensive 
and  yet  unexplored  archipelago  of  small   hilly  islands,  for  the 


130  BURMAH. 

most  part  uninhabited.     In  winding  among  these,  instead  of  put- 
ting out  to  sea,  the  scenery,  though  wild,  is  often  very  fine  — 

"  An  orient  panorama,  glowing,  grand, 
Strange  to  the  eye  of  Poesy  ;   vast  depths 
Of  jungle  shade ;  the  wild  immensity 
Of  forests,  rank  with  plenitude,  where  trees 
Foreign  to  song  display  their  mighty  forms, 
And  clothe  themselves  with  all  the  pomp  of  blossom." 

Lawson. 
The  shores  for  the  most  part  are  coral.  Specimens  of  great 
size  and  beauty,  white,  yellow,  red,  and  black,  are  gathered  here. 
To  walk  on  "  coral  strands  "  was  not  less  new  to  me  than  to  see 
beautiful  shells,  such  as  are  on  mantel-pieces  at  home,  moving 
over  the  moist  sand,  in  every  direction,  each  borne  by  its  little 
tenant.  The  study  of  conchology  has  long  seemed  to  me  to  bear 
about  the  same  relation  to  the  animal  kingdom,  that  the  study -of 
the  coats  of  unknown  races  of  men  would  be  to  the  human 
family.  But  to  see  the  creatures  in  their  robes ;  to  watch  them  as 
they  sought  their  food,  or  fled  to  their  holes  at  my  approach ;  to 
mark  what  they  ate,  how  they  made  then  holes,  and  how,  when 
overtaken,  they  drew  all  in,  and  seemed  dead ;  how  they  moved, 
and  how  they  saw,  &c,  was  delightful.  1  felt  myself  gazing  at  a 
new  page  in  nature's  vast  volume.  I  rejoiced  that  my  God  is  so 
wise,  so  kind,  so  great,  and  that  one  day  I  should  read  his  works 
"  in  fairer  worlds  on  high." 

Some  of  these  shells  resembled  large  snails,  but  of  beautiful 
colors ;  others,  still  larger,  and  more  elegant,  were  of  the  shape 
used  for  snuff-boxes ;  others  were  spiral  cones,  five  or  six  inches 
diameter  at  the  base.  Each  had  claws,  which  it  put  forth  on 
each  side,  and  walked  as  a  tortoise,  but  much  foster.  When 
alarmed,  the  head  and  claws  were  drawn  inward  so  far  as  to 
make  the  shell  seem  empty.  As  my  ignorance  of  conchology 
prevented  my  distinguishing  common  from  rare  specimens,  1  re- 
frained from  encumbering  my  luggage  with  either  shells  or  coral. 
The  forest  was  too  thick  and  tangled  to  allow  us  to  penetrate 
many  yards  from  shore,  except  where  there  were  villages.  Re- 
cent tiger  tracks,  too,  admonished  us  not  to  attempt  it.  Alas  ! 
here  is  a  fine  country,  with  but  one  fortieth  of  the  land  inhabited  ; 
and  the  forests  thus  left  render  the  climate  injurious  to  the  few 
who  remain.  Such  are  the  bitter  fruits  of  war.  War  has  made 
this  wilderness,  where  there  might  have  been  a  garden,  and  given 
back  the  homes  of  men  to  beasts  of  prey. 


DEPARTURE    FROM    BURMAH.  131 

Leaving  the  shores  of  Burmah,  probably  forever,  inflicted  on 
me  no  small  pain.  The  dear  list  of  names  who  compose  our 
band  of  laborers  there  seemed  before  me  as  the  shore  re- 
ceded. Personal  intercourse  had  been  rendered  endearing  by 
intimacy,  by  mutual  prayers,  by  official  ties,  by  the  kindest  atten- 
tions, by  a  common  object  of  life,  and  by  similarity  of  hopes  for 
the  world  to  come.  To  part  forever  could  not  but  wring  my 
heart. 

"  'Tis  sad  to  part,  e'en  with  the  thought 

That  we  shall  meet  again ; 

For  then  it  is  that  we  are  taught, 

A  lesson  with  deep  sorrow  fraught, 

How  firmly,  silently,  is  wrought 

Affection's  viewless  chain. 

Long  ere  that  hour,  we  may  have  known 

The  bondage  of  the  heart ; 
But,  as  uprooting  winds  alone 
Disclose  how  deep  the  tree  has  grown, 
How  much  they  love  is  only  known 

When  those  who  love  must  part." 

Happy  I  am  to  be  able  to  bear  solemn  and  decided  testimony 
to  the  purity,  zeal,  and  economy  of  our  missionaries  and  their 
wives.  I  have  no  where  seen  persons  more  devoted  to  their 
work,  or  more  suitable  for  it.  No  where  in  all  Burmah  have 
I  seen  "missionary  palaces,"  or  an  idle,  pampered,  or  selfish 
missionary.  As  to  the  female  missionaries,  I  am  confident  that,  if 
they  were  all  at  home  this  day,  and  the  churches  were  to  choose 
again,  they  could  not  select  better.  I  bear  testimony  that  what  has 
been  printed  respecting  the  state  and  progress  of  the  mission  is 
strictly  true ;  though  I  found  that  the  inferences  which  1  and 
others  had  drawn  from  these  accounts  were  exaggerated.  Eveiy 
thing  I  have  seen  and  heard  has  tended  to  satisfy  me  of  the  practi- 
cability and  usefulness  of  our  enterprise,  and  to  excite  lamentation 
that  we  prosecute  it  at  so  feeble  a  rate. 

Divine  approbation  evidently  rests  upon  every  part  of  the 
undertaking.  The  life  of  Judson  has  been  spared  so  long,  that 
we  have  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible,  and  several  tracts, 
more  perfect  than  can  be  found  in  almost  any  other  mission. 
We  have  nearly  a  thousand  converts,  beside  all  those  who 
have  died  in  the  faith ;  and  sixty  or  seventy  native  assistants, 
some  of  them  men  of  considerable  religious  attainments.  A 
general  knowledge  of  Christianity  has   been   diffused   through 


132  BURMA  H. 

some  large  sections  of  the  empire.  Several  of  the  younger 
missionaries  are  now  so  far  advanced  in  the  language,  as  to  be 
just  ready  to  enter  on  evangelical  labors.  Very  extensive  print- 
ing operations  are  now  established,  producing  about  two  millions 
of  pages  per  month;  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the  mission  is 
highly  encouraging. 

The  little  churches  gathered  from  among  the  heathen  added 
much  to  the  sense  of  bereavement  inflicted  by  this  parting.  The 
faces  of  the  preachers  and  prominent  members  had  become 
familiar  to  me.  With  some  of  them  1  had  journeyed  many  weary 
miles.  Through  them  I  had  addressed  the  heathen,  and  distrib- 
uted the  Avoid  of  God.  To  some  of  them  1  had  endeavored  to 
impart  important  theological  truths.  I  had  heard  them  pray  and 
preach  in  their  own  tongue  to  listening  audiences.  1  had  marked 
then-  behavior  in  secret,  and  in  hours  of  peril.  Not  to  love  them 
would  be  impossible.  To  part  from  them  for  life,  without  pain, 
is  equally  impossible.     May  it  but  prove  salutary  to  myself! 

The  consciousness  of  a  thousand  imperfections  in  the  dis- 
charge of  my  duty,  forms  the  principal  trial.  Still  there  has  been 
good  devised,  and  good  begun,  and  evil  checked,  and  plans  ma- 
tured, which  I  trust  Avill  be  found  in  the  great  day  among  the 
things  which  perish  not 


A  Statue,  such  as  guard  the  Gales  of  Burman  Temples. 


PART    II. 

DIGESTED    NOTES    ON     THE 
BUR  MAN     EMPIRE. 


CHAPTER  L 


The  Term  India  —  Hither  and  Farther  India  —  Boundaries  of  Burmah  — 
History  of  the  Empire  —  War  with  the  British  —  Dismemberment  of  the 
Tenasserim  Provinces — State  of  the  Succession. 

Before  passing  to  other  countries,  I  will  here  insert  the 
result  of  my  observations  and  inquiries  respecting  the  natural, 
mora],  political,  and  religious  state  of  the  country. 

The  term  India  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  Greeks,  who  ap- 
plied it  to  the  vast  regions  beyond  the  river  Indus,  to  them  almost 
unknown.  It  is  never  given  to  any  part  of  this  region  by  the 
natives  themselves.  Both  Darius  and  Alexander  pushed  their 
conquests  beyond  this  famed  river,  though  not  so  far  as  the 
Ganges;  and  from  the  officers  employed  in  these  expeditions, 
the  first  historians  seem  to  have  derived  all  their  accounts. 
When  the  country,  some  centuries  afterward,  came  to  be  better 
known,  it  was  divided  by  Ptolemy  (A.  D.  150)  into  "  Hither  and 
Farther  India ; "  making  the  Ganges  the  boundary.  This  distinc- 
tion is  still  observed,  and  seems  exceedingly  proper.  "Hither 
India "  is  but  another  name  for  Hindustan,  including  the  Avhole 
peninsula  between  the  Arabian  Sea  and  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  ex- 
tending northward  to  Persia  and  Thibet.  "Farther  India,"  or 
India  beyond  the  Ganges,  embraces  Burmah,  Asam,  Munuipore, 
Siam,  Camboja,  and  Cochin-China ;  or,  to  speak  more  compre- 
hensively, all  the  region  between  China  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
southward  of  the  Thibet  Mountains. 

The  term  "  Chin-India,"  which  has  been  lately  given  to  this 
vol.  i.  12 


134  BURMA  11. 

region,  seems  to  have  no  propriety,  and  creates  confusion. 
Malte-Brun  increases  this  confusion  by  inventing  the  name 
"  Indian  Archipelago,"  embracing  Ceylon,  the  Laccadives,  Mal- 
dives, Andaman's,  Nicobars,  Moluccas,  Philippines,  Borneo, 
Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  and  all  their  minor  neighbors.  This 
name  is  adopted  by  some  other  writers,  but  with  very  different 
boundaries.  Crawfurd,  in  his  History  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
limits  it  thus :  —  From  the  western  end  of  Sumatra,  to  the  parallel 
of  the  Aroe  Islands,  and  from  the  parallel  of  11°  south  to  19° 
north,  omitting  the  islands  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Of  the  coun- 
tries which  compose  Farther  India,  Burmah  is  the  most  important, 
and  in  all  India,  is  second  only  to  China.  The  natives  call  their 
country  Myamma  in  their  writings,  and  in  common  parlance, 
Byam-ma,  which  is  spelled  Bram-ma,  of  which  foreigners  make 
Burmah.  The  Chinese  call  the  country  Meen-teen.  It  included, 
before  the  late  war  with  England,  what  were  formerly  the  king- 
doms of  Ava  (or  Burmah  Proper),  Cassay,  Arracan,  Pegu,  Tavoy, 
Tenasserim,  and  the  extensive  territory  of  the  Shyaus,  extending 
from  Thibet  on  the  north  to  Siam  on  the  south,  and  from  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  west  to  China  on  the  east.  This  territory 
is  about  one  thousand  and  twenty  miles  long,  and  six  hundred 
broad.  It  now  includes  Burmah  Proper,  the  greater  part  of  Pegu, 
a  small  part  of  Cassay,  and  nearly  all  the  Shyan  territory.  The 
extreme  length  of  the  kingdom  is  seven  hundred  and  twenty 
miles,  and  the  extreme  breadth  about  four  hundred. 

The  rest  of  Cassay  is  now  independent ;  while  Arracan  and 
the  Tenasserim  provinces,  embracing  a  territory  of  about  forty 
thousand  square  miles,  now  belong  to  the  British. 

Innumerable  fables,  founded  on  a  wild  chronology,  make  up 
the  Burman  history  of  the  origin  of  their  nation ;  which  they 
throw  back  several  millions  of  years!  The  earliest  probable 
date  hi  this  stupendous  chronology  is  the  epoch  of  Anjina,  the 
grandfather  of  Gaudama,  which  corresponds  to  the  year  691 
B.  C.  In  the  sixty-eighth  year  of  that  epoch,  or  before  Christ 
623,  Gaudama  was  born.  From  that  period  their  tables  seem 
worthy  of  regard,  and  are  certainly  kept  with  great  appearance  of 
accuracy.  There  is,  however,  nothing  in  them  that  demands  a 
place  here. 

The  seat  of  government  can  be  traced  back  to  Prome,  which 
seems  to  have  been  founded  in  the  year  B.  C.  443.  About  this 
tune,  the  Boodhist  religion  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced. 
Prome  continued  to  be  the  metropolis  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
five  years,  when  the  government  was  removed  to  Pa-ghan,  where  it 


HISTORY    OF    THE    EMPIRE.  135 

continued  uearly  twelve  centuries.  During  this  period  was  es- 
tablished their  common  vulgar  era,  the  commencement  of  which 
corresponds  to  A.  D.  639.*  About  A.  D.  1300.  the  government 
was  removed  to  Panya,  and  soon  afterward  to  Sa-gaing.  Both 
these  cities  were  destroyed  by  the  Shyans  in  1363,  under  then-  icing 
Tho-ken-bwa,  in  revenge  for  liis  father's  being  given  up  to  the 
Chinese,  after  having  fled  to  the  Burman  court  for  protection. 

About  1526,  the  Shyans  from  the  region  of  Mogoung  invaded 
Burmah,  put  the  king  to  death,  overran  the  country  as  far  as 
Prome,  and  for  nineteen  years  reigned  at  Ava  over  these  acquisi- 
tions. The  Burmans  then  recovered  their  old  boundary.  The 
dynasty  at  this  time  seems  to  have  been  Peguan. 

About  A.  D.  1546,  the  more  hardy  natives  of  the  highlands 
threw  off  allegiance  to  this  dynasty,  and  established  one  of  their 
own  families  on  the  throne.  Pegu,  however,  was  never  regarded 
as  a  conquered  province,  but  remained  identified  with  the 
northern  districts.  Soon  after  this,  the  territory  of  the  Shyans 
was  conquered,  and  the  kingdom  began  to  assume  a  consequence 
it  had  never  possessed  before.  It  was,  however,  much  less  ex- 
tensive than  now.  In  1567,  the  Burmans,  aided  by  Laos  or 
Shyan  tributaries,  conquered  Siam,  and  held  that  country  hi  sub- 
jection for  thirty  years.  It  afterwards  regained  its  independence : 
but  a  deep-rooted  enmity  remained  between  the  two  nations,  and 
war  frequently  recurred. 

About  the  year  1740,  the  Peguans,  gathering  a  strong  faction 
in  Prome  and  Martaban,  raised  the  standard  of  revolution.  For 
twelve  years,  a  ferocious  and  obstinate  civil  war  distressed  the 
country.  At  length,  being  aided  by  the  Portuguese,  the  Peguans 
pushed  then-  conquests  to  the  metropolis,  which  surrendered  at 
discretion.  Dweep-dee,  the  king,  was  made  prisoner,  and  a 
southern  king  once  more  assumed  the  throne.  But  a  year  had 
scarcely  elapsed,  before  Alompra,  (more  properly  spelled  Aloung 
Pra,)  the  courageous  chief  of  Moke-so-bo,f  gathering  a  few  in- 
trepid adherents,  commenced  a  resistance  winch  issued  in  a  rev- 
olution. After  some  minor  successes,  his  countrymen  flocked  to 
his  standard,  and  marching  to  Ava,  that  city  fell  into  his  hands. 
Extraordinary  courage,  prudence,  and  wisdom,  marked  his  move- 
ments ;  success  every  where  followed ;  and,  after  a  sanguinary 
war  of  several  years,  Peguan  authority  was  once  more  subverted, 
and  has  never  since  been  ascendant. 

*  April,  1033,  was  the  commencement  of  their  year 

t  A  small  village,  twelve  miles  north  of  Ava,  and  the  same  distance  back 
from  the  river. 


136  BURMAH. 

Alompra,  of  course,  retained  Lis  preeminence,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  throne  he  had  established.  Proceeding  in  his 
successful  career,  he  attacked  Munipore  or  Cassay,  and  reduced 
to  complete  subjection  the  Shyans.  With  scarcely  any  cause,  he 
attacked  and  conquered  Tavoy,  then  an  independent  kingdom. 
The  Tavoyers,  however,  instigated  by  Siam,  who  was  jealous  of 
her  growing  neighbor,  revolted,  and  were  aided  by  many  Peguans 
and  Siamese.  Alompra  soon  crushed  the  rebellion,  aud  advan- 
cing against  Siam,  invested  Mergui  by  sea  and  land.  It  scon  sub- 
mitted, and  with  it  the  ancient  city  of  Tenasserim. 

After  resting  and  refreshing  his  army  at  the  latter  place,  and 
effectually  reducing  the  entire  province,  he  passed  through  the 
whole  length  of  Siam,  and  invested  its  capital.  This  was  on  the 
point  of  yielding,  which  without  doubt  would  have  been  folloAved 
by  his  annexing  the  whole  country  to  his  dominions,  when  he 
was  seized  with  violent  illness,  and  died  in  a  lew  days,  aged  fifty 
years.  The  fact  was  concealed  from  the  army,  which  broke  up 
its  camp  in  good  order,  and  returned  without  much  molestation. 
On  arriving  at  Martaban,  in  his  own  dominions,  then  a  great  city, 
the  sad  disclosure  was  made,  and  the  funeral  rites  took  place. 
Siam  has  never  recovered  the  province  of  Mergui. 

Alompra  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Nam-do-gyee-pra, 
who  made  Sagaing  again  the  capital,  but  reigned  only  four  years. 
His  death  brought  to  the  throne  Shen-bu-yen,  the  next  younger 
brother.  He  removed  the  capital  again  to  Ava,  and  reigned 
twelve  years  with  considerable  eclat,  though  he  was  regarded  as 
a  profligate  prince.  He  invaded  and  conquered  Cassay,  sup- 
pressed a  revolt  amoug  the  Shyans,  and  added  to  his  Shyau  domin- 
ions the  region  of  Zemmai.  In  1767,  the  Chinese,  elated  with  their 
recent  conquests  in  Bukharia,  seemed  resolved  to  annex  Burmah 
to  their  already  vast  empire.  An  immense  army  crossed  the 
frontier,  aud,  after  a  few  skirmishes,  approached  the  capital ;  but 
after  being  reduced  to  extremity  for  want  of  provisions,  they 
were  routed  in  a  pitched  battle,  and  so  many  made  prisoners  that 
few  escaped  to  report  the  disaster.  A  second  army  shared  a 
similar  fate,  and  the  two  countries  have  since  lived  in  peace. 

On  application  of  the  Shyans  at  Zandapori  for  aid  against  the 
Siamese,  the  Burman  king  sent  a  large  army  into  Siam,  which 
reduced  the  country  to  great  straits,  and  again  took  Ayut'hia,  the 
then  capital.  The  Siamese  give  a  horrid  description  of  the 
conduct  of  the  conqueiors,  though  not  unlike  other  histories  of 
Eastern  warfare.  Plunder  and  slaves  seem  to  have  been  the 
chief  objects ;  and,  in  getting  the  former,  every  atrocity  seems  to 


HISTORY     OF     THE    EMPIRE,  137 

have  been  committed.  Shenbuyen  prepared,  in  1771,  another 
expedition  against  Siam,  which  failed  in  consequence  of  disaffec- 
tion in  the  army,  a  large  part  of  which  was  raised  in  Martaban 
and  Tavoy. 

Shenbuyen  died  in  1776.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Shen- 
gu-za,  who,  after  a  reign  of  five  years,  was  assassinated  in  a 
mutiny  of  his  officers.  These  placed  on  the  throne  Moung- 
moung,  sometimes  called  Paon-go-za,*  from  the  place  of  his  resi- 
dence, son  of  Namdogyee.  This  man  was  almost  an  idiot;  but, 
having  been  brought  up  by  this  faction,  and  being  thoroughly 
under  their  influence,  was  deemed  a  fit  tool  for  their  ambitious 
projects.  But  he  was  too  imbecile,  and  his  party  too  discordant, 
to  resist  the  aspiring  energies  of  Men-der-a-gyee,  fourth  son  of 
Alompra,  who  now  claimed  the  throne  of  his  father.  Moung- 
moung  was  seized  and  imprisoned,  and,  on  the  eleventh  day  of 
his  reign,  was  publicly  drowned,  in  conformity  to  the  Burman 
mode  of  executing  members  of  the  royal  family.  Forty  of  the 
late  king's  wives,  with  all  their  children,  were  placed  in  a  separate 
building,  and  blown  up  with  gunpowder.  With  many  other  cru- 
elties he  confirmed  himself  in  the  kingdom. 

Menderagyeef  was  in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his  age  (A.  D. 
1782)  when  be  found  himself  seated  on  the  throne  of  his  distin- 
guished father.  He  soon  detected  several  conspiracies  —  one  by 
a  general  hi  the  army,  who  was  put  to  death ;  another,  by  a  de- 
scendant of  the  former  dynasty,  was  near  proving  successful. 
This  last  effort  having  originated  at  Panya,  he  put  every  soul  of 
that  city  to  death,  destroying  the  houses  and  obliterating  every 
trace  of  its  existence.  His  reign  lasted  thirty-seven  years,  dur- 
ing which  the  country  remained  in  a  high  state  of  prosperity. 
He  founded  the  city  of  Umerapoora,  six  miles  farther  up  the  river, 
and  transferred  to  it  the  seat  of  government.  In  1783,  he  added 
Arracan  to  his  already  extensive  dominions.  In  1786,  renewing 
the  old  feud  with  Siam,  he  contended  for  the  provinces  of  Tavoy 
and  Mergui,  which  had  revolted  under  the  ptitronage  of  the 
Siamese.     This  war  continued  till  1793,  when  he  finally  suc- 

*  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  ascertain  the  private  names  of  Burman 
sovereigns.  It  is  considered  presumptuous  and  indecorous  in  any  subject  to 
call  the  king  by  his  youthful  name.  Indeed,  most  persons  change  the  name  in 
growing  up.  It  was  often  inquired  what  my  name  was  when  a  child,  and 
great  surprise  exhibited  to  find  that  it  remained  unchanged. 

t  "  Gyee  "  is  the  term  for  Great,  and  "  Pra  "  is  Lord,  or  an  object  of  rever- 
ence.    The  expression   Great  Lord  is  thus  a  general  term  for  royalty,  like 
Pharaoh,  or  Cesar,  but  has  been  appropriated  to  this  monarch. 
12* 


138  BURMAH. 

ceeded,  and  the  provinces  continued  to  be  a  part  of  Burmah  till 
given  up  to  the  British  at  the  close  of  the  late  war.  The  Siamese, 
however,  several  times  made  irruptions  into  these  provinces,  held 
them  a  few  weeks,  and  retired  with  what  spoU  and  captives  they 
could  cany  away.  In  1810,  he  fitted  out  a  respectable  armament 
to  take  Junk  Ceylon  from  the  Siamese,  and  for  a  tune  held  pos- 
session. But  the  enemy  soon  mustered  a  formidable  force,  and 
compelled  the  Burmans  to  surrender.  On  this  occasion,  some  of 
the  chiefs  were  barbarously  beheaded,  and  others  carried  to  Ban- 
kok  to  work  in  chains,  where  Crawfurd  saw  some  of  them  so  em- 
ployed in  1822. 

This  monarch  seems  at  first  to  have  been  inclined  to  be  re- 
ligious, or  at  least  to  have  suffered  strong  compunctions  for  the 
violent  and  murderous  manner  in  which  he  came  to  the  throne. 
In  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  he  built  the  costly  temple  called 
Aong-mye-lo-ka,  at  Sagaing,  and  gave  it  four  hundred  and  forty 
slaves.  He  studied  the  Bedagat,  consorted  much  with  priests, 
built  various  religious  structures,  and  commenced  the  stupendous 
pagoda  at  Mengoon,  which,  if  finished,  would  equal  in  size  some 
of  the  Egyptian  pyramids.  At  length  he  knew  so  much  of  the 
books  and  the  priests  as  to  overthrow  all  his  piety,  and  exasperate 
him  against  the  whole  system  of  popular  religious  belief.  He 
buUt  and  gave  gifts  no  more.  The  immense  edifice  at  Mengoon 
was  left  unfinished  on  the  pretext  that  the  Brahminical  astrolo- 
gers predicted  his  death  as  soon  as  it  should  be  completed  —  a 
decision  obtained  probably  by  himself  He  proclaimed  the 
priests  to  be  utterly  ignorant,  idle,  and  luxurious,  reprobated  their 
fine  houses,  and  finally  issued  an  edict  expelling  them  ail  from 
their  sumptuous  abodes,  and  requiring  them  to  live  according  to 
then  neglected  rules,  or  return  to  labor.  For  a  long  time,  there 
was  scarcely  a  priest  to  be  seen ;  but,  falling  into  his  dotage,  and 
dying  soon  after,  in  his  eighty-first  year,  things  reverted  to  their 
former  order,  and  they  now  are  as  numerous  as  ever. 

The  throne  was  ascended,  hi  1819,  by  Nun-sun,  (literally,  "he 
enjoys  a  palace,")  grandson  to  Menderagyee.  His  father  had 
long  been  heir  apparent,  and  was  eminently  loved  and  revered 
by  the  people,  but  died  before  the  throne  became  vacant.  The 
king  immediately  adopted  Nunsim  as  his  successor,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  his  own  sons.  The  kingdom  had  now  become  exten- 
sive and  powerful,  embracing  not  only  Ava  and  Pegu,  but  Tavoy, 
Tenasserim,  Arracan,  and  Munipore.  Cachar,  Assam,  Jyntea, 
and  part  of  Lao,  were  added  by  Nunsun. 

He  was  married  in  early  life  to  a  daughter  of  his  uncle,  the 


HISTORY    OF    THE    EMPIRE.  139 

Mekara  prince ;  but  one  of  his  inferior  wives,  daughter  of  a 
comparatively  humble  officer,  early  acquired  great  ascendency 
over  his  mind,  and,  on  his  coming  to  the  throne,  was  publicly 
crowned  by  his  side.  On  the  same  day,  the  proper  queen  was 
sent  out  of  the  palace,  and  now  lives  in  ohscurity.  His  plans  for 
securiug  tho  succession  show  that  lie  was  aware  that  even  the 
late  king's  will  would  not  secure  him  from  powerful  opposition. 
The  king's  death  was  kept  secret  for  some  days,  and  the  interval 
employed  to  station  a  multitude  of  adherents  in  different  parts 
of  the  city,  to  prevent  any  gatherings.  On  announcing  the  de- 
mise, the  ceremony  of  burning  was  forthwith  performed  in  the 
palace-yard,  at  which  he  appeared  as  king,  with  the  queen  by 
his  side,  under  the  white  umbrella,  and  at  once  took  upon  him- 
self all  the  functions  of  royalty.  Several  suspected  princes  were 
soon  after  executed,  and  many  others  deprived  of  all  their  es- 
tates. Some  of  the  latter  still  live  at  Ava,  subsisting  by  daily  la- 
bor. The  Mekara  prince,  his  uncle,  either  became  or  feigned  to 
be  insane,  and  his  papers  showing  no  indications  of  his  having 
interfered  in  politics,  he  was  spared.  He  became  rational  two 
years  afterward,  and  has  since  devoted  himself  to  literature.  My 
interview  with  this  prince  is  mentioned  page  102.  Two  years 
after  his  accession,  the  king  resolved  to  restore  the  seat  of 
government  to  Ava.  To  this  he  was  induced  partly  from  the 
great  superiority  of  the  latter  location,  partly  from  the  devastation 
of  a  fire  which  burnt  a  great  part  of  Umerapoora,  with  the 
principal  public  buildings,  partly  from  a  desire  to  erect  a  more 
splendid  palace,  and  partly  (perhaps  not  least)  from  the  ill  omen 
of  a  vulture  lighting  on  the  royal  spire.  The  greater  part  of  his 
tune,  for  two  years,  was  spent  at  Ava  in  temporary  buildings, 
superintending  hi  person  the  erection  of  a  palace,  twice  the  size 
of  the  old  one,  and  other  important  buildings.  During  this 
period,  many  citizens,  especially  those  who  had  been  burnt  out, 
and  numbers  of  the  court,  settled  in  the  new  city,  and  the  place 
became  populous.  On  completing  the  palace,  (February,  1824,) 
the  king  returned  to  Umerapoora,  and,  after  brilliant  parting 
festivities,  came  from  thence,  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony, 
attended  by  the  various  governors,  Chobwaus,  and  highest  offi- 
cers. The  procession,  in  which  the  white  elephant,  decorated 
with  gold  and  gems,  was  conspicuous,  displayed  the  glories  of 
the  kingdom,  and  great  rejoicings  pervaded  all  ranks.  Umera- 
poora still  retained  a  numerous  population,  which  even  at  this 
time  is  supposed  to  equal  that  of  Ava. 


140  BURMAH. 

It  was  but  a  few  weeks  after  this  festival  that  news  arrived  of 
a  declaration  of  war  by  the  East  India  Company,  and  that  their 
troops  were  already  in  possession  of  Rangoon.  Difficulties  on 
the  Chittagong  frontiers  had  been  increasing  with  that  govern- 
ment for  twenty-five  years,  in  regard  to  numerous  emigrants  from 
Burmah,  whose  leaders  were  averse  to  the  present  government, 
and  even  laid  some  claims  to  the  throne.  They  had  been  in  the 
practice  of  making  predatory  incursions  into  Arracan,  and  retir- 
ing to  the  British  side,  where  Burman  troops  were  not  allowed  to 
follow.  Some  decisive  measures  of  the  emperor  had  recently 
ripened  the  quarrel,  and  the  government  of  British  India  deemed 
it  proper  to  proceed  to  open  war. 

The  court  of  Ava  learned  the  fall  of  Rangoon  with  surprise, 
but  without  alarm.  So  confident  were  they  of  capturing  the  en- 
tire British  army  that  the  only  fear  was  that  they  might  precipi- 
tately retire !  Many  of  the  ladies  at  court  actually  stipulated 
with  the  field-officers  for  a  number  of  white  slaves,  and  the  army, 
collecting  to  proceed  to  Rangoon,  manifested  the  most  exuberant 
spirits. 

There  were  three  English  gentlemen  at  Ava,  who  naturally 
fell  under  suspicion;  especially  when  it  was  discovered  that 
some  of  them  had  been  apprized  of  the  declaration  of  war, 
They  were  all  imprisoned,  and  together  with  Messrs.  Judson  and 
Price,  who  were  soon  added  to  the  number,  experienced  for 
many  months  the  excessive  hardships  which  are  detailed  in  the 
Memoir  of  Mrs.  Judson. 

Calculating  on  friendly  cooperation  from  the  Peguans,  who,  it 
was  thought,  would  embrace  this  opportunity  to  throw  off  the 
Burman  yoke,  and  knowing  that  the  best  period  for  rapidly  as- 
cending the  river  is  during  the  south-west  monsoon,  the  British 
forces  arrived  May  10th,  1824,  just  the  beginning  of  the  rains. 
But  the  innumerable  boats  ordinarily  found  on  the  river  had  all 
disappeared,  partly  perhaps  by  order  of  the  viceroy,  and  partly 
from  fear.  The  boats  of  the  transports  were  as  nothing  toward 
conveying  an  army,  and  it  became  necessary  to  halt  in  Rangoon. 
But  even  this  was  well  nigh  fatal  to  the  army.  The  city  had 
been  so  completely  evacuated  by  the  affrighted  people,  that  not  a 
soul  was  left  but  a  few  aged  and  helpless  persons,  who  either 
could  not  fly,  or  had  nothing  to  lose.  There  were,  of  course,  no 
servants,  no  bazar,  no  provisions.  Sick  officers  in  vain  offered 
five  or  six  rupees  for  a  single  fowl,  and  the  whole  army  was 
obliged  to  depend  on  ship  stores.    This,  with  the  nature  of  the 


STATE     OE     THE     SUCCESSION.  J41 

season,  and  the  fatigue  of  frequent  skirmishes,  produced  sickness 
among  the  troops,  and  some  thousands  were  cut  off  before  any 
advance  was  made.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  year,  the  army 
proceeded  up  the  river,  receiving  but  one  serious  check,  and  re- 
tired, June,  1825,  into  barracks  at  Prome  for  the  hot  season.  On 
the  third  of  November,  hostilities  recommenced.  Melloon  was 
stormed  on  the  19th  of  January,  1826,  and  Paghan  on  the  9th  of 
February.  On  the  24th  of  February,  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
formed  at  Yan-da-bo,  and  on  the  8th  of  March,  the  army  took 
boats  for  Rangoon. 

By  this  treaty,  the  Burmans  relinquished  part  of  Martaban,  and 
the  whole  of  Arracan,  Yeh,  Tavoy,  and  Mergui ;  and  agreed  to 
pay  the  English  5,000,000  rupees  toward  defraying  the  expenses 
of  the  war.  At  the  same  time,  Asam  and  Munipore  Avere 
taken  from  them,  and  the  latter  declared  independent,  under 
British  protection. 

From  that  time,  the  kingdom  has  been  rather  advancing  in 
civilization  and  prosperity.  No  longer  at  liberty  to  make  war 
upon  its  neighbors,  its  frontier  is  quiet  and  secure.  Acquainted 
better  with  foreigners,  its  pride  is  abated,  and  beneficial  innova- 
tions are  less  resisted.  The  government,  though  unaltered  in  its 
model,  is  in  some  respects  better  administei'ed,  and  commerce  is 
increased. 

The  king  is  at  this  time  subject  to  periods  of  insanity,  and 
has  little  to  do  with  public  affairs.  The  chief  power  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Sallay-Men,  or  prince  of  Sallay,  the  queen's  brother, 
generally  called  Men-Sa-gyee,  or  great  prince.  He  is  probably 
the  richest  man  in  the  kingdom,  Sallay  being  one  of  the  most 
lucrative  fiefs ;  in  addition  to  which  he  receives  the  duties  on  the 
Chinese  inland  trade,  beside  large  presents  from  office-seekers, 
and  litigants  in  the  Lotdau. 

Several  individuals  are  regarded  as  candidates  for  the  crown 
on  the  demise  of  the  present  king.  One  of  them  is  the  Men- 
Sa-gyee  above  mentioned,  who  is  a  devoted  Boodhist.  He  may 
prefer  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  present  king's  youngest  brother, 
the  Men-dong  prince,  who  is  married  to  his  daughter.  Another 
candidate  is  the  Ser-a-wa  prince,  the  king's  brother,  next  in  age, 
an  accomplished  and  talented  prince,  remarkably  free  from  preju- 
dice for  a  Burman,  and  probably  better  acquainted  with  foreign 
countries  than  any  other  native.  As  he  keeps  a  large  number  of 
war-boats  and  armed  retainers,  and  has  a  considerable  magazine 
of  arms  in  his  compound,  it  is  generally  believed  that  he  aspires 


142  BURMAII. 

to  the  throne.*  No  other  man  in  the  empire  is  so  qualified  for 
that  high  station,  so  far  as  the  foreigners  at  Ava  are  able  to  judge. 
The  proper  heir  apparent,  only  son  of  the  present  king,  is 
popular  with  the  common  people,  but  has  almost  no  power ;  the 
queen's  brother  holding  his  place  in  the  Lotdau.  Though  per- 
mitted the  insignia  of  his  rank,  he  is  kept  studiously  depressed, 
and  seems  destitute  of  either  the  means  or  the  qualifications  for 
making  good  his  title. 

*  This  prince  did,  in  fact,  become  king,  on  the  demise  of  his  late  majesty, 
in  1837. 


New  Pagoda  at  Ava. 


143 


CHAPTER  D. 

Features  of  Country  —  Climate  —  Mountains  —  Minerals  —  Rivers  —  Soil  — 
Productions  —  Agriculture  —  Animals  —  Birds  —  Fishes  —  Reptiles  — 
Insects. 

The  general  features  of  a  country  so  extensive,  are,  of  course, 
widely  diversified.  It  may  be  said  of  it,  as  a  whole,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Dr.  Francis  Hamilton,*  that  "  this  country,  hi  fertility, 
beauty,  and  grandeur  of  scenery,  and  in  the  variety,  value,  and 
elegance  of  its  natural  productions,  is  equalled  by  few  on  earth." 
He  adds,  "  It  is  occupied  by  a  people  of  great  activity  and  acute- 
ness,  possessed  of  many  qualities  agreeable  to  strangers." 

The  upper  country  is  mountainous  throughout;  the  highest 
ranges  being  to  the  north  and  north-east  of  the  capital.  The 
scenery  of  these  elevated  regions  is  beautiful,  and  the  climate 
highly  salubrious.  Extensive  forests,  comprising  a  great  variety 
of  excellent  timber,  cover  the  heights;  while  the  valleys  are 
jungle,f  cultivated  in  many  places,  and  abounding  in  fruit-trees. 
The  coasts  and  water-courses  are  eminently  fertile,  and  contain 
the  chief  part  of  the  population.  By  far  the  largest  portion  of 
the  country  is  uninhabited. 

The  extensive  Delta  of  the  Irrawaddy  is  for  the  most  part 
scarcely  above  high  tides,  and  evidently  alluvial.  Much  of  it  is 
overflowed  during  the  annual  rise  of  the  river.  Rocks  are  not 
found,  except  a  cellular  orange-colored  iron  ore,  which  occurs  on 
the  gentle  swells.  There  are  a  few  hills  composed  of  the  iron 
ore  above  named,  breccia,  calcareous  sandstone,  blue  limestone, 
and  quartz.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  course  of  the  Salwen  and 
Dagaing,  some  of  the  low  mountains  are  almost  entirely  quartz. 
Some  hills,  rising  abruptly  from  the  levels,  are  blue  limestone, 
of  the  very  best  quality.  In  most  of  these  are  caves,  remarkable 
not  only  for  their  natural  grandeur,  but  for  the  religious  venera- 
tion with  which  they  have  been  regarded,  and  the  multitude  of 

*  Edinburgh  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  ii.  p.  99. 

t  The  difference  between  a  jungle  and  a  forest  ought  to  be  understood  by 
every  reader  of  Oriental  travels.  A  forest  is  the  same  as  with  us  —  land  cov- 
ered with  large  trees,  growing  thickly  together,  and  almost  uninhabited.  A 
jungle  is  exactly  what  is  called,  in  Scripture,  a  wilderness  ;  that  is,  a  region  of 
many  trees,  but  scattered,  with  much  undergrowth,  and  often  thickly  inhabited, 
though  generally  somewhat  sparsely.  The  open  spaces  very  generally  bear  a 
tall,  coarse  grass,  resembling  that  of  our  prairies,  which,  when  near  villages, 
is  annually  burnt  over,  to  improve  the  pasture. 


144  BURMAH. 

mouldering  idols  which  they  contain.  An  account  of  some  of 
them  is  given  in  page  61.  The  great  ranges  of  mountains,  both 
on  the  sea-shore  and  inland,  are  chiefly  granite  and  mica-slate. 

The  climate  of  Burmah  differs  greatly  in  the  higher  and  lower 
districts,  but  is  everywhere  salubrious  to  natives,  where  the  jungle 
is  cleared.  Ample  proof  of  this  is  visible  in  their  robust  appearance 
and  muscular  power.  Foreigners  find  most  parts  of  the  sea-coast 
salubrious,  to  a  degree  not  found  in  most  other  parts  of  India. 

In  the  maritime  part  of  the  country,  there  are  two  seasons  —  the 
dry  and  the  rainy.  The  latter  begins  with  great  uniformity,  about 
the  tenth  of  May,  with  showers,  which  gradually  grow  more 
frequent,  for  four  or  five  weeks.  It  afterward  rains  almost  daily 
till  the  middle  of  September,  and  occasional  showers  descend 
for  a  month  longer.  From  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hun- 
dred mches  of  water  fall  during  this  period.  This  quantity  is 
truly  astonishing,  as  hi  the  moist  western  comities  of  England,  it 
is  but  sixty  inches  in  a  year.  It  seldom  rams  all  day,  so  that 
exercise,  and  out-door  business,  may  be  continued,  though  at 
times  it  rains  almost  incessantly  for  several  days.  As  the  sun 
shines  out  hot  almost  daily,  vegetation  proceeds  with  amazing 
rapidity;  and  every  wall  or  building  not  coated  smoothly  with 
plaster,  becomes  in  a  few  seasons  covered  with  grass  and  weeds. 
This  is  the  only  period  when  any  part  of  the  country  becomes 
unhealthy  to  foreigners,  and  even  then,  the  courses  of  great 
rivers,  and  parts  extensively  cleared,  remain  salubrious.  On  the 
subsiding  of  the  rains,  the  air  is  cool,  the  country  verdant,  fruits 
innumerable,  and  every  thing  in  nature  gives  delight.  The 
thermometer  ranges  about  60°  at  sunrise,  but  rises  12°  or 
15°  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  In  March,  it  begins  to  grow 
warm ;  but  the  steady  fanning  of  the  north-east  monsoon  makes 
it  always  pleasant,  when  out-door  exertion  is  not  required.  In 
April,  the  heat  increases,  and  becomes  for  two  or  three  weeks 
oppressive ;  but  the  first  dashes  of  rain  bring  relief. 

Between  tide-water  and  the  mountain  regions  at  the  north  and 
east,  there  may  be  said  to  be  three  seasons  —  the  cool,  the  hot,  and 
the  rainy.  The  cool  season  begins  about  the  same  time  as  in 
the  lower  provinces,  and  continues  till  the  last  of  February, 
making  about  four  months.  The  thermometer  now  descends  to 
about  40°,  at  the  lowest.  This  temperature  is  only  just  before 
morning.  In  the  middle  of  the  day,  it  is  seldom  colder  than 
60°.  The  greatest  heat  is  far  less  than  on  the  Madras  coast ; 
averaging,  in  the  hottest  weather,  from  85  to  90°,  but  rising  some- 
times much  higher. 


MINERALS METALS,    &C.  145 

In  the  most  elevated  districts,  there  are  severe  winters ;  but  of 
those  sections  no  precise  accounts  have  been  received. 

Much  of  Burmah  is  decidedly  mountainous,  particularly  to  the 
north  and  east  of  Ava ;  but  few  of  the  ranges  have  names,  at 
least  not  in  our  language.  The  natives  seem  to  designate  par- 
ticular heights,  but  not  entire  ranges ;  and  Europeans  have  not 
explored  these  parts  of  the  country.  The  barrier  which  divides 
Burmah  from  Arracan,  called  in  maps  A-nou-pec-too-miou,  is 
lofty  and  well  defined.  The  coast  near  Tavoy,  and  the  islands 
adjacent,  are  mountainous.  But  at  present,  nothing  instructive 
can  be  said  as  to  this  feature  of  the  kingdom. 

The  mineral  riches  of  the  country,  though  known  to  be  con- 
siderable, have  been  but  scantily  developed.  Gold  is  obtained 
from  mines  in  Bamoo,  towards  the  Chinese  frontier,  and  is  found 
also,  in  the  shape  of  dust,  in  the  head  waters  of  all  the  principal 
streams.  It  is  not  obtained  in  large  quantities,  probably  only 
from  want  of  enterprise  and  capital ;  and  a  considerable  amount 
is  annually  received  over  land  from  China.  Nearly  the  whole  is 
used  in  gilding  sacred  edifices :  the  rest  goes  into  jewels,  or  is 
used  to  gild  the  utensils  of  the  great.  As  currency,  it  is  scarcely 
ever  used  ;  and  then  only  in  ingots. 

The  principal,  if  not  the  only  silver-mines,  are  in  Lao,  about 
twelve  days'  journey  from  Bamoo,  where  they  are  wrought  by 
Chinese.  The  estimated  produce  is  about  500,000  dollars  per 
annum.  About  a  thousand  miners  are  employed.  The  contract- 
ors pay  government  a  fixed  rent,  amounting  to  about  25,000 
dollars  per  annum. 

Emeralds  are  not  found  in  the  country,  and  the  diamonds  are 
small ;  but  rubies,  reputed  to  be  the  finest  in  the  world,  are  ob- 
tained in  considerable  quantities,  particularly  about  five  or  six 
days'  journey  from  Ava,  in  an  east-south-east  direction,  near  the 
villages  of  Mo-gout  and  Kyat-pyan.  1  saw  one,  for  which  four 
pounds  of  pure  gold  were  demanded.  The  king  has  some 
which  are  said  to  weigh  from  one  hundred  and  twenty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  grains.  Sapphires  are  very  abundant,  and 
often  of  surprising  size.  Some  have  been  obtained,  weighing 
from  three  thousand  to  nearly  four  thousand  grains.  All  over 
a  certain  size  being  claimed  by  the  crown,  very  large  ones  are 
almost  always  broken  by  the  finders.  Jasper,  amethyst,  chryso- 
lite, loadstone,  noble  serpentine,  and  amber,  are  also  found; 
the  two  latter  in  almost  unlimited  quantity.  Noble  serpentine 
is  obtained  chiefly  near  Mogoung,  where,  at  particular  seasons  of 
the  year,  about  a  thousand  men,  Burmans,  Laos,  Sinkphoos,  and 
vol.  i.  13 


146  BURMA  H. 

Chinese  Shyans,  are  employed  in  quarrying  or  mining  it  out. 
Captain  Hannay  saw  boats  laden  with  it,  of  which  some  masses 
required  three  men  to  lift  them.  From  four  hundred  to  six 
hundred  traders  from  China  annually  resort  to  the  mines  to  pur- 
chase serpentine.  The  majority  of  these  are  from  Santa,  but 
most  of  the  wealthier  ones  come  by  Bamoo.  The  principal 
amber  mines  are  hi  and  round  the  Hu-kong  valley,  on  the 
Asam  frontier.  It  is  very  abundant ;  but  the  natives,  having  nei- 
ther spade  nor  pickaxe,  and  using  chiefly  a  sort  of  spear  made 
of  a  cane,  burnt  at  the  sharpened  end,  they  accomplish  veiy  little. 
Most  of  it  is  carried  at  once  to  China. 

Iron  ore  is  found  hi  large  quantities,  from  which  the  natives 
make  sufficient  iron  for  the  consumption  of  the  country  ;  but,  prob- 
ably from  the  imperfect  mode  of  smelting,  it  loses  thirty  or  forty 
per  cent,  in  the  forge.  The  principal  supply  is  furnished  from 
the  great  mountain  of  Poupa,  a  few  days'  journey  east  of  Ava, 
about  latitude  21°  207. 

Tin  is  plenty  in  the  Tavoy  province,  and  perhaps  elsewhere, 
and  has  been  occasionally  got  out  in  considerable  quantity;  but 
at  present  little  is  done.  Resort  has  been  had,  almost  exclusive- 
ly, to  the  gravel  and  sand  of  water-courses ;  and  there  is  little 
doubt  but  that  a  proper  examination  of  the  hills  would  show  the 
existence  of  extensive  beds  of  ore. 

Lead  is  abundant,  but  is  chiefly  got  out  by  the  Shyans,  and 
brought  down  for  barter.  It  contains  always  a  little  silver,  about 
three  fourths  of  a  rupee  in  thirty-five  or  forty  pounds. 

Nitre  is  found  in  considerable  quantities,  incrusted  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  in  several  places  among  the  hills  north  of  Ava. 
Probably,  through  imperfect  management,  the  quantity  obtained 
is  not  sufficient  to  prevent  the  importation  of  a  considerable 
amount  from  Bengal,  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  Na- 
tron is  obtahied  in  the  same  districts,  and  is  used  for  soap.  Its 
price  is  only  eight  or  nine  dollars  per  ton,  but  it  is  by  no 
means  pure. 

Salt  exists,  in  several  places,  in  the  upper  country.  From 
eight  to  twenty  miles  north  of  Sagaing,  are  many  places  resem- 
bling our  great  "  licks "  in  the  western  country,  and  some  small 
sal  hie  lakes.  Large  quantities  of  salt  are  made  by  leaching  the 
earth,  very  much  as  we  do  ashes,  and  boiling  down  the  water. 
On  the  head  waters  of  the  Kyendween,  a  large  quantity  is  made 
from  sprhigs  and  wells,  the  waters  of  which  yield  the  large  pro- 
portion of  one  twentieth  of  their  weight  in  salt. 

Sulphur  and  arsenic  are  obtained  in  abundance.    The  latter 


MINERALS.  147 

is  for  sale  in  all  the  bazars  in  its  crude  state ;  but  for  what  it  is 
used,  except  a  little  for  medicine,  I  did  not  learn. 

Petroleuzn  is  obtained  hi  great  quantities  at  Yaynan-gyoung,  on 
the  Irrawaddy,  above  Prome  ;  and  the  supply  might  be  largely 
increased,  if  there  should  be  a  demand.  The  wells  are  two 
miles  back  from  the  river,  thickly  scattered  over  a  region  of 
several  miles  in  extent,  remarkable  for  its  barren  aspect,*  each 
producing  a  daily  average  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  of 
oil,  which  sells  on  the  spot  for  three  ticals  per  hundred  viss,  or 
about  forty  cents  per  cwt.  The  gross  annual  produce  is  about 
eighty  millions  of  pounds ;  it  is  earned  to  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom accessible  by  water,  and  is  used  for  lights,  paying  boats,  and 
various  other  purposes.  It  has  the  valuable  quality  of  securing 
wood  from  the  attacks  of  insects.  A  boat's  bottom,  kept  proper- 
ly in  order  with  it,  is  about  as  safe  as  if  coppered.  It  is  thought 
to  be  a  defence  even  from  white  ants. 

At  Sagaing,  and  some  other  places  north  of  it,  are  quarries  of 
marble,  some  of  which  is  very  fine.  It  is  a  primitive  limestone, 
of  snowy  whiteness,  semi-translucent,  free  from  all  cracks,  and 
capable  of  the  highest  polish.  The  almost  exclusive  use  made 
of  it,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  images  of  Gaudama,  and  other 
sacred  objects.  This  employs  constantly  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons. Similar  marble,  but  of  inferior  quality,  is  found  in  various 
other  places,  and  is  largely  used  for  lime.  It  is  apt  to  contain 
hornblend  and  mica,  with  occasional  crystals  of  feldspar,  and  to 
be  found  in  connection  with  pure  mica-slate.  Limestone  pre- 
vails along  the  whole  river.  Near  the  statuary  marble  quarries, 
it  is  blue,  of  the  finest  quality  ;  between  that  place  and  Paghan, 
it  is  dark,  bituminous,  and  slaty ;  lower  down,  near  Prome,  it  is 
coarse-grained  and  sandy.  Graywacke  is  also  found,  in  numerous 
places,  from  Ava  to  Rangoon.  Steatite  is  very  abundant,  and  in 
various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Pearls,  of  good  quality,  are  often 
picked  up  on  the  coast  of  Mergui  and  its  islands.  They  are  not, 
however,  fished  for,  and  only  such  are  obtamed,  as  are  found  in 
shells  driven  ashore  or  lying  above  low-water  mark.  The  pearls 
are  small,  but  of  regular  form  and  good  color. 

Petrifactions  of  wood,  bones,  and  even  leaves,  are  common  on 
the  banks  of  the  Irrawaddy.  So  far  as  yet  known,  they  are 
most  numerous  in  the  region  of  Yaynan-gyoung.  Crawfurd 
transmitted  to  England  several  chests  of  these.  The  bones 
proved  to  be  of  the  mastodon,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  tapir, 
hog,   ox,   deer,  antelope,    gavial,    alligator,   emys,    and   tryonix. 

*  See  Journal,  page  91. 


148  BURMAH. 

Of  the  mastodon,  there  are,  evidently,  two  species,  and  both 
these  entirely  new,  making  eight  known  species  of  this  ex- 
tinct genus.  I  picked  up  as  many  as  I  could  transport,  and  for- 
warded them  to  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History.  They 
comprise  fossil  bones,  and  wood,  and  calcareous  concretions 
without  any  organic  nucleus,  and  resembling  the  tuberous  roots 
of  vegetables.*  The  natives,  as  might  be  supposed,  attribute 
these  petrifactions  to  the  waters  of  the  Irrawaddy;  but  this 
must  be  erroneous.  The  specimens  are  washed  out  of  the  banks 
by  the  encroachment  of  the  river,  and  are  found  in  beds  of  sand 
and  gravel,  thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the  highest  floods.  The 
matrix  adhering  to  many  of  the  bones,  seems  to  be  quartz  and 
jasper  pebbles,  united  by  carbonate  of  lime,  and  sometimes 
hydrate  of  iron.  Logs  of  wood,  which  have  evidently  lain  long 
in  the  river,  are  not  changed.  Bones  are  not  found  of  the  ele- 
phant or  tiger,  both  of  which  are  now  abundant  in  the  country, 
but  of  the  mammoth,  which  has  been  extinct  for  ages,  and  of  the 
rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  tapir,  and  gavial,  which  are  no  longer 
inhabitants  of  Burmah.  All  these  reasons  conspire  to  assign 
these  fossils  to  an  antediluvian  epoch.  Some  of  the  vegetable 
fossils  are  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime,  but  most  of  them 
are  silicified  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  showing  perfectly 
the  fibres  of  the  plant.  The  bones  are  in  admirable  preserva- 
tion, owing  probably  to  then'  being  highly  impregnated  with 
hydrate  of  iron. 

Coal  of  excellent  quality,  both  anthracite  and  bituminous,  has 
been  discovered  in  various  places,  but  has  not  been  brought 
into  use. 

The  principal  river  in  the  empire,  and  indeed  in  all  Farther 
India,  is  the  Irrawaddy,  which  rises  in  the  Namean  Mountains, 
a  range  south  of  the  Himmalaya,  but  belonging  to  that  great 
chain.  After  a  course  of  twelve  hundred  miles,  it  falls  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  by  several  mouths,  near  Cape  Nigrais. 
Most  of  these  mouths  are  navigable  for  large  craft;  those 
of  Bassein  and  Rangoon,  for  vessels  drawing  five  fathoms.  It 
may  be  ascended  as  far  as  Ava,  at  all  seasons,  by  vessels  of  two 
hundred  tons ;  and  in  the  rains  they  may  proceed  to  Mogoung 
River,  a  distance  of  about  eight  hundred  sailing  miles  from  the 
sea.  Above  this  point,  hi  the  dry  season,  it  winds  along  a  very 
tortuous  channel,  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  an  hour ;  but  in  its 
inundations,  from  June  to  September,  it  rises  high,  flows  rapidly 

*  Similar  concretions,  often  mistaken  for  petrifactions  and  stalactites,  are 
found  in  Austria,  Sardinia,  England,  and  elsewhere. 


149 


among  small  islands,  and  presents  a  comparatively  straight  course, 
having  a  breadth  of  about  a  mile  at  Bamoo,  and,  in  some  places 
below  Ava,  from  four  to  six.  At  Ava,  the  rise  is  about  thirty- 
three  feet.  At  this  time,  boats  ascend  most  easdy,  impelled  by 
the  south-west  monsoon.  It  is  not  confined  to  an  annual  freshet, 
but,  during  the  monsoon,  rises  and  falls  three  or  four  times. 
On  its  banks,  between  Ava  and  Rangoon,  are  numerous  villages 
and  cities,  some  of  them  veiy  large.  Large  villages  and  towns 
are  also  established  a  little  back  from  the  river,  by  which  the 
inhabitants  avoid  many  exactions  of  boat-service,  both  in  peace 
and  war. 

The  Salwen,  or  Martaban  River,  rises  among  the  same  ranges 
which  originate  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Burampooter,  the  Meinam, 
and  the  great  Camboja  rivers.  In  the  first  part  of  its  course,  it  is 
called  Louk-chang  by  the  Chinese.  It  has  a  course  of  several 
hundred  miles,  and  disembogues  by  two  mouths,  one  at  the  north 
of  Balu  Island,  and  the  other  at  the  south.  The  northern  chan- 
nel, though  very  wide,  is  navigable  only  for  small  boats. 

The  Kyendween  rises 
near  the  sources  of  the 
Irrawaddy,  and,  after  wa- 
tering the  Kubo  valley» 
and  passing  through  some 
of  the  best  and  most  pop- 
ulous parts  of  Burmah, 
enters  the  Irrawaddy 
about  fifty  miles  below 
Ava.  As  the  junction  of 
this  important  river  has 
been  regularly  surveyed 
by  Lieutenant  Wilcox,  1 
give  a  map  of  that  section 
of  the  Irrawaddy  reduced 
from  his. 

The      Setang      River 
makes,  at  its  mouth,  an 
imposing  appearance  up- 
on the  map,  being  several 
miles  wide,  but  is  nearly 
useless   for   all   purposes 
of   internal    communica- 
tion.    At  low  water  there  is  no  continuous  channel  deeper  than 
four  feet,  but  various  spots  give  a  depth  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
13* 


Junction  of  the  Kyendween 
Scale  of  IS  mi 


150  BURMAH. 

feet.  The  tide,  compressed  by  the  funnel  form  of  the  shores,  and 
collecting  the  whole  force  of  the  flood  from  a  great  distance  in 
the  bay,  acquires  fearful  velocity.  Except  at  the  lowest  neaps, 
there  is  a  "  bore  "  on  the  setting  in  of  the  flood,  which  subjects 
small  vessels  to  the  most  imminent  danger.  Some  years  ago,  a 
surveying  vessel  from  Maulmain  reported  that  it  had  set  her  in 
a  westerly  direction  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles  an  hour ! 

The  Myet-nga,  or  Little  River,  enters  the  Irrawaddy  on  the 
north  side  of  the  city  of  Ava,  and  is  navigable  for  large  boats  to 
a  very  considerable  distance. 

The  Mogoung  River  empties  into  the  Irrawaddy  hi  lat.  24°  57', 
and  is  boatable  for  a  hundred  miles. 

There  are  some  other  rivers  in  the  empire,  nearly  as  important ; 
and  some  fine  lakes,  but  the  only  good  harbors  now  left  to  Bur- 
mah,  are  those  of  Rangoon  and  Bassein. 

The  soil  of  the  maritime  portions  of  Burmah  is  perhaps  un- 
surpassed in  fertility.  The  inconsiderable  fraction  which  is  cul- 
tivated, though  after  a  most  imperfect  manner,  yields  not  only 
abundance  of  rice  for  the  inhabitants,  but  a  great  amount  for  ex- 
portation to  the  upper  provinces.  The  paddy-fields  yield  gener- 
ally from  eighty  to  one  hundred  fold,  and  in  some  cases,  twice  that 
amount. 

Farther  inland,  the  country  becomes  undulating,  but  is  scarce- 
ly less  fertile,  though  for  the  most  part  a  mere  jungle.  The  re- 
gion still  farther  east  and  north  is  mountainous,  and  bears  the 
usual  characteristics  of  such  districts. 

There  are  said  to  be  several  deserts  of  considerable  size,  but 
they  have  never  been  explored. 

In  this  favored  country  are  found  nearly  all  the  valuable  trees 
of  Farther  India ;  but  while  the  people  are  thus  supplied  with  a 
profusion  of  valuable  timber,  they  are  far  below  their  neighbors 
in  the  case  of  fruit-trees,  and  have  them  generally  of  an  inferior 
quality. 

The  following  list  is  by  no  means  offered  as  a  perfect  catalogue 
of  Burman  fruits  and  timbers.  It  is  intended  to  show  the  re- 
sources of  the  country  in  these  matters.  The  information  was 
chiefly  picked  up  on  the  way-side  from  natives,  sometimes  with 
the  plant  in  sight,  but  oftener  not. 

The  scientific  names  have  been  given,  when  known,  in  order 
that  those  who  choose  may  identify  the  plant. 

The  Da-nyan,  or  Durean,  [durio  zebethinus,)  flourishes  in  the 
provinces  of  Tavoyand  Mergui,  but  not  elsewhere  in  the  empire. 
The  tree  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  jack,  and  the  fruit  greatly  re- 


VEGETABLE    PRODUCTIONS. 


151 


sembles  it,  but  is  smaller,  scarcely  attaining  the  size  of  a  man's 
head.  It  is  esteemed  by  the  natives  the  most  delicious  fruit  in  India- 
Europeans  are  not  fond  of  it  until  after  repeated  trials.  Those 
who  persist,  always  unite  with  the  natives  in  then-  preference. 
It  contains  ten  or  twelve  seeds,  as  large  as  pigeons'  eggs,  which, 
when  roasted,  are  not  inferior  to  chestnuts.  It  is  the  most  cost- 
ly fruit  in  India,  and  is  never  found  propagating  itself  in  a  wild 
state.  The  tree  is  high  and  spreading,  lives  a  hundred  years, 
and  produces  about  two  hundred  dureans  in  a  year. 

The  Bun-ya,  Pien-nai,  or 
Jack,  [artocarpus  integrifolia,) 
is  thought  not  to  be  indige- 
nous, but  thrives  well  in  all 
the  lower  provinces.  Its  name 
seems  to  indicate  the  peninsula 
of  Hindustan  as  its  proper 
country,  and  it  certainly  is  very 
common  there.  In  the  Teloo- 
goo  language,  it  is  called  Jaka. 
It  attains  to  the  height  of 
eighty  or  one  hunched  feet 
Branches,  thick,  alternate,  and 
spreading ;  leaves,  very  dark 
green.  The  full-grown  fruit 
weighs  from  thirty  to  fifty 
pounds,  growing  not  from  the 
twigs,  but,  iu  young  trees, 
from  the  thick  branches,  af- 
terward from  the  top  of  the  trunk,  and,  when  very  aged,  from  the 
roots.  It  is  covered  with  a  very  thick,  rough,  green  skin,  and  is 
full  of  white  stones,  the  size  of  a  pullet's  egg.  Few  persons  are 
fond  of  it  at  first,  but  by  repeated  trials  soon  become  so.  I  found 
it  very  indigestible.  There  are  two  kinds,  which,  however,  do 
not  greatly  differ.  The  timber  is  very  valuable,  and  used  for 
musical  instruments,  cabinet  ware,  and  ornamental  work. 

The  Managoot,  or  Mangosteen,  (garcinia  mangostana,)  grows  hi 
Mergui  province,  but  is  not  common.  The  tree  is  low,  about  the 
size  and  shape  of  an  apple-tree ;  leaves,  dark  green.  It  is  raised 
from  the  seed,  and  bears  the  seventh  year.  Some  trees  yield 
annually  from  a  thousand  to  two  thousand  mangosteens.  The 
fruit  is  generally  deemed  by  foreigners  the  finest  in  India,  and 
indeed  in  all  the  world.  Foreigners  are  fond  of  it  from  the  first. 
It  resembles  the  black  walnut  in  size,  and  the  pomegranate  in  its 


Jack-Tree  and  Fruit. 


152 


BURMAH. 


exterior.  A  hull  like  that  of  the  black  walnut  is  to  be  removed, 
and  the  fruit  appears  white,  pulpy,  grapelike,  about  the  size  of  a 
small  plum,  and  having  one  or  two  very  small  stones.  Its  taste 
is  mildly  acid,  and  extremely  delicate  and  luscious,  without  a 
tendency  to  cloy  the  appetite;  and  almost  any  quantity  may 
be  eaten,  by  most  persons,  without  danger.  It  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  from  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  is  far  from 
attaining  in  the  hands  of  the  Tavoyers  the  perfection  it  there 
possesses. 

The  Tharrat,  or  Thayet,  or  Mango,  (mangifera 
indica,)  called  by  Tavoyers  Thurrapee,  is  one  of 
the  largest  fruit-trees  in  the  world,  reaching 
a  height  of  one  hundred  feet  or  more,  and  a 
circumference  of  twelve  or  fourteen,  sometimes 
even  of  twenty-five.  Branches,  thick,  spread- 
ing; leaves,  long,  narrow,  smooth,  shining; 
"Mango.'  flowers,  small,  white.      The  fruit  is  delicious, 

about  four  inches  long,  and  two  wide ;  thin, 
smooth,  greenish  skin,  and  very  large,  hairy  stone.  There  are  as 
many  kinds  as  there  are  of  apples,  and  differing  about  as  much 
from  each  other.  The  timber  is  excellent,  and  is  used  for 
masts,  pestles,  mortal's,  &c. 

The  Thimbau,  Papaya,  or  Papau,  [carica  papaja,)  grows  to  the 
height  of  fifteen  to  thirty  feet,  without  branches  or  leaves,  except 
at  the  top,  where  the  fruit  grows  close  to  the  stem.  Leaves, 
twenty  to  thirty  inches  long.  Fruit  is  of  a  green  color,  and  close- 
ly resembles  a  small  muskmelon,  with  round  black  seeds,  which, 
when  very  young,  have  the  taste  of  capers.  It  seems  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  Portuguese.  It  comes  rapidly  to  maturi- 
ty in  any  soil,  bears  fruit  all  the  year,  and  is  exceedingly  prolific. 
It  is  inferior  in  flavor  to  our  muskmelons.  There  are  several 
kinds,  all  highly  prized.  The  sap  of  this  tree  is  a  most  deadly 
poison,  taken  inwardly.  The  French  doctors  use  it  as  a  medi- 
cine.    When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  resembles  salt. 

The  Ong,  or  Coco-nut,  [cocos  nucifera,)  resembles  other  palms, 
especially  the  palmyra  or  toddy-tree :  the  leaves  are  longer.  The 
fruit  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  The  envelope  or 
husk  furnishes  a  large  part  of  the  cordage,  called  coya  or  coir, 
which  is  not  surpassed  in  excellence  by  any  other,  though  little 
is  made  in  Burmah.  From  the  nut,  an  oil  of  good  quality  is 
obtained  in  large  quantities,  used  both  in  cooking  and  for  light. 
The  top  of  the  tree  is  tapped  for  toddy  by  cutting  off  the  end  of 
the  stem  which  bears  the  blossom.     It  is  generally  made  into 


VEGETABLE     PRODUCTIONS. 


153 


sugar,  or  some  is  drank  fresh.     In  other  countries,  arrack  is  dis- 
tilled from  this  species  of  toddy. 

The  tree  is  scarce,  particularly  in  the  upper  provinces,  and 
almost  entirely  wanting  in  Arracan  ;  so  that  large  quantities  are 
imported  from  the  Nicobar  Islands,  and  elsewhere,  which  are 
chiefly  used  in  making  curry.  For  this  purpose  the  whole  fruit 
is  scraped,  and  the  juice  squeezed  out.  The  pulp  is  thrown  away. 
The  Coco-nut  tree  delights  in  a  sandy  soil,  and  at  the  same 
time  requires  to  be  much  watered.  Hence  they  are  generally 
found  by  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-coast.  The  Palmyra,  on  the  con- 
trary, grows  every  where. 

The  Nep-yau,  or  Plantain, 
[musa  paradisiaca,)  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  gifts  of  Providence 
to  a  great  part  of  the  globe,  grow- 
ing wherever  the  mean  tempe- 
rature exceeds  65°.  The  stalk 
seldom  exceeds  seven  or  eight 
inches  in  diameter,  and  twenty 
feet  in  height,  bears  but  one  bunch 
of  fruit,  and  dies.  The  stem  is 
cut  close  to  the  ground,  and  from 
the  same  root,  however,  the  tree 
is  renewed  many  years.  The 
leaves,  when  young,  are  the  most 
beautiful  in  India,  expanding,  with 
a  smooth  surface,  and  vivid  green, 
to  six  feet  in  length,  and  two  or 
more  in  breadth,  but,  soon  after 
attaining  full  size,  the  edges  be- 
come torn  by  the  wind.  The 
flower  is  very  large,  purple,  and 
shaped  like  an  ear  of  Indian  corn.  At  the  root  of  the  outer  leaf, 
a  double  row  of  the  fruit  comes  out  half  round  the  stalk  or  cob. 
The  stem  then  elongates  a  few  inches,  and  another  leaf  is  deflected, 
revealing  another  double  row.  Thus  the  stem  grows  on,  leaving 
a  leaf  of  the  flower  and  a  bunch  of  the  fruit  every  few  inches, 
till  there  come  to  be  twenty-five  or  thirty  bunches,  containing 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  plantains, 
and  weighing  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds.  The  weight  bends 
over  the  end  of  the  stem,  and  when  ripe  it  hangs  within  reach. 
Like  other  palms,  it  has  no  branches. 


The  Plantain-Tree. 


154  BURMAH. 

Humboldt  calculates  that  thirty-three  pounds  of  wheat,  and 
ninety-nine  pounds  of  potatoes,  require  the  same  surface  of 
ground,  that  will  produce  four  thousand  pounds  of  ripe  plan- 
tains, which  is  to  potatoes  as  forty-four  to  one,  and  to  wheat  as 
one  hundred  and  thirty-three  to  one.  What  a  mercy  is  such  a  tree, 
in  a  country  where  hard  labor  is  oppressive  by  reason  of  heat! 
There  are  as  many  varieties  of  this  fruit  in  Burmah  as  there 
are  of  the  apple  with  us ;  some  preferred  for  cooking,  others  for 
eating  in  a  raw  state ;  some  sorts  grow  wtfd,  but  in  general  it  is 
exclusively  the  result  of  culture. 

The  small-fruited  Plantain,  or  Banana,  [musa  sapientum,)  is 
common  in  the  southern  districts,  but  is  not  much  cultivated. 
It  is  found  wild,  and  in  that  state  has  seeds,  which  the  cultivated 
plantains  never  have. 

The  Coon-the,  or  Betel,  (areca  catechu,)  another  species  of  palm, 
grows  both  wild  and  cultivated,  attaining  the  height  of  thirty  to 
fifty  feet,  but  seldom  so  thick  as  a  man's  thigh ;  without  limbs  or 
leaves,  except  at  the  top.  Bark,  smooth,  ash-colored,  and  marked 
with  parallel  rings.  The  fruit  is  the  size  of  a  nutmeg,  and  resem- 
bling it  in  structure. 

Near  it  is  generally  seen  growing  the  Pung,  or  Betel  Vine, 
[piper  betele,)  a  slender  annual,  whose  leaf,  touched  with  a  little 
lime,  is  the  universal  accompaniment  to  the  areca-nut  and  cutch 
for  chewing.     It  is  cultivated  on  a  trellis,  like  the  grape. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  describe  all  the  other  palms,  which  are 
exceeding  numerous,  different  species  being  applied  to  different 
uses,  but  all  of  them  of  primary  importance.  One  of  the  most 
widely  disseminated  is  the  cocos  nypa.  From  this  is  obtained  the 
best  leaves  for  thatching,  called  by  Burmans  denee,  and  by  Euro- 
peans atap,  from  the  Malay  word  for  thatch,  and  by  them  specifi- 
cally given  to  this  plant  as  furnishing  the  best.  It  yields  abun- 
dance of  toddy  and  sugar. 

The  Magee,  or  Tamarind,  (tamarindus  Indicus,)  is  not  found 
upon  tide  waters,  but  is  very  abundant  throughout  the  upper 
provinces.  It  becomes  ninety  or  one  hundred  feet  high,  and 
twelve  or  fifteen  in  circumference,  and,  like  the  mango,  is  planted 
not  less  for  shade  than  fruit.  The  branches  extend  widely,  with 
a  dense  foliage  of  bright  green  composite  leaves,  very  much 
like  those  of  the  sensitive  plant.  The  flowers  are  in  clusters,  of 
a  beautiful  yellow,  veined  with  red.  The  fruit  hangs  like  beans. 
The  pods  are  longer,  darker,  and  richer  than  the  tamarind  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  are  preserved  without  the  addition  of  sirup.  The 
timber  is  like  ebony,  very  strong,  and  used  for  mallets,  by  coolies 


VEGETABLE    PRODUCTIONS.  155 

for  bearing-poles,  &c.  The  young  leaves,  as  well  as  the  fruit,  are 
used  in  curry. 

The  Toung-pien-nai,  or  Mountain  Jack,  grows  like  the  jack,  but 
the  fruit  never  exceeds  the  size  of  a  goose  egg,  and  has  the  taste 
of  a  tart  cherry. 

The  Mayan,  or  Marian,  (mangifera  oppositifolia,)  grows  wild  in 
most  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  a  lofty,  spreading  tree.  Fruit, 
yellow;  the  size  of  a  plumb.  There  are  several  varieties,  of 
which  some  are  sweet  and  others  sour.  It  is  an  excellent  fruit, 
but  does  not  grow  in  the  upper  provinces. 

The  Sabu-tha-bey  is  one  of  the  largest  of  trees.  Fruit,  size 
of  a  small  peach,  red,  very  many  seeds,  hanging  in  clusters 
from  the  trunk. 

The  Palmyra  (borasstis)  grows  every  where,  but  abounds 
chiefly  hi  the  upper  provinces,  especially  near  Ava.  There  are 
several  varieties.  It  issues  from  the  ground  the  full  thickness  it 
is  ever  to  be  —  about  three  to  four  feet  diameter,  and  gains  a  few 
niches  in  height  every  year,  throwing  out  no  branches,  and  bear- 
ing leaves  only  at  the  summit.  It  reaches  the  height  of  about 
forty  feet;  and  sometimes,  but  rarely,  fifty-five  or  sixty  feet. 
The  leaves  are  of  great  size,  standing  out  from  a  stem  like  the 
fingers  of  an  extended  hand.  From  this  species  of  palm,  the 
leaves  for  writing  are  prepared.  The  tree  comes  to  maturity  in 
about  thirty  years,  but  often  takes  forty.  The  male  trees  afford 
juice  or  toddy  three  months  hi  the  year,  the  female  seven  or 
eight,  each  giving  daily  from  one  to  three  gallons,  which  is 
gathered  by  cutting  off  a  shoot  which  would  bear  fruit,  and  sus- 
pending a  pot  or  a  bamboo  to  the  end.  Most  of  this  is  made  into 
molasses,  or  jaggery.  Some  of  it  is  drank  fresh  from  the  tree, 
when  it  resembles  new  cider.  By  standing  a  few  hours,  it  fer- 
ments rapidly,  and  in  that  state  is  considerably  intoxicating.  It 
is,  I  believe,  never  distilled.  The  fruit  is  black,  oval,  sliiny,  two 
inches  in  diameter,  and  used  after  cooking  in  a  great  variety 
of  ways.  The  stone  of  the  fruit  is  a  third  of  its  bulk,  and  is  buried 
in  the  ground  for  the  sake  of  the  large  sprout  it  produces,  which 
is  prized  as  an  esculent.  Every  part  of  the  tree  is  made  useful. 
The  sap  is  boiled  down  as  we  do  that  of  the  maple,  and  yields 
the  tolerable  sugar  called  jaggery,  in  commerce.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  this  are  made. 

The  May-u-ah  is  the  size  of  an  apple-tree.  Fruit,  excellent, 
size  of  a  plumb,  purple  color ;  sweet,  small  seeds.  It  is  said  to 
grow  in  the  celestial  regions,  and  to  be  a  favorite  food  of  the  Nats. 

The  Aw-zah,  or  Guava,  (psidmm  pomifermn,)  is  abundant  in 


156  BURMAH. 

some  places,  but  is  not  extended  over  the  whole  country,  and  is 
certainly  not  indigenous.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty 
feet,  with  leaves  of  pale  green,  and  beautiful,  large,  white  blossoms. 
The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  pear,  and  a  little  yellowish  when 
ripe,  full  of  hard  seeds,  the  size  of  buck-shot.  Foreigners  gener- 
ally despise  it,  as  they  do  many  other  Indian  fruits,  which  a  few 
experiments  would  teach  them  to  admire.  There  are  several 
varieties. 

The  Custard-apple  (annona  squamosa,  &c.)  grows  well  if  planted 
in  proper  places,  but  receives  little  care,  and  is  not  so  common 
as  its  extreme  deliciousness  deserves.  The  fruit  resembles  a 
large  pine  bur  not  yet  opened,  or  a  pine-apple  cheese,  and  is 
about  the  size  of  a  large  apple.  The  skin  is  thick,  and  the  inside 
filled  up  with  seeds  mixed  among  a  yellowish  pulp,  so  closely  re- 
sembling soft,  custard  as  to  fully  justify  its  name.  Its  Javanese 
name  has  the  same  allusion. 

The  Ta-lain-no  is  a  vine  which  attains  a  diameter  of  eight  or 
twelve  inches.  Fruit,  yellow,  pear-shaped,  acid,  with  six  or  eight 
stones,  size  of  an  egg. 

The  Zee,  or  Crab-apple,  a  moderate-sized  tree.  Fruit,  size  of  a 
large  cherry,  one  large  stone.  Two  kinds,  sweet  and  sour.  The 
timber  is  highly  prized  for  its  fine  grain,  toughness,  and  elasticity. 
The  Zim-byoon  (dillenia)  is  of  several  kinds.  They  are  large 
trees,  but  the  timber  is  worthless.  Fruit,  size  of  a  small  plumb, 
sour,  red. 

The  Ka-ling  grows  twenty  or  thirty  feet  high,  generally  wild. 
The  fruit  is  the  size  of  a  child's  marble,  used  more  as  medicine 
than  food. 

The  Theho-tharet,  or  Ka-shoo,  Cashew  or  Aca- 
jou, (anarcardium  occidentale,)  is  a  spreading  tree, 
seldom  more  than  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet  high. 
The  fruit  resembles  a  pear,  but  is  rendered  very 
remarkable  by  a  crescent-shaped  nut  growing  on 
the  end.    It  is  much  prized  by  Burmans,  though 
not  by  foreigners.     The  roasted  nut  is  excellent. 
The  Kyet-mouk,  or  Cocks-comb,  is  a  moderate- 
casbew-Nut.        sjzed  tree,  found  wild  in  most  parts  of  the  country. 
The  fruit  is  red,  sour,  the  color  of  a  cock's  comb,  and  has  similar 
corrugations  on  the  skin.     It  hangs  in  grape-like  clusters. 

The  Zoung-yan  is  peculiar  to  the  upper  provinces.  Fruit,  size 
of  a  guava,  pink,  full  of  seed,  smooth  skin.  Fruit,  leaves,  and 
root,  are  used  as  medicine.  The  tree  is  of  good  size,  but  useless 
as  timber. 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  157 

The  La-moo  is  a  small  tree,  like  a  willow,  growing  only  near 
salt  water,  and  generally  in  the  very  edge,  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
in  diameter.  The  blossom  is  very  beautiful,  a  little  like  a  thistle, 
very  fragrant,  pale-green,  large,  umbrella-shaped  pistil,  innu- 
merable stamens,  no  corolla,  but  a  thick  calyx,  which  remains, 
and  holds  the  fruit  like  a  dish.  Monkeys  are  fond  of  the  fruit, 
and  are  often  seen  in  the  tree.  The  natives  use  it  in  curry. 
Timber  useless. 

The  Na-uah  is  a  very  large  tree,  thorny.  Fruit,  deep  red,  size 
of  a  small  plumb,  skin  very  thin,  full  of  hard,  white,  triangular 
seeds.     Prized  only  by  the  natives. 

The  Than-lwen,  or  Olive,  grows  plentifully  round  Mergui,  but 
not  of  veiy  good  quality,  as  it  is  entirely  neglected. 

The  Lep-han  grows  every  where  in  the  upper  pi'ovinces,  and 
is  one  of  the  largest  trees  hi  the  country,  often  ten  and  twelve 
feet  in  diameter.  The  ripe  seeds  are  contained  in  pods,  envel- 
oped in  a  fine  cotton,  of  which  mattrasses  are  commonly  made. 
Both  blossoms  and  fruit  are  eaten,  when  young,  chiefly  in  curry. 
Timber  inferior. 

The  Ka-na-zoo,  or  Saul,  or  Soondry-tree,  (herieteria,)  is  a 
much  larger  tree  than  in  Bengal ;  chiefly  found  on  the  tide 
waters.  Fruit  hangs  in  loose  bunches,  size  of  grapes,  very 
pleasant,  one  seed.  Leaves,  large,  alternate,  smooth,  green  on 
the  upper  side,  and  silvery-white  beneath.  Timber,  hard,  straight- 
grained,  elastic,  and  durable  ;  used  for  mill  work,  spokes,  shafts, 
oars,  &c.     There  are  several  species  of  this  valuable  tree. 

The  Theet-cha,  or  Chestnut,  (castanea  martabanica,)  is  abundant 
in  the  upper  districts,  but  seems  not  known  on  the  coast. 

The  Thit-to,  (sandoricum  indicum,)  a  very  large  tree.  Fruit,  size 
of  an  apple,  with  three  seeds,  yellow  when  ripe.  Timber  is 
used  for  most  common  purposes,  but  not  much  valued,  being 
soft  and  of  uneven  grain. 

The  Lieng-maw,  or  Orange-tree,  [citrus,)  is  found  in  several 
varieties,  but  growing  wild,  as  do  almost  all  Burman  fruits,  is 
generally  of  inferior  quality.  I  believe  the  Burmans  never  graft 
or  inoculate  any  fruit. 

The  Then-ba-yah,  or  Lime,  (citrus,  medica,  limetta,  &c.)  has  its 
several  varieties,  and  is  excellent. 

The  Lieng-maw,  or  Lemon,  (citrus  limonum,  &.c.)  is  also 
common  and  good.  The  name  in  Burman,  it  will  be  observed, 
is  the  same  as  for  the  orange,  though  the  term  sivcet  is  often 
given  to  the  latter  as  a  distinction. 

The  Pumplenose,  or  Pomelovv,  called  with  us  shattuch,  or 
vol.  i.  14 


158  BURMAH. 

shaddock,  [citnts  decvmmana,)  is  prized,  but  is  rare  in  Burmah, 
though  so  abundant  in  most  parts  of  the  East. 

The  Kan  is  a  shrub,  three  or  four-  feet  high,  yielding  a  valued 
fruit  which  resembles  a  sweet  grape. 

The  Go-nyen,  a  vine  producing  pods  three  or  four  feet 
long,  containing  ten  or  twelve  beans,  ten  inches  in  circum- 
ference.    These  beans,  well  boiled,  are  sometimes  used  for  food. 

The  Myouk  Go-nyen,  a  smaller  vine,  bearing  in  its  pod  but 
one  bean,  the  size  of  half  a  dollar.  Monkeys  are  said  to  be  very 
fond  of  it,  but  Burmans  do  not  eat  it. 

The  Soung-ya  grows  six  or  eight  feet  high.  Fruit,  the  size  of 
an  apple,  elongated,  deeply  fluted,  brilliant  yellow,  contains  ten 
seeds  in  five  apartments.     Chiefly  used  to  acidify  curry. 

The  Theet-kya-po,  or  Cinnamon,  [laurus  cinnamomum,)  grows 
wild,  at  least  in  the  Martaban  province,  but  is  not  of  good  quality, 
doubtless  for  want  of  cultivation.  A  great  variety  of  the  laurus 
tribe  is  found  beside  this  cinnamon. 

The  Shah-zoung  [aloe)  is  in  many  varieties.  Used  both  for 
medicine  and  chewing  with  the  betel. 

The  Yay-yoh  is  a  pretty  large  tree.  Leaf,  large,  and  very 
deep  green.  Fruit  resembles  a  pine  bur,  with  soft  and  tender 
covering  to  a  solid  mass  of  hard  seeds,  occupying  six  sevenths 
of  the  whole  bulk.  When  green,  it  is  cooked,  and  when  ripe, 
eaten  raw,  as  valued  sauce  to  salt  fish. 

The  Quah-lay,  [mucuna  pruriens,)  a  celebrated  vermifuge, 
abounds  every  where  in  the  jungle.  In  a  tender  state,  the 
natives  use  it  as  food. 

The  Kyah  (nelumbium  speciosum)  is  a  sort  of  lily,  growing  in 
the  water ;  flower,  very  large,  pink  and  white ;  fruit  is  as  large  as 
one's  fist,  forming  an  exact  hemisphere,  on  the  flat  surface  of 
which,  about  twenty-four  seeds  are  imbedded,  which,  when  ripe, 
are  black  and  hard.  Prized  for  eating.  The  flowers  are  a  fa- 
vorite offering  at  the  pagoda. 

Cherries  and  plums  are  common  and  good  in  the  extreme 
north-west  portions  of  the  country ;  and  in  the  extreme  north- 
east the  apple  and  peach  flourish,  but  are  little  cultivated,  if  at 
all,  and  are  of  inferior  quality. 

Tobacco  grows  with  vigor  in  most  parts  of  the  country:  often 
large  spaces  are  covered  with  the  wild  plant.  The  consumption 
is  not  great,  as  it  is  used  only  for  smoking ;  and  then  the  wrapper 
is  formed  from  the  leaf  of  the  thennat-tree,  and  all  the  roots  are 
used  as  well  as  the  leaf.  It  is  cultivated  along  the  margins  of 
water-courses,  but  in  a  slovenly  way. 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  159 

Beside  these,  Burmah  has  a  great  variety  of  fruits,  such  as 
castor-bean,  anise  seed,  capers,  cardamom,  capsicum,  pine-apple, 
raspberry,  whortleberry,  tomato,  &c.  I  have  no  means  of  enu- 
merating the  entire  list.  Visiting  the  bazar  at  Maulmain,  about 
the  close  of  the  dry  season,  for  the  express  purpose  of  counting 
what  might  be  there  exposed,  I  found  more  than  thirty.  This 
was  not  the  most  abundant  season  of  fruits,  but  the  contrary.  I 
presume  there  are  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two 
hundred  fruits  in  this  favored  country,  beside  numerous  varieties 
of  some  of  them. 

As  to  the  value  of  these  numerous  fruits,  compared  with 
those  of  our  own  country,  testimony  differs,  as  on  other  mat- 
ters of  taste.  The  Burman  and  Karen  who  visited  America, 
deemed  the  best  of  our  fruits  very  insipid.  Americans  at  first 
admire  few  Burman  fruits,  but  those  who  persist  in  eating  even 
the  most  repulsive,  soon  become  fond  of  them.  The  enjoyment 
of  them,  therefore,  rests  with  one's  self,  as  it  does  in  regard  to 
drinking  the  water  of  some  mineral  springs,  or  eating  olives. 
In  my  own  opinion,  India  has  greatly  the  advantage  of  America 
and  Europe,  in  her  fruits,  both  in  number  and  quality.  The 
plantain  itself  may  be  considered  an  equivalent  to  almost  the 
whole  of  our  fruits.  It  may  be  had  fresh  every  day  in  the  year, 
and,  in  its  numerous  varieties,  makes  both  a  vegetable  and  a  fruit, 
of  which  none  are  ever  tired,  and  by  partaking  of  which,  none 
are  ever  injured. 

Among  their  edible  roots,  they  have  ginger,  cassia,  licorice, 
arrow-root,  yam,  sweet  potato,  Irish  potato,  onions,  garlic, 
asparagus,  ground-nut,  &c. 

They  also  find  in  the  woods,  plains,  and  lakes,  innumerable 
esculents,  in  the  selection  of  which  the  very  children  become  ex- 
pert. Most  of  these  are  prepared  in  the  form  of  curry,  and 
eaten  in  small  quantities,  as  condiments  to  their  rice. 

The  principal  grams  will  be  mentioned  when  we  come  to 
speak  of  agriculture. 

The  country  is  scarcely  less  favored  in  valuable  timber-trees, 
some  of  which  have  been  already  named  as  bearing  useful  fruit. 

First  to  be  named  among  these  is  the  Kewn,  or  Teak,  (tectona 
grandi%)  which  is  here  far  more  abundant  than  in  any  other  part 
of  India.  It  is  probably,  on  the  whole,  the  most  valuable  timber 
in  the  world,  both  for  strength,  fineness,  and  durability ;  and 
in  this  country  especially  so,  for  being  always  safe  from  white 
ants.  It  grows  to  an  enormous  size,  attaining  maturity  in  about 
eighty  years.    Wood,  reddish,  and  susceptible  of  a  very  fine  polish. 


IGO  BURMAH. 

It  is  one  of  the  few  tropical  trees  which  sheds  its  leaves  annually, 
and  at  once.  It  has  this  advantage  over  oak,  that,  while  that  has 
an  acid  which  destroys  iron,  this  has  an  essential  oil  which  pre- 
serves it  Fruit,  rough,  brown,  size  of  a  cherry,  worthless.  There 
is  also  another  species,  the  ttctona  hamiltoniana,  much  smaller. 

Next  to  the  teak,  for  timber,  is  the  Thingan,  [hopia  odorata  of 
Dr.  Gardner,)  very  abundant,  especially  in  the  lower  provinces. 
It  is  as  tall  as  the  teak,  but  less  spreading.  This,  and  the  teak, 
make  the  best  canoes.  This  is  the  tree  which  spreads  its 
branches  over  the  graves  of  Mrs.  Judson  and  her  infant.  But 
that  particular  specimen  is  very  aged,  and  decaying.  It  was  called 
the  Hope-tree,  in  honor  of  a  distinguished  gentleman  of  that 
name  in  England. 

The  Pee-mah  (lagerstromia'2)  is  a  very  large  and  useful  tree, 
sometimes  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  circumference,  preferred  for 
some  parts  of  ship-building  to  teak.  Leaf,  very  small ;  -fruit, 
like  a  lemon,  and  very  sour ;  wood,  reddish,  hard,  tough,  and  dura- 
ble. From  the  bark  constantly  exudes  a  yellow  gum,  resembling 
gamboge. 

Turra-fee  (calophylum)  is  a  large  tree,  timber  excellent  for 
most  purposes  ;  very  different  from 

The  Thur-ap-pa,  or  Tirbre,  [quercus  amherstania  of  Wallich,)  is  a 
noble  tree,  used  for  all  purposes  as  timber  in  the  lower  provinces. 

The  Pipal,  often  called  Bannian,  (ficus  religiosa,)  is  the  sacred 
free  of  the  Burmans.  Under  it  Gaudama  is  said  to  have  become 
a  Boodh.  It  is  common  in  eveiy  part  of  the  country.  The 
branches  do  not  descend  and  take  root  like  the  genuine  bannian. 
It  is  a  very  noble  tree,  and  bears  a  fruit  the  size  of  a  grape,  of 
which  birds  are  fond,  but  which  is  not  eaten  by  man.  One  of 
these  grows  over  the  brick  baptistery,  in  the  mission  compound  at 
Maulmain,  extending  its  branches  also  over  the  street.  On  its 
young  and  flourishing  branches  the  Burmans  sometimes  hang 
lighted  lamps  as  a  deed  of  merit. 

The  Nyoung-bawdee  [Jicus  bengalensis)  is  the  genuine  bannian. 
Roots  descend  from  every  part  of  the  stem,  and  many  of  the 
branches,  which,  on  reaching  the  earth,  become  themselves  trees. 
Those  which  descend  along  the  trunk,  give  it  the  appearance 
of  being  enveloped  in  brawny  vines,  and  afford  a  shelter,  by  the 
crevices  they  make,  to  numerous  insects  and  reptiles,  while 
under  the  wide  shelter  of  the  foliage,  man  and  beast  may  repose. 
It  is  a  favorite  resort  of  monkeys,  who  eat  both  the  leaves  and 
the  fruit.  The  leaves  are  dark,  large,  smooth,  glossy.  Its  vener- 
ated character  prevents  its  use  as  a  timber,  in  which  respect  it 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  161 

would,  however,  not  be  very  valuable.  The  tree  is  uncommon  in 
JBurmah,  but  some  fine  specimens  are  found  at  Mergui. 

The  Tay,  or  Ebony,  [diospyrus  ebenum,)  is  plenty  in  the  upper 
provinces,  growing  generally  in  the  neighborhood  of  teak.  Leaf, 
veiy  small.  Toward  the  close  of  the  dry  season,  the  leaves  are 
annually  shed,  like  those  of  the  teak,  at  a  particular  season, 
which  distinguishes  it  prominently,  in  a  country  where  almost 
every  tree  is  evergreen.  Little  use  is  made  of  the  timber.  The 
specimens  brought  to  me  were  black,  and  of  fine  grain,  but  in- 
ferior to  that  used  by  our  cabinet-makers. 

The  Teng-yet,  or  Ten-yet,  Sapan-wood,  (ccesalpinia  sappan,) 
grows  abundantly  in  the  province  of  Mergui,  and  adjacent  parts 
of  Siam,  in  several  parts  of  the  Shyan  territory,  and  among  the 
mountainous  regions  of  Munipore.  The  full-grown  tree  is  sel- 
dom higher  than  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet ;  thorny,  bearing 
a  large  yellow  flower  in  the  month  of  August ;  leaves,  small  and 
of  a  dark  green.  It  belongs  to  the  same  order  of  plants  with 
Brazil-ivood,  and  has  been  sometimes  so  called.  It  makes  a  rich 
red  dye,  and  is  exported  for  that  purpose.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Malays,  who  call  it  sapang. 

The  Shah,  or  Cutch-tree,  [mimosa  catechu,)  is  indigenous,  rising 
sometimes  to  the  height  of  forty  feet.  Timber,  tough  and  dura- 
ble, much  used  for  ploughs,  &c.  From  this  tree  is  made  the 
catechu,  cutch,  or  terra  japonica,  chewed  generally  with  the  betel- 
nut.*  The  wood  is  hewed  into  chips,  boiled,  and  the  liquor  in- 
spissated till  it  becomes  thick  enough  to  spread  on  a  mat,  when 
the  drying  is  completed  in  the  sun.  It  dissolves  completely  in 
water,  is  slightly  bitter,  highly  astringent,  and  contains  fifty-five 
parts  in  a  hundred  of  tannin.  Burmans  make  two  kinds,  the  red 
and  the  black ;  both  from  the  same  tree.  The  red  is  preferred  in 
Bengal,  and  the  black  in  China.  It  is  chiefly  made  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Prome,  though  the  tree  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  Silk  Cotton-tree  (bombax  ceiba)  adorns  many  parts  of  the 
country,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  trees.  Its  beautiful  and  soft 
flos  is  used  for  pillows,  and  thin  mattrasses  by  the  natives ;  but 
whether  the  wood  is  valuable  I  did  not  learn. 

The  Par-o-wah  is  a  stately  tree,  a  foot  in  diameter.  Timber, 
veiy  hard  and  tough,  and  of  a  yellow  color.     It  is  somewhat 

*  The  same  article  is  produced  in  Malaya,  from  the  plant  called  uncaria 
gambir,  and  in  Egypt  and  Arabia  from  the  acacia.     It  has  lately  been  exported 
from  Singapore  to  England,  in  large  quantities,  for  tanning. 
14* 


162  BURMAH. 

scarce,  and  of  but  little  account,  as  the  Burmans  have  no  tools 
with  which  to  work  such  a  wood  to  advantage. 

The  Thub-byu  (ftcus)  is  a  large  tree,  five  feet  or  more  in  cir- 
cumference ;  pretty  good  timber.  The  fruit,  about  the  size  of 
a  goose-egg,  grows  in  a  tuft  of  leaves,  like  a  cabbage  ;  used  to 
acidify  curry.  From  it  is  obtained  a  glutinous  oil,  which  dries 
rapidly,  and  makes  a  good  varnish. 

The  En,  or  Ain,  (dipterocarpus  grandifiora,)  grows  tall  and  slen- 
der, to  a  prodigious  height,  throwing  out  branches  only  toward 
the  summit.  It  yields  a  valuable  resin,  used  in  torches,  and  for 
paying  boats.  The  timber  is  excellent,  and  is  used  for  masts, 
bridges,  and  long  reaches. 

The  Kun-nyin-ben,  (dipterocarpus,)  and  the  Kun-nyin-se,  are 
two  trees  of  the  same  land,  one  bearing  a  white  fruit,  and  the 
other  red.  Both  are  veiy  large  trees,  and  excellent  for  planks, 
boats,  &c.  The  boiled  sap  is  a  veiy  beautiful  varnish.  Tojrches 
are  often  dipped  in  it,  to  increase  their  brilliance,  and  some- 
times made  of  it,  mixed  with  sawdust.  The  varnish  at  Rangoon 
costs,  at  retail,  four  annas  a  viss,  or  about  twelve  and  a  half 
cents  for  four  pounds. 

The  Theet-say  (melanorrhcea  usitata)  is  the  tree  from  which  the 
celebrated  black  Burman  varnish  is  made,  and  which,  when 
properly  prepared,  is  superior  to  copal.  It  seems  to  have  been 
first  known  to  the  English  by  its  Munipore  name,  Kay-oo,  or  Khue. 

The  Tah-noung  is  a  most  beautiful,  though  rather  small  tree. 
Leaves,  very  small,  composite,  lively  green,  rising  from  the  base 
of  a  double  thorn. 

The  Tau-ma-gyee  (elceocarpus)  is  generally  veiy  large.  Grain, 
clear  and  straight ;  timber,  highly  prized. 

The  Yu-ma-nay,  (euphoi-bia.)  Large  and  valuable  tree. 
Wood,  soft  and  light,  but  very  tough ;  and  is  used  for  turned 
wooden  ware,  and  light  domestic  articles. 

The  Tan-the-ah,  (hopea  floribunda  of  Wallich.)  Very  large, 
somewhat  abundant,  and  a  useful  timber. 

The  Thud-dote,  a  very  large  tree,  but  not  prized  for  timber. 
Fuel,  good ;  fruit  used  a  little  ;  leaves  used  to  rub  furniture,  and 
the  body. 

The  Thub-boe  (mimusops)  is  a  large  tree,  valued  in  ship- 
building. Fruit,  size  of  a  grape,  containing  one  large  seed. 
There  is  also  another  species,  (m.  ehngi,)  which  is  called  in 
Bengal  Bocool. 

The  Pa-douk,  or  Mahogany,  (svrietenia  maJwgoni,)  is  plenty  in 
the  upper  provinces,  especially  round  Ava ;  found  occasionally 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  163 

in  Pegu.  It  grows  very  large,  and  is  mostly  of  the  branched  or 
knotty  kind.     Little  used,  except  for  their  great  horizontal  rockets. 

The  Taenyo,  or  Pine,  of  several  varieties,  is  abundant  in  the  dry 
and  hilly  districts,  reaching  a  good  size,  often  fifty  feet  without  a 
limb.  One  or  two  species  are  found  in  the  Tenasserim  prov- 
inces, but  not  frequently.  It  is  neglected  as  timber  because  of  its 
softness  and  exposure  to  ants.  Some  turpentine  is  manufactured 
from  it.  Pieces  of  it  are  every  year  washed  down  the  Irrawaddy. 
As  all  India  now  depends  on  European  and  American  spars, 
which  often  sell  at  most  exorbitant  prices,  it  is  probable  that 
Burmah  will  one  day  be  enriched  by  the  export  of  its  fir  timber. 

The  Toung-sa-ga  (myristica)  is  a  very  large  tree. 

Of  Oak,  eight  or  ten  species  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the 
upper  country,  some  of  them  stately  trees ;  but  the  abundance  of 
teak  and  of  thingan  prevents  its  general  use. 

Cedar  is  common  and  of  a  gigantic  size  on  the  lofty  summits 
of  the  mountain  ranges  on  the  Munipore  frontier.  In  the 
same  regions,  the  Ash  is  abundant,  and  of  the  best  quality. 

Lancewood  is  common,  at  least  in  the  southern  provinces.  It 
grows  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  very  straight ;  bark,  gray ; 
wood,  light  yellow. 

The  Me-yah  (greivia  ?)  is  a  middling-sized  tree,  of  pretty  good 
timber.  Fruit  resembles  the  whortleberry ;  two  seeds  in  each. 
It  is  eaten  sometimes,  but  is  not  prized. 

The  Ne-pe-say-gyee  attains  a  diameter  of  six  or  eight  inches. 
In  the  manufacturing  towns  on  the  Irrawaddy,  perhaps  else- 
where, it  is  very  much  used  to  dye  a  fine  red  color ;  and  might 
probably  be  exported  for  this  purpose  with  great  advantage. 

The  Thep-on  is  a  large  tree  ;  is  excellent  for  fuel,  but  not  greatly 
valued  as  timber.     The  leaves  and  fruit  are  used  in  curry. 

The  Mai-kai  (marrya)  is  not  a  large  tree,  but  is  highly  esteemed 
for  handles  to  spears,  knives,  &c.  The  grain  is  like  box-wood, 
but  tough  and  elastic.     Found  only  in  the  lower  provinces. 

The  Kun-ne-an  (myristica)  is  a  very  large  tree,  found  in  the 
lower  provinces,  on  high  ground,  and  therefore  probably  common 
in  the  upper.  Considered  one  of  the  best  of  timbers  in  the 
kingdom  for  canoes,  oars,  houses,  and  most  other  purposes. 

The  Kee  (syndesmis  tavoyana  of  Wallich)  is  a  large  tree,  mak- 
ing good  timber,  but  not  much  used  as  such.  There  are  at  least 
two  kinds,  one  being  a  white  wood,  and  the  other  red.  The 
root  chopped  up,  dried,  and  ground  to  powder,  is  a  favorite  medi- 
cine, and  is  also  rubbed  over  the  body,  for  cutaneous  diseases. 
The  bark,  chopped  fine,  and  thrown  into  the  water  where  there 


164  BURMAH. 

are  fish,  produces  the  same  intoxicating  effects  upon  them  as 
does  the  cocculns  indicus. 

The  Than-ben  (artocarpus)  is  a  large  tree,  sometimes  used  as 
timber,  but  generally  spared  for  its  gum,  which  is  excellent  for 
paying  boats,  and  is  regarded  as  a  cure  for  the  itch.  The  fruit 
is  a  beau,  two  feet  long. 

The  Thah  (bignonia)  is  a  noble-looking  tree,  furnishing  a 
straight  timber  for  posts  of  houses,  &c. 

The  Tub-bo  (uvaria)  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  makes  smooth, 
handsome  posts,  but  is  not  used  for  boats.  It  bears  a  large, 
brilliant,  yellow,  fragrant  flower. 

The  The-myu-zoo  grows  only  in  the  lower  provinces,  where 
it  is  plenty.  From  the  kernel  of  the  fruit  is  made  an  oil  highly 
esteemed  for  the  hair. 

The  Cow-moo  is  found  of  at  least  two  species,  one  having  a 
broad  leaf,  and  the  other  narrow.  Both  are  very  large.  Canoes 
of  the  largest  size  are  made  of  them,  and  considered  nearly  as 
good  as  those  made  of  teak. 

The  Mien-ga  (cynometra)  is  a  small  tree,  and  makes  good  small 
posts,  &c,  but  is  chiefly  used  for  fuel.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
lower  provinces,  but  grows  in  the  upper  when  planted,  which  is 
sometimes  done  for  fuel. 

The  Boo-so-paw,  or  Cork-tree,  is  indigenous  in  the  lower  prov- 
inces, and  it  is  believed  in  the  upper  also.  Unlike  the  proper 
cork,  the  bark  is  thin  and  worthless.  The  wood  itself  is  soft, 
tough,  fine,  and  makes  a  cork  equal  to  any  other. 

The  Then-nat  is  a  moderate-sized  tree.  Spreading,  thick  foliage, 
soft,  smooth  leaf.  The  fruit  resembles  a  gooseberry,  very  gluti- 
nous ;  one  hard  seed ;  not  used.  Wood,  a  good  deal  used  for  san- 
dals ;  but  the  principal  value  of  the  tree  is  in  its  leaves,  which 
are  preferred  above  all  others  for  wrappers  to  cheroots. 

The  Laz-un,  {■pomgamia  atropurpurea  of  Wallich.)  Very 
large  tree,  abundant  in  Tenasserim  provinces.  Flower,  a  beau- 
tiful purple. 

The  Thik-ah-do  (sterculia  fatida)  is  a  very  large  and  valuable 
tree.  The  wood  is  odoriferous,  straight,  strong,  takes  a  fine 
polish,  and  is  preferred  for  furniture. 

The  Pah-oun  [osyris  pellata)  is  found  in  all  the  maritime 
districts,  and  probably  in  the  hills  also. 

The  Eagle-wood,  (aquilaria  agallochum,)  commonly  called  lig- 
num aloes,  is  said  to  be  abundant  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
Tenasserim  provinces.  It  yields  an  incense  much  valued  in  the 
East,  particularly  China  and  Japan. 


VEGETABLE  PRODUCTIONS.  165 

The  Kul-lo-wah  (laurus)  is  an  inferior  sort  of  camphor-wood. 
Bark,  fragrant. 

The  Soo-ban  is  a  shrub  exceedingly  prized  by  the  Burmans,  as 
yielding  the  best  red  dye  of  any  wood  they  have.  It  is  sold  at  a 
tical  per  viss,  and  seems  rather  rare.  The  leaves  are  a  favorite 
article  for  curry. 

The  Gamboge  (garcinia  camboja)  is  found  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces, growing  fifteen  feet  high.  Leaf,  broad,  pale-green ;  bark, 
light  lead  color.  A  gum  of  a  beautiful  yellow  is  abundantly 
yielded  by  its  bark  without  incisions,  but  seems  not  to  be 
used,  except  to  a  small  extent  as  medicine. 

The  Nah-oo  attains  a  diameter  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches. 
Blossom,  very  beautiful  and  fragrant,  yellow,  size  of  a  large  rose ; 
grows  only  in  wet  places.     Timber,  very  worthless. 

The  Ind-way  abounds  in  the  forests,  and  is  a  large  tree.  Seed, 
the  size  of  a  small  egg.  It  yields  a  very  useful  resinous  gum,  of 
a  light-gray  color,  used  in  the  seams  of  boats,  &c.  It  is  obtained 
not  only  by  incision,  but  drops  on  the  ground,  and  is  gathered 
without  trouble.  It  is  very  much  used,  and  may  always  be  bought 
in  the  bazar. 

The  Myouk-gno,  or  Mouk-chaw,  is  a  large  tree,  of  excellent  tim- 
ber.    Bark,  perfectly  smooth ;  flower,  very  small,  on  a  long  stem. 

The  Them-men-sa-bo  is  about  the  size  of  an  apple-tree. 
Several  varieties.  Has  long  thorns.  Fruit,  an  inch  in  diameter, 
pungent,  and  full  of  seeds,  like  a  guava.  The  bruised  fruit,  and 
the  ashes  of  the  wood,  are  mixed  with  indigo,  to  make  a  fine  blue. 

The  Hnaw-ben  is  a  large  tree,  of  pale-yellow  wood,  pre- 
ferred for  making  combs.  It  bears  a  large,  fragrant  fruit,  but 
worthless. 

The  In-jeen  is  a  large  tree,  common  in  the  upper  provinces. 
Flowers,  small,  pinkish-yellow,  very  fragrant,  growing  in  clus- 
ters, and  celebrated  in  Burman  poetry.  This  is  the  species  of 
wood  generally  found  petrified  near  the  earth-oil  wells  on  the 
Irrawaddy.     Gaudama  died  near  one  of  these  trees. 

The  Pyouk-saik  is  a  large  tree,  common  in  the  jungle.  Small, 
yellow  flower ;  wood,  hard,  tough,  straight-grained,  and  chosen, 
wherever  it  can  be  had,  for  the  broad  centre-piece  of  Burman 
wheels. 

The  Thee-din,  or  Anatto,  [bixa  orellana,)  is  abundant,  at  least 
round  Rangoon.  Tree,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high ;  leaf,  very 
small ;  fruit,  like  a  bean.  For  dyeing,  the  pods,  which  are  round, 
the  size  of  an  egg,  are  crushed,  washed,  and  the  sediment  dried 
for  the  pigment.    In  this  form  it  is  exported  to  a  small  extent 


166  BURMAH. 

Several  beautiful  and  vigorous  thorny  shrubs  are  common  in 
the  up-country,  suitable  for  hedges,  and  a  good  deal  used  as 
such.  But  instead  of  being  planted,  the  bushes  are  cut  up, 
and  laid  along.     Of  course  they  are  not  durable. 

The  Wal),  or  Bamboo,  (arundo  bambos,)  is  what  is  generally 
called  in  America  cane,  and  is  used  for  fishing-poles.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  useful,  if  not  the  most  so,  of  all  Burman  plants.  It 
grows  from  forty  to  eighty  feet  high,  in  clusters  or  stools,  of  thirty 
or  forty  together,  and  perfects  its  timber  the  second  year.  There 
are  forty  or  fifty  varieties,  some  a  hundred  feet  high,  and  twelve 
inches  in  diameter.  Some  aue  small,  tliin,  and  light ;  some  are 
almost  solid,  and  much  stronger  than  wood  of  the  same  diameter. 
Of  it  are  made  houses,  bridges,  furniture,  masts,  rigging,  cordage, 
paper,  baskets,  tools,  nets,  pumps,  pitchers,  fences.  Indeed,  to 
describe  its  uses  would  be  to  notice  all  the  operations  of  the 
household  and  field,  of  trade  and  mechanics.  The  inspissated 
juice,  called  tabaskeer,  is  used  in  medicine,  and  is  regarded  by 
chemists  as  a  very  remarkable  substance.  Dr.  Brewster  calls  it 
"hydrate  of  silicia;"  that  is,  liquid  flint.  The  young  plants  are 
agreeably  esculent,  and  prized  for  food. 

Among  the  varieties  of  cane  are  several  of  the  ratan  kind, 
(calamus,)  called  Ke-ain  or  Kyein,  growing  chiefly  in  the  southern 
provinces.  Some  kinds  are  nearly  as  thick  as  the  wrist,  growing 
one  or  two  hundred  feet  long,  and  very  strong.  It  bears,  in  large 
clusters  of  eighty  or  ninety,  a  beautiful  imbricated  fruit,  the  size 
of  a  musket-ball,  not  edible  in  its  raw  state,  but  sometimes 
preserved.  The  English  name  is  adopted  from  the  Malays, 
who  call  it  Rotan. 

Lac,  which  is  largely  exported  from  Burmah,  is  obtained  chiefly 
in  the  Shyan  districts  It  is  the  product  of  an  insect,  (coccus  lacca 
of  Linnaeus,)  which  exudes  the  gummy  matter  upon  twigs,  to 
protect  its  eggs,  and  create  a  sort  of  habitation.  It  lives  on 
various  trees ;  in  Asam,  chiefly  on  the  jicus  religiosa.  The  lac 
is  assorted  into  qualities,  which  are  called  stick  lac,  or  that  which 
has  the  twig  in  the  centre,  seed  lac,  lump  lac,  shell  lac,  &c. 

There  are  several  very  common  plants,  which  form  an  excel- 
lent substitute  for  soap,  and  are  extensively  used  for  such.  Of 
some  the  bark  is  used,  and  of  others  the  bean:  one  is  the  sapindus 
of  Linnaeus.  Europeans  use  these  for  their  hair,  in  preference 
to  any  thing  else. 

Of  dye-stuffs,  both  shrubby  and  arboreous,  there  is  a  good 
variety,  embracing  nearly  all  the  sorts  known  to  exist  within  the 
tropics.     The  turmeric,  which   is  very  common,  seems   to  be 


AGRICULTURE.  167 

less  used  as  a  dye  than  as  an  ingredient  in  curry,  to  which  it 
imparts  an  aromatic  flavor,  and  rich  yellow  color. 

Beside  those  mentioned  as  mediciual,  the  natives  regard  nu- 
merous others  in  this  light.  Indeed,  almost  any  thing  uncom- 
mon is  made  to  enter  into  then  pharmacopoeia,  The  stalls  of  the 
apothecaries,  as  they  may  be  called,  exhibit  the  most  whimsical 
variety.  I  have  seen  the  shells  of  English  walnuts  among  the 
number. 

Several  vegetable  poisons  abound  in  the  woods,  of  which  the 
Karens  avail  themselves  to  poison  their  arrows. 

Flowers  are  innumerable,  and  for  the  most  part  as  superior 
to  ours  in  size  and  splendor  as  they  are  inferior  in  fragrance. 
Fragrant  flowers,  however,  though  few  in  proportion,  are  per- 
haps as  numerous,  on  the  whole,  as  with  us. 

Tillage  is  performed  in  some  places  almost  exclusively  with  the 
hoe  and  mattock ;  in  others,  the  plough  is  used,  and  sometimes 
rice-lands  are  broken  up,  after  being  kept  wet  for  a  time,  merely 
by  the  feet  of  oxen.  The  plough  resembles  in  shape  the  spade 
on  a  playing-card,  has  no  colter,  and  cuts  to  the  depth  of  three 
or  four  inches.  Horses  are  never  used  for  draught.  Bullocks 
are  managed  by  a  rein,  passed  through  the  septum  of  the  noee. 
Rice-fields  are  sometimes  prepared  by  merely  treading  up  the 
moist  earth  with  oxen,  raking  off  the  weeds,  and  sowing  the  seed 
broadcast.  The  Karens,  and  some  of  the  Burmans,  transplant 
the  rice,  when  about  six  inches  high,  into  regular  drills,  which 
thus  produces  far  better  than  when  sown  broadcast.  Reaping  is 
performed  with  a  sickle,  like  ours,  but  smaller.  The  grain  is 
trodden  out  by  oxen,  and  the  straw  carefully  saved  for  fodder. 

hi  the  flat  and  floodable  districts,  divisions  are  marked  by 
ditches,  or  narrow  embankments ;  in  the  upper  country,  often 
by  hedges  of  thorn,  cut  up  and  brought  to  the  spot.  There  is  an 
indigenous  thorn  (ziziphus  jujuba)  admirably  adapted  for  quick- 
set hedges ;  but  such  are  not  cultivated,  except  those  of  a  thorny 
bamboo,  which  grows  too  tall,  and  is  in  other  respects  illy 
adapted  to  the  purpose. 

The  lower  country  has  no  roads  for  wagons.  Boatable 
streams  are  almost  the  only  means  of  communication,  and  the 
only  parts  settled.  Adjacent  villages  are  often  connected  by 
foot-paths.  In  the  higher  districts,  roads  are  general,  and  kept 
in  tolerable  repair. 

Cultivators  of  the  soil  do  not  reside  on  detached  farms,  but  al- 
ways in  villages,  for  mutual  protection  against  wild  beasts  and  rob- 


168  BURMAH. 

bers.  Indeed,  as  to  a  farm,  there  is  no  sucli  thing  in  Burmah. 
Each  family  cultivates  a  piece  of  the  neighboring  jungle,  and  brings 
the  produce  into  the  village,  where  the  cattle  also  are  brought  for 
security.  When  there  are  neither  water-courses  nor  springs,  wells 
are  dug,  which  yield  good  water.  Instead  of  a  bucket,  a  basket 
is  used  coated  with  darnar,  and  attached  to  a  rope  held  in  the 
hand ;  but  often  it  is  fastened  to  a  long  lever,  balanced  on  a  high 
post ;  precisely  like  the  well-sweeps  of  New  England. 

The  wages  of  labor  are  two  or  three  times  higher  than  in  any 
other  part  of  India  —  a  fact  which  strongly  indicates  scanty  popu- 
lation. A  common  cooley,  or  field-hand,  receives  five  or  six  ru- 
pees per  month,  beside  his  provisions,  which  are  worth  about 
two  rupees  more. 

Rice  being  universally  preferred  to  every  thing  else  for  food,  it 
is  raised  wherever  it  will  grow ;  and  in  the  vast  delta  of  the  Ir- 
rawaddy,  is  almost  exclusively  cultivated.  In  size  and  quality  it 
is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  Bengal.  The  river-lands  are  sur- 
passingly rich,  and,  even  under  their  present  imperfect  system 
of  husbandly,  yield  more  than  a  hundred  fold.  Two  crops  in  a 
year  may  be  raised.  The  Burmaus  mentioned  to  me  about  forty 
kiqds  of  rice,  and  I  saw  at  least  eight  or  ten. 

Cotton,  of  various  kinds,  is  raised  with  the  utmost  facility,  in 
every  part  of  the  country;  but  chiefly  in  the  region  extending 
from  Prome,  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  some  sixty  or  seventy 
miles  above  Ava.  It  is  sown  at  the  same  time  as  paddy,  viz.  May, 
and  gathered  about  November.  The  same  ground  is  seldom 
used  two  successive  years.  A  space  is  cleared  of  brush  and  grass, 
burnt  over,  and  the  seed  sown  broadcast.  The  annual  kinds  are 
exclusively  cultivated  ;  but  the  British  have  introduced  into  their 
portions  of  the  country  the  Pernambuco  and  other  perennial 
kinds,  which  promise  to  succeed  well,  and  attain  to  a  great  size. 
Much  of  the  crop  is  exported  across  the  country  to  China,  but 
the  principal  part  is  consumed  in  household  manufactures. 

The  nankin,  or  red  cotton,  is  cultivated  largely,  and  is  preferred 
for  women's  en-gyees  or  short  gowns.  This  kind  is  chiefly 
obtained  from  the  Shyans,  who  also  manufacture  the  cloth 
just  named,  and  find  a  ready  market  for  it  at  Ava. 

Though  cotton-seed  in  America  has  been  till  lately  used  only 
for  manure,  and  rarely  even  for  that,  not  a  kernel  is  wasted  in 
Burmah ;  nor  even  used  as  manure.  Some  is  used  for  oil,  for  the 
expression  of  which  they  have  good  mills,  turned  by  bullocks 
Some  is  made  into  torches,  for  public  feasts,  by  being  placed 
in  a  narrow  jar,  and  sprinkled  with  oil.     And  a  very  considerable 


AGRICULTURE. 


169 


part  is  eaten.  It  is  steeped  till  it  sprouts,  and  is  a  highly-prized 
food  in  districts  where  rice  is  scarce.  The  young  plant  is  some- 
times used  also  as  an  esculent. 

Tobacco  grows  wild  in  many  places,  and  is  cultivated  in  most 
parts  of  the  country.  There  are  several  kinds,  some  of  which  is 
not  surpassed  for  smoking  by  the  finest  Havana.  The  best  sorts 
and  qualities  sell  at  about  a  rupee  a  viss ;  the  middling  sorts, 
about  half  that  price  ;  and  the  poorest,  four  or  five  viss  for  a  rupee. 
The  best  is  raised  on  the  rich  levels  of  the  maritime  districts,  and 
water-courses.  The  culture  of  this  article  might  be  almost  in- 
definitely increased;  but  it  has  not  become  an  article  of  export. 
From  a  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  pounds  are  yielded  per 
acre,  on  an  average. 

A  little  is  used  for  chewing ;  but  the  consumption  for  smoking 
is  very  great,  not  in  pipes,  but  in  cigars,  or  cheroots,  with  wrap- 
pers made  of  the  leaves  of  the  Then-net  tree.  In  making 
them,  a  little  of  the  dried  root,  chopped  fine,  is  added,  and 
sometimes  a  small  portion  of  sugar.  These  are  sold  at  a  rupee 
a  thousand. 

The  uplands  produce  wheat,  and  various  other  grains,  with 
scarcely  any  labor,  as  well  as  beans,  peas,  and  esculents,  in  great 
variety.  The  wheat  crop  is  from  twenty  to  fifty  fold ;  the  grain 
is  heavy  and  sound,  and  the  success  of  the  crop,  as  likely  as  any 
other.  The  price  at  Ava  is  always  greatly  less  than  that  of  rice, 
viz.  about  fifty  cents  per  bushel. 

Rice,  too,  is"  not  excluded  from  high  land  cultivation.  The  better 
qualities  cannot  be  raised,  nor  a  great  quantity ;  but  many  varieties 
are  produced,  chiefly  those  of  the  glutinous  kind.  Of  this  sort, 
some  kinds  are  a  beautiful  purple,  or  indigo  color:  another  kind, 
called  the  Kouk-mycn-phyoo,  is  a  large  and  very  white  grain ;  and 
another,  called  Kouk-myen-nc,  is  a  bright  red.  The  average 
crop,  on  these  high  lands,  is  about  fifteen  fold.  Between  the 
hilly  districts  and  the  low  flats,  inundated  by  the  periodical  rise 
of  rivers,  are  extensive  flats,  well  adapted  to  rice,  and  made  to 


Irrigating  a  Field. 


15 


170  BURMAH. 

raise  it  in  large  quantities  by  artificial  irrigation.  The  moment 
is  seized  when  the  water-course  is  at  its  height,  and  by  the  pro- 
cess shown  in  the  picture,  it  is  thrown  up  the  few  remaining  feet. 
I  took  the  sketch  from  some  then  at  work  on  the  Irrawaddy, 
above  Prome.  A  shallow  basket,  coated  with  damar,  is  fastened 
to  a  long  handle,  and  so  balanced  by  a  cord  from  above,  as  to 
make  the  dipping  of  the  water  an  easy  and  rapid  process. 

Several  kinds  of  millet,  (holcus,)  among  which  is  the  andropogon 
cernuum,  are  largely  raised  for  food,  in  the  upper  provinces,  where 
rice  is  comparatively  dear,  and  to  some  extent  in  all.  They  grow 
luxuriantly  with  very  little  care,  and  yield  a  highly  nutritive 
food,  though  little  valued  in  comparison  with  rice. 

Indian  Corn,  called  here  Pyoung,  grows  well,  wherever  planted, 
but  is  cultivated  in  too  slovenly  a  manner  to  produce  as  it  might 
It  is  rarely  given  to  cattle,  but  is  consumed  by  the  natives  in  a 
green  state,  and  is  sold,  ready  boiled,  in  all  the  bazars,  at  a  mere 
song.     The  common  yield  is  from  fifty  to  seventy  fold. 

Among  the  most  esteemed  varieties  of  pulse  are  a  sort  of  kid- 
ney-bean, (phaseolus  max ;)  and  several  kinds  of  French  bean,  [do- 
lichos ;)  and  Gram  [cicer  arietinum,)  called  by  the  natives  Kida-pai, 
or  "  foreigner's  bean,"  which  produces  very  abundantly,  but  is 
raised  in  small  quantities,  and  chiefly  in  the  northern  districts. 

The  Nhan  [sesamum  orientate)  is  largely  cultivated,  chiefly  for 
an  excellent  oil,  which  it  yields  abundantly,  and  which  is  used 
both  for  food,  unction,  and  light.  It  seems  to  be  the  same  plant 
called  Vanglo  in  the  West  Indies,  and  Bonny  in  our  Southern 
States.  It  is  a  delicate  annual,  from  two  to  five  feet  high,  leaves 
three  inches  long,  opposite,  downy.  The  Mong-nyen  (.miapis 
orientalis)  is  also  raised  in  considerable  quantities,  chiefly  for  the 
oil,  which  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  butter,  and  is  much  used 
also  as  an  unguent 

The  certainty  and  regularity  of  the  periodical  rains,  in  the 
western  and  eastern  districts,  render  a  general  failure  of  crops 
altogether  unknown.  In  the  middle  region,  round  Ava,  the 
reverse  is  sometimes  true. 

Whether  the  true  hemp  is  cultivated  in  Burmah  I  know  not ; 
but  Dr.  Wallich  saw  the  beautiful  single  lanceolate-leaved  crotala- 
ria,  raised  for  that  purpose. 

The  tea-plant  grows  indigenous  in  all  the  upper  provinces,  and 
is  raised  in  large  quantities  for  exportation  to  the  rest  of  the 
country.  Part  of  it  is  prepared  as  a  pickle,  in  which  form  it  is  a 
favorite  article  of  food  among  all  classes ;  and  part  is  dried  and 
put  up  in  hard  round  balls.     I  used  the  latter  during  my  whole 


AGRICULTURE.  171 

residence  in  the  country,  and  coincide  with  all  the  missionaries 
in  pronouncing  it  equal  to  the  hest  black  teas  of  China.  The 
taste,  however,  is  somewhat  peculiar,  and  few  are  fond  of  it  at 
first.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  come  from  China,  being  mostly 
brought  by  the  Chinese  and  Shyan  caravans ;  but  several  of  the 
chief  men  at  Ava  assured  me  it  is  the  product  of  their  own  terri- 
tories, purchased  on  the  way.  It  sells  .at  Ava,  at  about  one  ru- 
pee a  viss,  (12  cents  per  pound.)  In  the  lower  provinces,  it  brings 
double  that  price.  But  even  at  the  latter  rate,  it  is  exceedingly 
cheap.     There  is  no  obstruction  to  its  exportation. 

Black  pepper  is  indigenous,  and  hi  some  places  small  quantities 
are  cultivated.  It  might  be  made  a  great  article  of  export ;  but 
the  natives  do  not  esteem  it  as  a  condiment,  preferring  the  long 
red  pepper,  or  chilly.  The  latter  article  might  also  be  made  an 
important  article  of  commerce,  and  is  now  exported  to  some  ex- 
tent With  it,  the  people  of  the  upper  districts  purchase  rice, 
&c,  from  the  lower  districts.  It  is  found  wild  in  great  quanti- 
ties. Cultivation  seems  to  increase  the  size,  but  not  the  pun- 
gency of  the  plant. 

The  sugar-cane  attains  its  full  size  and  richness  in  fertile  spots, 
and  sugar  might  be  exported  to  a  great  extent.  Millions  of  acres, 
adapted  to  its  most  successful  cultivation,  lie  wholly  uninhabited. 
Though  almost  every  Burman  raises  a  little  sugar-cane,  it  is 
merely  to  be  eaten  in  its  natural  state,  and  none,  that  I  know  of, 
resort  to  it  for  sugar.  The  Chinese  round  Umerapoora,  make  a 
considerable  quantity  of  excellent  light- brown  sugar,  which  is 
sold  very  cheap.  They  also  clay  some  of  it,  and  produce  an 
article  as  white  as  our  loaf-sugar,  but  much  abridged  of  its 
sweetness. 

Indigo  grows  wUd,  and  is  cultivated  also  to  some  extent.  The 
mode  of  extracting  the  dye  is  unskilful,  and  the  whole  product  is 
used  in  the  fabrics  of  the  country.  The  high  price  of  labor  will 
forbid  the  exportation  of  this  article. 

The  ground-nut  (arachis  hypogtea)  grows  well,  and  in  many 
places  is  attended  to,  and  produced  in  considerable  quantity. 
But  as  a  general  thing,  it  is  entirely  disregarded. 

The  process  of  raising  garden  vegetables  (an  enumeration  of 
most  of  which  is  given,  page  1 59)  is  much  the  same  as  with  us. 

Honey  is  exceedingly  plenty,  but  always  derived  from  wUd 
bees.  It  is  less  prized  than  that  from  Yannan,  and  is  of  a  darker 
color ;  but  is  consumed  largely,  and  exported  to  some  extent.  In 
obtaining  it,  the  bees  are  not  destroyed. 


172  BURMAH. 

The  wild  animals  of  the  country  are  the  elephant,  elk,  tiger, 
leopard,  buffalo,  deer  (of  several  species),  antelope,  bison,  nyl- 
ghau, rhinoceros,  wolf,  goat,  hare,  raccoon,  serval  or  mountain 
cat,  civet  cat,  tiger  cat,  polecat,  hog,  black  bear,  porcupine,  ichneu- 
mon, squirrel  (of  several  kinds),  baboon,  and  monkey  (of  many 
kinds),  mole,  otter,  and  rat.  Some  of  these  are  scarce,  others, 
particularly  the  elephant,  tiger,  deer,  hog,  and  rat,  are  very 
abundant. 

Elephants  are  most  abundant  and  noble  in  Pegu,  but  are  nu- 
merous in  some  of  the  mountain  districts.  The  feline  animals 
are  most  abundant  in  the  maritime  districts.  Much  is  said  of  the 
white  elephants  of  Burmah.  There  is  now  but  one  known  to 
exist  in  the  empire  —  an  old  and  remarkably  fine  animal,  which 
has  long  been  the  pride  of  royalty  at  Ava.  He  seems  to  be 
an  albino. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  jackal,  though  found  in  great 
numbers  over  nearly  all  the  warm  regions  of  the  world,  and  par- 
ticularly numerous  in  Bengal  and  Cliittagong,  is  wholly  unknown 
in  Burmah.  Yet  the  mountains  which  divide  Burmah  from  the 
adjacent  jackal  regions,  are  not  only  passable  in  many  places  for 
travellers,  but  have  open  roads  or  paths,  constantly  used.  The 
whole  canis  genus,  except  the  common  house-dog,  seems  wanting 
in  Burmah.  Neither  the  jackal,  fox,  wolf,  or  hyena,  have  yet 
been  found  in  the  country. 

There  are  alligators  of  at  least  two  species,  and  some  attain  the 
largest  size.  In  the  tide-waters  they  literally  swarm,  and  not  un- 
frequently  kill  men  sleeping  on  the  little  boats.  Sharks  abound 
at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  Turtles  and  tortoises  are  very  com- 
mon on  the  coast ;  and  some  places  are  so  frequented  by  them  to 
lay  their  eggs,  that  the  spots  are  farmed  out  by  government  for 
a  considerable  sum. 

The  domestic  animals  are  the  buffalo,  braminy  cattle,  horse, 
ass,  mule,  goat,  dog,  hog,  cat,  sheep.  Some  of  these  are  very 
rare.  Indeed,  none  are  connnon  but  horses,  horned  cattle,  and 
dogs.  Animal  food  being  prohibited  by  their  laws,  none  are 
raised  for  food ;  and,  woollen  garments  being  little  known,  sheep 
are  not  wanted  for  wool.  Except  a  flock  owned  by  the  king,  I 
heard  of  none  belonging  to  natives.  English  gentlemen  some- 
times keep  a  few  for  the  sake  of  the  mutton,  which  run  with  the 
goats,  kept  for  milk,  and  are  tended  by  the  same  man.  So  en- 
tirely in  these  hot  climates  do  sheep  lose  their  distinctive  features, 
that,  in  seeing  them  mixed  with  goats,  I  never  could  tell  them 


173 


apart.  They  are  never  white,  as  with  us,  and  their  wool  degener- 
ates into  hair.  May  not  this  illustrate  Matt.  xxv.  32,  33  —  "  He 
shall  separate  them  one  from  the  other,  as  a  shepherd  divideth 
the  sheep  from  the  goats  "  ?  Though  an  unaccustomed  eye  could 
not  discern  the  difference,  the  shepherd  knows  each  perfectly. 
So,  though,  in  this  world,  hypocrites  mingle  with  God's  people, 
and  resemble  them,  the  "  Great  Shepherd "  instantly  detects 
them,  and,  at  the  appointed  time,  will  unerringly  divide  them. 
The  braminy  cattle  (of  which  a  delineation  is  given  in  the  pic- 
ture of  a  Burman  coach,  page  1 00)  are  not  numerous.     The  buffalo 

is  used  instead,  and  is  the  same 
which  is  common  in  Siam, 
Asam,  and  China.  A  correct 
idea  can  be  had  from  the  draw- 
ing. It  is  of  twice  the  size  of 
the  braminy  ox,  of  a  dark  dun 
color,  with  huge  black  horns, 
almost  horizontal ;  and  remark- 
Tho  BuflVo.  able  for  its  aquatic  habits.    Be- 

ing nearly  destitute  of  hair,  in- 
sects annoy  it  exceedingly,  and  it  generally  takes  its  repose  in  the 
water,  with  but  a  part  of  its  head  visible.  He  is  managed  by  a 
cord  passed  through  the  septum  of  the  nose,  and  draws  in  a  yoke 
like  ours,  generally  single,  and  not  in  pairs.  To  see  an  animal 
so  huge,  and  generally  so  ferocious,  thus  easily  humbled  and  re- 
strained, throws  a  strong  light  on  the  19th  chapter  of  2  Kings; 
and  often,  as  I  saw  a  child  lead  a  buffalo  thus,  I  was  reminded 
of  Sennacherib,  the  mighty,  the  presumptuous  Sennacherib.  Full 
of  confidence  in  his  overwhelming  force,  he  stands  ready  to  de- 
vour Israel,  "as  the  green  herb,  and  as  the  grass  of  the  field," 
(v.  26,)  and,  like  a  roaring  bull,  utters  "  his  rage  against  God." 
How  calm,  and  contemptuous  are  the  words  of  Jehovah!  "Be- 
cause thy  rage  against  me,  and  thy  tumult,  is  come  up  into  mine 
ears,  therefore  1  will  put  my  hook  in  thy  nose,  and  my  bridle  in 
thy  lips,  and  I  will  turn  thee  back  by  the  way  by  which  thou 
earnest."  v.  28.  I  am  still  struck  with  it  daily.  The  contempt 
expressed  in  comparing  him  to  a  beast  of  burden,  and  the  ease 
with  which  God  could  lead  him  away,  like  a  bullock  by  the 
nose,  are  veiy  fine. 

The  breed  of*  horses  is  small,  but  excellent,  resembling  in  many 
points  the  Canadian  pony.     They  are  capable  of  enduring  great 
fatigue,  and  never  need  shoeing,  but  are  not  used  for  draught. 
For  this  latter  purpose  the  buffalo  is  principally  employed. 
15* 


174  BDRMAH. 

Dogs,  breeding  unrestrained,  are  so  numerous  in  the  villages  as 
to  be  a  sad  nuisance,  to  foreigners  at  least.  Receiving  very  little 
attention,  they  are  compelled  by  hunger  to  eat  every  species  of 
offal,  and  in  this  respect  are  of  some  service  in  a  country  where 
scavengers  are  unknown. 

The  elephant  must  of  course  be  named  among  domestic  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  wild.  All,  wild  and  tame,  are  owned  by  the 
king ;  but  great  men  keep  more  or  less,  as  they  are  permitted  or 
required.  There  are  said  to  be  two  thousand  of  them  in  the 
empire,  properly  trained.  Next  to  the  white  elephant,  those  are 
most  prized  who  have  most  flesh-color  about  the  ears,  head,  and 
trunk.  This  always  appeared  to  me  a  blemish,  and  has  a  dis- 
eased, spotted  appearance.  The  other  points  of  beauty  are  to 
have  the  fore  legs  bow  out  much  in  front,  and  the  crupper  to 
droop  very  low. 

Burmans  rarely  use  them  for  any  other  purpose  than  riding  or 
war.  Instead  of  preferring  females,  as  do  the  more  effeminate 
Hindus,  because  more  docile,  Burmans  will  scarcely  use  them. 
They  are  kept  for  breeding,  and  for  decoys  in  capturing  the  wild 
animal.  It  has  been  often  denied  that  the  elephant  will  breed 
in  a  domestic  state ;  but  it  is  most  certainly  the  fact  in  this  coun- 
try, and  to  a  considerable  extent.  I  have  often  seen  them  in  the 
pastures  with  their  young.  The  process  of  catching  and  taming 
elephants  is  too  simUar  to  that  practised  elsewhere  in  die  East 
to  need  description  here. 

The  ornithology  of  Burmah  has  never  yet  been  given,  but 
is  probably  similar  to  that  of  Hindustan,  on  which  splendid  and 
extensive  works  are  before  the  public. 

The  Henza,  or  Braminy  goose,  a  species  of  kite,  is  the  symbol 
of  the  empire;  but  is  not  regarded  with  religious  veneration. 
Kites  seem  to  remain  only  in  the  dry  season.  In  the  forests  are 
found  the  vulture,  hawk,  partridge,  parrot,  pheasant,  bird  of  par- 
adise, doves  of  several  varieties  (one  almost  as  large  as  a  hen), 
raven,  two  species  of  pheasants,  a  great  variety  of  woodpeckers, 
sparrows,  and  martins.  Pea-fowls  are  both  wild  and  tame,  as  also 
are  pigeons  and  parrots.  Jungle-fowl  abound  in  the  forests.  It 
resembles  the  common  barn-yard  fowl,  except  that,  like  other 
wild  fowl,  its  plumage  is  invariably  the  same,  viz.  a  dark  red, 
with  black  breast  and  logs.  The  male  crows  like  the  common 
cock.     The  flesh  is  excellent  food. 

Wild  ducks,  (of  several  varieties)  cormorants,  pelicans,  plovers, 
snipe,  teal,  and  a  variety  of  other  aquatic  birds,  are  common. 


BIRDS  FISHES  REPTILES.  175 

Sparrows  are  so  numerous  as  to  be,  in  some  places,  a  serious  in- 
jury to  husbandmen.  The  beautiful  and  sagacious  bottle-nest 
sparrow  (sometimes  called  toddy-bird)  is  abundant.  It  has  no 
song,  but  a  cheerful  chirp ;  and  as  they  associate  in  communities, 
they  enliven  the  place  of  their  retreat  most  agreeably.  The  nest 
has  often  been  described.  It  may  rather  be  called  a  house,  as  it 
is  seldom  less  than  a  foot  in  height,  and  twice  as  much  in  cir- 
cumference, containing  not  only  the  nest,  where  incubation  is 
performed,  but  an  apartment  for  the  male  bird,  who  gives  much 
of  his  time  to  his  mate,  during  this  process.  Few  Burmau  birds 
have  a  pleasant  song,  though  some  are  by  no  means  disagreeable. 

Around  villages,  crows  are  innumerable.  Secured  from  moles- 
tation, by  Burman  faith,  and  fed  by  the  pagoda  offerings,  they 
multiply  without  restriction.  Though  valuable  as  general  scav- 
engers, they  are  often  veiy  troublesome,  even  corning  into  the 
house,  and  stealing  food  from  the  table.  The  noise  of  them  at 
Tavoy,  Rangoon,  and  some  other  places,  kept  up  all  day,  by  thou- 
sands, was  to  me,  for  the  first  few  days,  exceedingly  annoying. 

Domestic  fowls  are  common.  Among  the  varieties  is  one 
whose  feathers,  skin,  and  bones,  are  perfectly  black.  I  often  ate 
them,  but  perceived  no  difference  in  the  taste,  except,  perhaps, 
that  they  are  more  tender.  Ducks  are  somewhat  common,  but 
geese  are  very  rare,  and  turkeys  have  not  been  introduced. 

Fishes  are  in  multitudes,  on  all  the  coasts,  and  in  every  river, 
creek,  and  even  tank.  Few  of  them  resemble  those  of  our  hem- 
isphere; but  in  quality  some  are  quite  equal  to  the  best  we  have. 
About  Jifty  kinds  have  been  noticed;  but  I  could  only  get  the  Eng- 
lish or  Bengalee  names  of  the  following  —  cokup,  be ckty,  mul- 
let (four  or  live  kinds),  pomfret,  hilsah  or  sable,  salier  or  luck- 
wah,  ruee,  sole,  mango,  catfish,  eel,  bumela  or  latea,  carp, 
datina,  punga,  flounder,  skate,  and  rock-cod. 

Prawns,  crabs,  oysters,  muscles,  periwinkles,  cockles,  &c.  &c, 
are  found  in  any  quantity  on  the  sea-board,  and  in  some  places 
are  a  good  deal  relied  on  for  food. 

Reptiles  are  numerous,  but  less  troublesome  or  dangerous  than 
is  supposed  in  this  country.  Injuries  from  them  are  very  rare, 
even  among  natives  whose  habits  expose  them  more  than  for- 
eigners. 

Serpents  are  numerous  in  some  places,  but  few  arc  venomous. 
A  species  of  water-snake  is  dreaded,  as  most  poisonous.  The 
boa  constrictor,  and  several  species  of  cobra,  are  occasionally 
seen  of  large  size.  The  former  are  sometimes  killed  with  a  kid, 
or  even  a  calf,  in  their  stomachs  entire  !     The  rat-snake  is  often 


176  BURMA  H. 

six  feet  long,  and  even  more.  One  of  the  most  dreaded  snakes 
is  a  species  of  viper,  which  is  perfectly  deafj  and  cannot  be 
awaked  by  any  noise  ;  the  slightest  touch,  however,  rouses  it  in 
an  instant. 

Scorpions  are  of  two  kinds,  black,  and  whitish  brown.  The  for- 
mer attain  the  length  of  five  or  six  inches,  and  their  bite  is  often 
fatal.  The  latter  are  more  common,  but  smaller  and  less  venom- 
ous. At  Mergui,  and  possibly  elsewhere,  there  is  a  flying  lizard, 
about  five  inches  long,  not  unlike  the  common  picture  of  the 
dragon.  I  procured  and  preserved  several  in  alcohol,  which  are 
now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 
The  wings  are  leathery,  like  those  of  a  bat,  and  extend  along 
the  whole  side  of  the  body.  They  have  about  the  same  power 
of  flight  as  the  flying  squirrel  of  our  country. 

Lizards  of  various  kinds  are  common.  They  inhabit  pagodas, 
trees,  rocks,  and  the  roofs  of  houses.  A  small  kind,  which  feeds  • 
principally  upon  flies,  inhabits  all  dwelling-houses.  It  is  always 
a  welcome  resident,  and  is  allowed  to  run  about  the  walls, 
and  even  come  upon  the  table  to  catch  the  insects,  which  gather 
round  the  lamp.  The  Touk-tay,  or  Gecko,  is  a  beautiful  crea- 
ture, about  six  inches  long.  Some  consider  it  venomous ;  but  this 
is  not  clear.  The  Pa-dat  attains  a  much  greater  size  than  the 
touktay.  The  Then-like  is  apt  to  sting,  and  is  by  some  deemed 
poisonous.  The  Poke-then,  a  sort  of  chameleon,  with  a  mane  along 
the  top  of  his  neck,  which  changes  color  beautifully.  It  is  called 
in  Madias,  the  bloodsucker.  The  Iguana  is  generally  from  two  to 
four  feet  long,  including  the  tail.  Sometimes  they  are  seen  as  large 
as  a  child  seven  or  eight  years  old.  They  are  not  common,  ex- 
cept in  the  jungle  ;  and  are  prized  as  a  very  delicate  food. 

Spiders  of  various  sorts  are,  of  course,  not  wanting  ;  some  of 
them  are  as  large  as  a  common  crab,  and  as  poisonous  as  hornets. 

Leeches  are  inconceivably  numerous  in  many  places,  and  so 
large  as  to  create  serious  inconvenience  to  persons  who  are 
obliged  to  work  in  the  water. 

Centipedes  are  very  common.  The  most  common  kinds  are 
two  or  three  inches  long  ;  but  some  are  double  that  size.  Their 
venom  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  Many  persons  who  have 
been  bitten  by  them  assured  me  that  the  pain  and  inflammation 
were  not  greater  than  are  produced  by  the  sting  of  a  common 
bee.     It  varies,  as  that  does,  in  different  persons. 

Insects,  in  all  the  varieties  common  to  a  tropical  climate,  abound 
in  Burmah;  but  there  is  no  record  of  their  having  been  so 
numerous  as  to  create  local  devastations.     The  white  ants  are 


INSECTS.  177 

most  destructive.  These  are  abundantly  described  in  encyclope- 
dias. The  musquito  is  troublesome  in  low  places,  but  seems  not 
so  poisonous  as  ours,  or  at  least  only  to  new  comers.  On  the 
delta  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  some  other  moist  districts,  they  swarm 
so  as  to  fill  the  air  as  soon  as  it  is  dark,  and  cattle  can  only  be 
kept  alive  by  placing  them,  at  night,  in  the  midst  of  a  thick 
smoke.  I  have  been  in  many  parts  of  America,  however,  partic- 
ularly the  sea-coast  of  Jersey,  where  these  insects  are  as  trouble- 
some. Papiliones,  libellulae,  scarabei,  cicada?,  cantharides,  and 
many  more,  are  active  all  day,  but  give  place  to  far  greater  mul- 
titudes, which  fill  the  air  at  night.  1  believe  no  collection  of 
Burman  insects  has  ever  been  made ;  but  it  was  utterly  out  of  my 
power  to  gather  any. 


Woman  pounding  Rice. 


178 


CHAPTER  HI. 

Population  —  Form  and  Features  —  Building's  —  Food  —  Dress  —  Manners 
and  Customs  —  Character  —  Condition  of  Women  —  Marriage  —  Polyga- 
my—  Divorce —  Diseases  —  Medical  Practice —  Midwifery —  Funerals  — 
Amusements —  Musical  Instruments  — Manufactures. 

Few  countries  have  had  their  population  so  variously  esti- 
mated. Old  geographies  stated  it  at  30,000,000 ;  Symmes  made 
it  17,000,000 ;  Cox  afterwards  reduced  it  to  8,000,000 ;  and  Balbi 
allows  it  only  3,700,000.  The  chief  woon-gyee  at  Ava  informed 
me  that  the  last  census  gave  a  total  of  300,000  houses.  Allowing 
a  fraction  short  of  seven  persons  to  a  house,  this  would  make 
2,000,000 ;  presuming  one  third  of  the  houses  to  have  escaped 
enumeration,  we  have  3,000,000.  After  the  most  careful  inqui- 
ries, I  am  led  to  put  down  the  number  of  the  inhabitants,  to 
whom  the  Burman  tongue  is  vernacular,  at  3,000,000.  This  esti- 
mate was  confirmed  by  many  persons  and  numerous  facts.  The 
Shyans  are  probably  3,000,000  more,  and,  with  other  subsidiary 
tribes,  bring  up  the  total  population  to  about  the  estimate  of 
Cox. 

The  people,  though  not  so  tall  as  Hindus,  are  more  athletic. 
The  average  height  of  men  is  about  five  feet  two  inches,  and 
of  women  four  feet  ten  inches ;  that  is  to  say,  about  four  or  five 
inches  shorter  than  the  average  height  of  Europeans.  Women 
have  more  slender  limbs  than  men,  but  are  universally  square- 
shouldered.  Corpulence  is  not  more  frequent  than  in  this  coun- 
try. In  features  they  are  totally  dissimilar  to  the  Hindus,  and 
rather  resemble  the  Malays,  especially  in  the  prominence  of 
cheek-bones,  and  squareness  of  the  jaw.  The  nose  is  never  prom- 
inent, but  often  flat,  and  the  lips  generally  thick.  The  complex- 
ion of  young  children,  and  those  who  have  not  been  exposed  to 
the  sun,  is  that  of  our  brightest  mulattoes.  Few,  except  among 
the  higher  classes,  retain  this  degree  of  fairness,  but  none  ever 
become,  by  many  shades,  so  black  as  Hindus.  I  saw  few  whose 
complexions  were  clear  enough  to  discover  a  blush.  The  stand- 
ard of  beauty  seems  to  be  delicate  yellow;  and  in  full  dress,  a 
cosmetic  is  used  by  ladies  and  children  which  imparts  this  tint. 
It  is  remarkable  that  this  hue  should  be  admired  not  only  here, 
but  amongst  the  almost  black  natives  of  Hindustan,  and  the 
many-colored  inhabitants  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 


BUILDINGS.  179 

The  hair  of  the  head  is  very  abundant,  always  black,  rather 
coarse,  and  rendered  glossy  by  frequent  anointings.  On  the 
limbs  and  breast  there  is  none,  strongly  contrasting  in  this  re- 
spect with  Hindus,  whose  bodies  are  almost  covered  with  hah-. 
Their  beard  is  abundant  on  the  upper  lip,  but  never  extends  over 
the  cheeks,  and  is  but  scanty  on  the  chin. 

Puberty  does  not  occur  much  earlier  than  with  us;  women 
bear  children  to  nearly  as  late  a  period.  The  average  length  of 
life  seems  not  perceptibly  ditferent  from  that  of  Europe. 

Dwellings  are  constructed  of  timbers,  or  bamboos  set  in  the 
earth,  with  lighter  pieces  fastened  transversely.  When  good 
posts  are  used,  they  are  set  seven  feet  apart ;  lighter  ones  and 
bamboos  are  placed  closer.  A  frame  set  on  stone  or  brick  pillars, 
is  never  seen.  The  sides  are  covered,  some  with  mats,  more  or 
less  substantial  and  costly ;  or  with  thatch,  fastened  with  split 
ratans.  The  roof  is  usually  of  thatch,  even  in  the  best  houses.  It 
is  very  ingeniously  made  and  fastened  on,  and  is  a  perfect  security 
against  wind  or  ram.  The  cheapest  is  made  of  strong  grass,  six 
or  seven  feet  long,  bent  over  a  thin  strip  of  cane  four  feet  long, 
and  stitched  on  with  ratan.  A  better  kind  is  made  of  attap  or 
dennee  leaves,  in  the  same  manner.  These  are  laid  on  like 
wide  boards,  lapping  over  each  other  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches.     They  cost  a  mere  trifle,  and  last  about  three  years. 

The  floor  is  of  split  cane,  elevated  a  few  feet  from  the  earth, 
which  secures  ventilation  and  cleanliness,  and  makes  them  far 
more  comfortable  and  tidy  than  the  houses  of  Bengal.  The  open 
crevices  between  the  slats,  however,  too  often  invite  carelessness, 
by  suffering  offal  and  dirty  fluids  to  pass  through ;  and  not  un- 
frequently,  among  the  lower  ranks,  the  space  under  the  house  is 
a  nasty  mud-hole,  alive  with  vermin.  The  doors  and  windows 
are  of  mat,  strengthened  with  a  frame  of  bamboo,  and  tied  fast 
at  the  top.  When  opened,  they  are  propped  up  with  a  bamboo, 
and  form  a  shade.  Of  course,  there  are  no  chimneys.  Cooking 
is  done  on  a  shallow  box,  a  yard  square,  filled  with  earth.  The 
whole  house  may  be  put  up  in  two  or  three  days,  at  an  expense 
of  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  rupees,  though  many  do  not  cost 
half  that  sum.  Posts  of  common  timber  last  from  ten  to  fifteen 
years,  iron- wood  forty  or  fifty,  and  good  teak  eighty  or  a 
hundred.  The  houses  of  the  more  opulent,  in  large  towns,  are 
built  of  wood,  with  plank  floors  and  pannelled  doors  and 
window-shutters,  but  without  lath,  plaster,  or  glass. 

Such  houses  furnish  a  fine  harbor  for  spiders,  worms,  lizards, 
and  centipedes ;  but  create  no  inconvenience  in  general,  except 


180  BURMAH. 

the  particles  of  dust  which  are  constantly  powdered  down 
from  the  thatch,  as  the  worms  eat  it  up.  The  lizards  are  not 
only  harmless,  but  usefid,  by  consuming  flies,  musquitoes,  &c. 
The  centipedes  are  poisonous ;  but  it  is  very  rare  that  any  one  is 
bitten,  and  the  result  is  merely  a  painful  swelling  and  inflamma- 
tion for  a  few  days. 

The  rank  of  the  opulent  is  particularly  regarded  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  dwelling ;  and  a  deviation  from  rule  would  be  in- 
stantly marked  and  punished.  The  distinction  lies  chiefly  in 
hips  or  stages  in  the  roof,  as  seen  in  the  picture  of  a  zayat,  on  a 
subsequent  page. 

The  whole  of  the  architectural  skill  of  this  people  is  by  no 
.means  exhibited  in  their  dwellings.  Some  of  the  zayats,  pago- 
das, and  temples,  are  truly  noble.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but 
that,  if  the  people  were  not  prohibited,  they  would  often  erect  for 
themselves  substantial  stone  or  brick  buildings.  It  lias  been 
said  that  they  have  lost  the  art  of  turning  an  arch ;  but  this  is 
wholly  a  mistake.  I  have  seen  many  fine  arches,  of  large  span, 
evidently  erected  within  a  few  years,  and  some  not  yet  finished, 
constructed  wholly  by  Burman  masons.  The  stucco,  which  cov- 
ers all  buildings,  is  put  on  with  extraordinary  durability,  and  gen- 
erally with  tasteful  ornaments.  Floors  and  brick  images,  covered 
in  this  way,  have  often  a  polish  equal  to  the  most  exquisitely 
wrought  marble.  The  mortar  is  made  of  the  best  lime,  and  sand, 
with  a  liberal  mixture  of  jaggery,  but  without  hair.  No  one  can 
form  a  proper  estimate  of  Burman  architecture,  who  has  not  vis- 
ited Ava,  or  one  of  the  ancient  seats  of  government.  Religious 
structures  are  there  far  more  numerous  and  magnificent  than 
in  distant  parts  of  the  empire.  As  in  other  countries,  the  state 
religion  shines  most,  in  temporal  endowments  and  honors,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  metropolis. 

Though  Burmans  spend  all  their  zeal  on  useless  pagodas, 
there  are  near  the  capital  some  other  structures  of  public  utility. 
Some  tanks  have  been  constructed,  which  secure  irrigation,  and 
consequent  fertility,  to  a  fine  region  of  adjacent  country.  One 
of  diese,  near  Mokesobo,  is  truly  a  noble  work.  Across  the  little 
river  at  Ava,  and  the  marsh  adjacent,  is  a  very  long  bridge,  which 
1  have  not  seen  surpassed  in  India,  and  scarcely  in  Europe. 
Various  other  edifices,  both  civil  and  military,  ornament  the  me- 
tropolis, and  would  do  honor  to  any  people. 

The  favorite  food,  in  common  with  all  India  and  China,  and 
universally  used  by  all  who  can  afford  it,  is  rice.     This  is  often 


FOOD.  181 

eaten  without  any  addition  whatever,  but  generally  with  a  nice 
curry,  and  sauces  of  various  stewed  melons,  vegetables,  &c. 
Except  among  the  very  poor,  a  little  meat  or  iisli  is  added.  Sweet 
oil,  made  from  the  sesamum  seed,  enters  largely  into  their  sea- 
soning. But  the  great  condiment  is  chillie,  or  capsicum.  From 
the  highest  to  the  lowest,  all  season  their  rice  with  this  plant. 
The  consumption  is  incredibly  great,  and  in  its  dried  state  it 
forms  a  considerable  branch  of  internal  trade.  The  whole  pod, 
with  its  seeds,  is  ground  to  powder  on  a  stone,  (a  little  water  be- 
ing added  if  the  peppers  are  dried,)  and  mixed  with  a  little  tur- 
meric, and  onions  or  garlic,  ground  up  in  the  same  manner,  and 
generally  acidified  with  some  sour  juice  :  often,  instead  of  water, 
the  expressed  juice  of  rasped  coco-nut  is  used  to  make  the  curry. 
hi  this  the  fish  or  meat  is  stewed,  if  they  have  any,  and  a  very 
palatable  sauce  is  made,  at  almost  no  expense.  Sweet  oil,  made 
of  the  coco-nut,  sesamum,  or  mustard  seed,  is  a  very  admired 
addition  to  then  various  messes,  and  almost  entirely  supersedes 
the  use  of  butter.  The  latter  is  used  only  in  the  clarified  state, 
called  pau-bot,  and  by  Europeans  ghee. 

In  the  upper  districts,  where  rice  is  dearer  than  below,  wheat, 
maize,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  peas,  beans,  and  plantains,  enter 
largely  into  the  common  diet.  Indeed,  a  Burman  seems  almost 
literally  omnivorous.  A  hundred  sorts  of  leaves,  suckers,  blos- 
soms, and  roots,  are  daily  gathered  in  the  jungle,  and  a  famine 
seems  almost  impossible.  Snakes,  lizards,  grubs,  ants'  eggs,  &c, 
are  eaten  without  hesitation,  and  many  are  deemed  delicacies. 
An  animal  which  has  died  of  itself,  or  the  swollen  carcass  of 
game  killed  with  poisoned  arrows,  is  just  as  acceptable  as  other 
meat.  Like  the  ancient  Romans,  the  Burmans  are  very  fond  of 
certain  wood- worms,  particularly  a  very  large  species,  found  in 
the  trunks  of  plantain-trees.  I  have  seen  several  foreigners, 
who  had  adopted  it  as  one  of  then  delicacies. 

Though  the  law  forbids  the  taking  of  life,  no  one  scruples  to 
eat  what  is  already  dead ;  and  there  are  always  sinners  enough  to 
keep  the  sanctimonious  ones  supplied  with  animal  food.  Indeed, 
very  few  scruple  to  take  game  or  fish.  Thousands  of  the  natives 
are  fishermen  by  profession.  I  asked  some  of  these  what  they 
thought  woidd  become  of  them  in  the  next  state.  They  ad- 
mitted that  they  must  suffer  myriads  of  years,  for  taking  so 
many  lives;  but  would  generally  add,  "What  can  we  do?  our 
wives  and  children  must  eat" 

Cooking  is  done  in  a  thin,  earthen  pot,  narrow  at  the  mouth, 
placed  close  to  the  fire,  on  three  stones.  Very  little  fuel  is  used, 
vol.  i.  16 


182  BURMAH. 

and  this  of  a  light  kind,  often  the  stalks  of  flowers,  reminding 
me  of  the  remark  of  our  Savior,  (Matt.  vi.  30,)  when  he  reproved 
unreasonable  anxiety  about  raiment.  The  variety  of  modes  in 
which  the  different  kinds  of  rice  are  prepared,  is  surprising. 
With  no  other  addition  than  sugar,  or  a  few  nuts,  or  a  rasped 
coco-nut,  they  make  almost  as  many  delicacies  as  our  confec- 
tioners ;  and  such  as  I  tasted  were  equally  palatable. 

Though  then-  wheat  is  of  the  finest  quality,  it  is  much  less 
valued  than  rice,  and  sells  for  less  money.  Its  name,  "  foreigner's 
rice,"  shows  it  not  to  be  indigenous ;  but  when  it  was  introduced 
is  not  known.  Its  being  also  called  gyong,  which  is  a  Bengalee 
name,  intimates  that  it  might  have  been  received  from  thence. 
Animals  are  fed  with  it,  and,  in  some  places,  it  forms  a  large  part 
of  the  people's  subsistence  ;  not  ground  and  made  into  bread,  but 
cooked,  much  as  they  do  rice.  The  bread  made  of  it  by 
foreigners,  is  remarkably  white  and  good,  the  fresh  juice  of  the 
toddy-tree  furnishing  the  best  of  leaven.  The  bakers  are  gener- 
ally Bengalese,  who  grind  the  flour,  in  the  manner  so  often  al- 
luded to  in  Scripture,  in  a  hand-mill.  Wherever  there  are 
Europeans,  there  are  some  of  these  bakers,  who  furnish  fresh 
bread  eveiy  day,  at  a  rate  not  dearer  than  with  us. 

In  eating,  Burmans  use  then  fingers  only,  always 
washing  their  hands  before  and  after,  and  generally 
their  mouths  also.  A  large  salver  contains  the  plain 
boiled  rice,  and  another  the  little  dishes  of  various 
curries  and  sauces.  These  salvers,  or  lackered 
trays,  are  shown  in  the  picture. 

Eating  Stand.  J    '  *  . 

They  take  huge  mouthfuls,  and  chew  the  rice  a 
good  deal.  Sometimes  a  handful  is  pressed  hi  the  palm,  till  it 
resembles  an  egg,  and  is  in  that  form  thrust  into  the  mouth. 
The  quantity  taken  at  a  meal  is  large,  but  scarcely  half  of  that 
devoured  by  a  Bengalee.  Only  the  right  hand  is  used  in  eating, 
the  left  being  consigned  to  the  more  uncleanly  acts.  They  eat 
but  twice  a  day,  once  about  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  and  again  to- 
ward sunset.  They  avoid  drinking  before,  or  during  eating,  on 
the  plea  that  they  then  could  not  eat  so  much :  after  eating,  they 
take  free  draughts  of  pure  water,  and  lie  down  to  take  a  short  nap. 
The  dress  of  men  in  the  lower  classes,  while  engaged  hi  labor, 
is  a  cotton  cloth,  called  pcs-so,  about  four  and  a  half  yards  long, 
and  a  yard  wide,  passed  round  the  hips,  and  between  the  thighs  ; 
most  of  it  being  gathered  into  a  knot  in  front.  When  not  at  work, 
it  is  loosed,  and  passed  round  the  hips,  and  over  the  shoulder, 
covering,  in  a  graceful  manner,  nearly  the  whole  body.    A  large 


183 


part  of  the  people,  especially  at  Ava,  wear  this  of  silk ;  and  there 
is  scarcely  tiny  one  who  has  not  silk  for  special  days.  A  jacket 
with  sleeves,  called  ingee,  generally  of  white  muslin,  but  some- 
times of  broadcloth  or  velvet,  is  added,  among  the  higher  classes, 
but  not  habitually,  except  in  cold  weather.  It  buttons  at  the 
neck  and  the  bottom,  as  represented  in  the  picture,  page  187. 
Dressed  or  undressed,  all  wear  the  turban  or  goun-boung,  of 
book-muslin,  or  cotton  handkerchiefs.  The  entire  aspect  of  a 
respectable  Burman's  dress  is  neat,  decorous, 
and  graceful.  On  the  feet,  when  dressed, 
are  worn  sandals  of  wood  or  cow-hide  cov- 
ered with  cloth,  and  held  on  by  straps,  one 
of  which  passes  over  the  instep,  the  other 
On  entering  a  house,  these  are  always  left  at 


Burman  Shoe. 


over  the  great  toe. 
the  door. 

Women  universally  wear  a  te-mine,  or  petticoat,  of  cotton  or 
silk,  lined  with  muslin.  It  is  but  little  wider  than  is  suffi- 
cient to  go  around  the  body,  and  is  fastened 
by  merely  tucking  in  the  corners.  It  extends 
from  the  arm-pits  to  the  ankles ;  but  laboring 
women,  at  least  after  they  have  borne  children, 
generally  gather  it  around  the  hips,  leaving  un- 
covered all  the  upper  part  of  the  form.  Being 
merely  lapped  over  in  front,  and  not  sewed,  it 
exposes  one  leg  above  the  knee,  at  every  step. 
By  the  higher  classes,  and  by  others  when  not 
at  work,  is  worn,  in  addition,  an  in-gee,  or  jacket, 
open  in  the  front,  with  close,  long  sleeves. 
It  is  always  made  of  thin  materials,  and  fre- 
quently of  gauze  or  lace.  Laboring  women 
and  children  frequently  wear,  in  the  cold  season, 
a  shorter  gown,  resembling  a  sailor's  jacket,  of 
common  calico.  Nothing  is  worn  on  the  head. 
Their  sandals  are  like  those  of  men.  The 
picture  represents  a  genteel  woman,  with  a  cigar,  as  is  very  com- 
mon, in  her  hand. 

Boys  go  naked  till  they  are  five  or  six  in  cities,  and  seven  or 
eight  in  country  places.  Girls  begin  to  wear  clothing  several 
years  earlier. 

Both  sexes  wear  ornaments  in  their  ears.  They  are  not  rings,  or 
pendants,  but  cylinders  of  gold,  silver,  horn,  wood,  marble,  or  paper, 
passed  through  a  hole  in  the  soft  part  of  the  ear.  The  perfora- 
tion is  at  first  small,  but  the  tube  is  from  time  to  time  enlarged, 


Burman    Lady. 


184  BURMA  H. 

till  it  reaches  the  fashionable  dimensions  of  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  As  in  all  countries,  some  are  extreme  in  then  fashions, 
and  such  enlarge  it  still  more.  I  have  seen  some  of  these  ear 
ornaments  larger  round  than  a  dollar.  The  boring  of  a  boy's 
ear  is  generally  made,  by  those  who  can  aftbrd  it,  an  occasion  of 
a  profuse  feast  and  other  entertainments.  After  the  period  of 
youth,  few  seem  to  care  for  this  decollation,  and  the  holes  are 
made  to  serve  for  carrying  a  spare  cheroot  or  a  bunch  of  flowers. 

Men  generally  wear  mustachios,  but  pluck  out  their  beard  with 
tweezers :  old  people  sometimes  suffer  it  to  grow ;  but  it  never  at- 
tains to  respectable  size.  Both  sexes,  as  a  matter  of  modesty, 
pluck  out  the  hair  under  the  arm,  which  certainly  diminishes  the 
repulsive  aspect  of  the  naked  bust. 

Both  sexes  wear  their  hah-  very  long.  Men  tie  it  in  a  knot  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  or  intertwine  it  with  their  turban.  Women 
turn  it  all  back,  and,  without  a  comb,  form  it  into  a  graceful  knot 
behind,  frequently  adding  chaplets  or  festoons  of  fragrant  natural 
flowers,  strung  on  a  thread.  As  much  hair  is  deemed  ornamental, 
they  often  add  false  tresses,  which  hang  down  behind,  in  the 
manner  shown  in  the  last  picture.  Both  sexes  take  great 
pains  with  their  hair,  frequently  washing  it  with  a  species  of 
bark,  which  has  the  properties  of  soap,  and  keeping  it  anointed 
with  sweet  oil. 

Women  are  fond  of  rendering  their  complexions  more  fair,  and 
at  the  same  time  fragrant,  by  rubbing  over  the  face  the  delicate 
yellow  powder  already  mentioned,  which  is  also  found  a  great 
relief  in  cutaneous  eruptions,  and  is  often  used  for  this  purpose 
by  the  missionary,  with  success.  They  occasionally  stain  the 
nails  of  the  fingers  and  toes  with  a  scarlet  pigment.  Bathing  is 
a  daily  habit  of  all  who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  convenient  water. 
I  was  often  reminded,  while  sitting  in  their  houses  in  the  dusk  of 
the  evening,  of  our  Savior's  remark,  John  xiii.  10  —  "  He  that  is 
washed  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet,  but  is  clean  eveiy 
whit."  The  men,  having  finished  then-  labor,  bathe,  and  clean 
themselves  at  the  river,  or  tank;  but  walking  up  with  wet  feet 
defiles  them  again,  so  that  they  cannot  with  propriety  come  and 
take  their  place  on  the  mat  or  bed.  Taking  up  some  water, 
therefore,  in  a  coco-nut  dipper,  out  of  a  large  jar  which  stands  at 
the  door  of  every  house,  they  easily  rinse  their  feet  as  they  stand 
on  the  step,  and  "are  clean  every  whit." 

All  ranks  are  exceedingly  fond  of  flowers,  and  display  great 
taste  hi  arranging  them,  on  all  public  occasions.  The  pagodas 
receive  daily  offerings  of  these  in  great  quantity,  and  a  lady  in 


MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS.  185 

full  dress  throws  festoons  of  them  around  her  hair.  Dressy  men. 
on  special  occasions,  put  a  few  into  the  holes  in  their  ears. 

In  all  Burman  pictures,  it  is  observable  that  the  arm,  when  used 
to  prop  the  body,  is  curved  the  wrong  way.  This  arises  from  the 
frequency  of  such  a  posture  to  persons  who  sit  on  the  floor  with 
their  feet  at  then  side,  and  from  the  great  flexibility  of  the  joints 
of  Orientals.  It  is  deemed  a  beauty  in  proportion  to  its  degree 
of  flexure.  I  found  the  same  fashion  prevailing  in  Siam,  and 
took  a  drawing,  which  will  come  in  hereafter.  The  stories,  in 
some  books,  of  their  dislocating  then-  elbow  at  pleasure,  and 
even  putting  up  the  hair,  &c.  with  the  joints  reversed,  are 
absurd. 

The  mode  of  kissing  is  curious,  though  natural.  Instead  of  a 
slight  touch  of  the  lips,  as  with  us,  they  apply  the  mouth  and 
nose  closely  to  the  person's  cheek,  and  draw  hi  the  breath  strong- 
ly, as  if  smel  ling  a  delightful  perfume.  Hence,  instead  of  saying, 
"  Give  me  a  kiss,"  they  say,  "  Give  me  a  smell."  There  is  no 
word  in  the  language  which  translates  our  word  kiss. 

Children  are  carried,  not  in  the  arms,  as  with  us,  but  astride 
the  hip,  as  is  the  custom  in  other  parts  of  India.  See  cut  in 
the  chapter  on  Siam.  The  cradle  of  an  infant  is  an  oblong  bas- 
ket, without  rockers,  suspended  from  the  rafters.  The  least  im- 
pulse sets  it  swinging;  and  the  child  is  thus  kept  cool,  and 
unannoyed  by  the  flies. 

The  custom  of  blacking  the  teeth  is  almost  universal.  It  is 
generally  done  about  the  age  of  puberty.  The  person  first  chews 
alum  or  sour  vegetables  several  hours,  after  which  a  mixture  of 
oil,  lampblack,  and  perhaps  other  ingredients,  is  applied  with  a 
hot  iron.  When  done  by  the  regular  professors  of  the  art,  it  is 
indelible.  At  the  metropolis,  the  practice  is  getting  into  disre- 
pute, and  still  more  so  in  the  British  provinces  ;  and  as  inter- 
course with  foreigners  increases,  the  practice  may  become  ob- 
solete. Whenever  I  asked  the  reason  of  this  custom,  the  only 
answer  was,  "  What !  should  we  have  white  teeth,  like  a  dog 
or  a  monkey  ?  " 

Almost  eveiy  one,  male  or  female,  chews  the  singular  mixture 
called  coon ;  and  the  lackered  or  gilded  box  containing  the  in- 
gredients is  borne  about  on  all  occasions.  The  quid  consists 
of  a  slice  of  areca-nut,  a  small  piece  of  cutch,  and  some  tobacco 
rolled  up  in  a  leaf  of  betel  pepper,  on  which  has  been  smeared  a 
little  tempered  quicklime.  It  creates  profuse  saliva,  and  so  fills 
up  the  mouth  that  they  seem  to  be  chewing  food.  It  colors  the 
mouth  deep  red ;  and  the  teeth,  if  not  previously  blackened,  as- 
16* 


186  BURMA  II. 

sume  the  same  color.  It  is  rather  expensive,  and  is  not  taken 
very  often  through  the  day.  Smoking  tohacco  is  still  more  prev- 
alent among  both  sexes,  and  is  commenced  by  children  almost  as 
soon  as  they  are  weaned.  I  have  seen  little  creatures  of  two  or 
three  years,  stark  naked,  tottering  about  with  a  lighted  cigar  in  their 
mouth.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  them  to  become  smokers,  even 
before  they  are  weaned,  the  mother  often  taking 
the  cheroot  from  her  mouth  and  putting  it  into 
that  of  the  infant!  Such  universal  smoking  and 
chewing  makes  a  spittoon  necessary  to  cleanly 
persons.  It  is  generally  made  of  brass,  in  the 
shape  of  a  vase,  and  quite  handsome.  Hookas 
are  not  used,  and  pipes  are  uncommon.  The 
cheroot  is  seldom  wholly  made  of  tobacco. 
The  wrapper  is  the  leaf  of  the  then-nat  tree  ; 

Spittoon.  rr  ' 

fragrant  wood  rasped  fine,  the  dried  root  of  the 
tobacco,  and  some  of  the  proper  leaf,  make  the  contents. 

Men  are  universally  tattooed  on  the  thighs  and  lower  part  of 
the  body,  as  is  shown  in  the  engraving  on  page  187.  The  opera- 
tion is  commenced  in  patches,  at  the  age  of  eight  or  ten  years, 
and  continued  till  the  whole  is  finished.  In  the  picture,  a  little 
boy  is  represented  with  the  operation  commenced.  The  intended 
figures,  such  as  animals,  birds,  demons,  &c,  are  traced  with 
lampblack  and  oil,  and  pricked  in  with  a  pointed  instrument 
Frequently  the  figures  are  only  lines,  curves,  &c,  "with  an  occa- 
sional cabalistic  word.  The  process  is  not  only  painful,  but  ex- 
pensive. The  tattooing  of  as  much  surface  as  may  be  covered 
by  "six  fingers"  costs  a  quarter  of  a  tical,  when  performed  by  an 
ordinary  artist ;  but  when  by  one  of  superior  qualifications,  the 
charge  is  higher.  Not  to  be  thus  tattooed  is  considered  as  a 
mark  of  effeminacy.  The  practice  originates  not  only  from  its 
being  considered  ornamental,  but  a  charm  against  casualties. 
Those  who  aspire  to  more  eminent  decoration  have  another  tat- 
tooing, with  a  red  pigment,  done  in  small  squares  upon  the  breast 
and  arms. 

A  few  individuals,  especially  among  those  who  have  made 
arms  a  profession,  insert  under  the  skin  of  the  arm,  just  below 
the  shoulder,  small  pieces  of  gold,  copper,  or  iron,  and  sometimes 
diamonds  or  pearls.  One  of  the  converts  at  Ava,  formerly  a 
colonel  in  the  Burman  army,  had  ten  or  twelve  of  these  in  his 
arm,  several  of  which  he  allowed  me  to  extract.  They  are 
thin  plates  of  gold,  with  a  charm  'written  upon  them,  and  then 
rolled  up. 


CHARACTER. 


187 


The  upper  classes  sleep  on  bedsteads,  with  a  thin  mattrass  or 
mat ;  but  most  people  sleep  on  the  floor.  Some  have  a  thick  cot- 
ton cloth  to  wrap  themselves  in  at  night ;  but  the  majority  use 
only  the  clothes  worn  in  the  day.  Sheets  are  not  thought  of  by 
any  class :  even  Europeans  prefer  to  have  their  mattrasses  en- 
closed in  the  fine  mats  of  the  country,  and  sleep  in  suitable 
dresses. 

Respectable  people  are  always  attended  in  the  streets  by  a 
few  followers,  sometimes  by  quite  a  crowd.  A  petty  officer  of 
middling  rank  appears  with  six  or  eight:  one  carries  a  pipe, 
another  a  coon-box,  another  a  water-goblet,  with  the  cup  turned 
upside  down  on  the  mouth,  another  a  spittoon,  another  a  mem- 


Barman  Gentleman  and  Followers. 

orandum-book,  etc.  All  classes  use  umbrellas  when  walking 
abroad.  Peasants  and  laborers,  when  at  work,  generally  wear 
hats  two  or  three  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  light  bark. 

It  is  scarcely  safe  for  travellers  to  attempt  to  portray  national 
character.  Calm  and  prolonged  intercourse,  at  every  place, 
with  men  long  on  the  ground,  and  daily  contact  with  natives, 
merchants,  civilians,  soldiers,  and  missionaries,  gave  me,  however, 
opportunities  for  forming  opinions  such  as  fall  to  the  lot  of 
few. 

The  Burman  character  differs,  in  many  points,  from  that  of  the 
Hindus,  and  other  East  Indians.  They  are  more  lively,  active, 
and  industrious,  and,  though  fond  of  repose,  are  seldom  idle 
when  there  is  an  inducement  for  exertion.     When  such  induce- 


188  BURMAII. 

merit  offers,  they  exhibit  not  only  great  strength,  but  courage  and 
perseverance,  and  often  accomplish  what  we  should  think  scarcely 
possible.  But  these  valuable  traits  are  rendered  nearly  useless, 
by  the  want  of  a  higher  grade  of  civilization.  The  poorest  classes, 
furnished  by  a  happy  climate  with  all  necessaries,  at  the  price  of 
only  occasional  labor,  and  the  few  who  are  above  that  necessity, 
find  no  proper  pursuits  to  fill  up  their  leisure.  Books  are  too 
scarce  to  enable  them  to  improve  by  reading,  and  games  grow 
wearisome.  No  one  can  indulge  pride  or  taste  in  the  display,  or 
scarcely  in  the  use,  of  wealth.  By  improving  his  lands  or  houses 
beyond  his  neighbors,  a  man  exposes  himself  to  extortion,  and 
perhaps  personal  danger.  The  pleasui-es,  and  even  the  lollies,  of 
refined  society,  call  forth  talents,  diffuse  wealth,  and  stimulate 
business ;  but  here  are  no  such  excitements.  Folly  and  sensu- 
ality find  gratification  almost  without  effort,  and  without  expen- 
diture. Sloth,  then,  must  be  the  repose  of  the  poor,  and  the  busi- 
ness of  the  rich.  From  this  they  resort  to  the  chase,  the  seine, 
or  the  athletic  game ;  and  from  those  relapse  to  quiescent  indul- 
gence. Thus  life  is  wasted  in  the  profitless  alternation  of  sensual 
ease,  rude  drudgery,  and  active  sport.  No  elements  exist  for  the 
improvement  of  posterity,  and  successive  generations  pass,  like 
the  crops  upon  their  fields.  Were  there  but  a  disposition  to  im- 
prove the  mind,  and  distribute  benefits,  what  majesty  of  piety 
might  we  not  hope  to  see  in  a  country  so  favored  with  the  means 
ol*  subsistence,  and  so  cheap  in  its  modes  of  living !  Instead  of 
the  many  objects  of  an  American's  ambition,  and  the  unceasing 
anxiety  to  amass  property,  the  Burman  sets  a  limit  to  his  desires, 
and  when  that  is  reached,  gives  himself  to  repose  and  enjoyment. 
Instead  of  wearing  himself  out  in  endeavors  to  equal  or  sur- 
pass his  neighbor  in  dress,  food,  furniture,  or  house,  he  easily 
attains  the  customary  standard,  beyond  'which  he  seldom  desires 
to  go. 

When  strangers  come  to  their  houses,  they  are  hospitable  and 
courteous  ;  and  a  man  may  travel  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom 
to  the  other  without  money ;  feeding  and  lodging  as  well  as  the 
people.  But  otherwise  they  have  little  idea  of  aiding  their 
neighbor.  If  a  boat,  or  a  wagon,  &c,  get  into  difficulty,  no  one 
Stirs  to  assist,  unless  requested.  The  accommodation  of  strangers 
and  travellers  is  particularly  provided  for  by  zayats  or  caravan- 
saries, built  in  every  village,  and  often  found  insulated  on  the 
highway.  These  serve  at  once  for  taverns,  town-houses,  and 
churches.  Here  travellers  take  up  their  abode  even  for  weeks, 
if  they  choose  ;  here  public  business  is  transacted,  and  here,  if  a 


CHARACTER.  189 

pagoda  be  near,  worship  is  performed.  They  are  always  as  well 
built  as  the  best  houses,  and  often  are  among  the  most  splendid 
structures  in  the  kingdom.  Though  they  furnish,  however,  no 
accommodations  but  a  shelter,  the  traveller  procures  at  the  bazar 
all  he  finds  necessary,  or  receives,  with  the  utmost  promptitude,  a 
full  supply  from  the  families  around.  A  missionary  may  travel 
from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  and  receive,  wherever 
he  stops,  all  that  the  family  can  offer. 

Temperance  is  universal.  The  use  of  all  wine,  spirits,  opium, 
&c,  is  not  only  strictly  forbidden,  both  by  religion  and  the  civil 
law,  but  is  entirely  against  public  opinion.  I  have  seen  thou- 
sands together  for  hours,  on  public  occasions,  rejoicing  in  all 
ardor,  witbout  observing  an  act  of  violence  or  a  case  of  intoxica- 
tion. During  a  residence  of  seven  months  among  them,  I  never 
saw  but  one  intoxicated ;  though  the  example,  alas !  is  not  want- 
ing on  the  part  of  foreigners.  It  is  greatly  to  be  deplored  that 
foreigners,  particularly  Moguls  and  Jews,  tempt  their  boatmen 
and  laborers  to  drink  ardent  spirits,  and  have  taught  a  few  to 
hanker  after  it. 

During  my  whole  residence  in  the  country,  I  never  saw  an 
immodest  act  or  gesture  hi  man  or  woman.  The  female  dress 
certainly  shocks  a  foreigner  by  revealing  so  much  of  the  person  ; 
but  no  woman  could  behave  more  decorously  in  regard  to  dress. 
1  have  seen  hundreds  bathe  without  witnessing  an  immodest  or 
even  careless  act,  though,  as  in  the  case  of  woman's  dress,  the  ex- 
posure of  so  much  of  the  person  would,  with  us,  be  deemed  im- 
modest. Even  when  men  go  into  the  water  by  themselves,  they 
keep  on  then  pisso.  As  to  general  chastity,  my  informants  dif- 
fered so  greatly  that  I  cannot  speak.  It  is  certain  that,  among 
the  native  Christians,  there  has  been  much  trouble  produced  by 
the  lax  morality  which  prevails  in  this  respect  among  married 
people. 

Children  are  treated  with  great  kindness,  not  only  by  the 
mother,  but  the  father,  who,  when  unemployed  takes  the  young 
child  in  his  arms,  and  seems  pleased  to  attend  to  it,  while  the 
mother  cleans  her  rice,  or  perhaps  sits  unemployed  by  his  side. 
In  this  regard  of  the  father,  girls  are  not  made  secondary,  though, 
as  with  us,  boys  are  often  more  valued.  I  have  as  often  seen 
fathers  carrying  about  and  caressing  female  infants,  as  male. 
Infanticide,  except  in  very  rare  cases  by  unmarried  females,  is 
utterly  unknown.  A  widow  with  children,  girls  or  boys,  is  much 
more  likely  to  be  sought  again  in  marriage  than  if  she  had  none. 


190  BORMAH. 

The  want  of  them,  on  a  first  marriage,  is  one  of  the  most  frequent 
causes  of  polygamy. 

Children  are  almost  as  reverent  to  parents  as  among  the 
Chinese.  They  continue  to  be  greatly  controlled  by  them,  even 
to  middle  life ;  and  the  aged,  when  sick,  are  maintained  with  great 
care  and  tenderness.  Old  people  are  always  treated  with  marked 
deference,  and  in  all  assemblies  occupy  the  best  seats  among 
those  of  their  own  rank. 

They  are  called  an  inquisitive  people,  and  may  be  more  so 
than  other  Orientals ;  but  1  saw  no  particular  evidence  of  it. 
Perhaps  much  of  what  travellers  call  inquisitiveness  is  no  more 
than  the  common  form  of  salutation.  Instead  of,  "  How  do  you 
do  ? "  their  phrase  is,  "  Where  are  you  going  ?  "  They  certainly 
seem  fond  of  news,  but  not  less  fond  of  their  own  old  customs, 
to  which  they  cling  with  great  tenacity. 

Gravity  and  reserve  are  habitual  among  all  classes ;  caused 
probably  by  the  despotic  character  of  the  government  and  the 
insecurity  of  every  enjoyment.  Men  are  seldom  betrayed  into 
anger,  and  still  less  seldom  come  to  blows.  The  women  are 
more  easily  provoked,  and  vent  their  spleen  with  the  most  frantic 
violence  of  voice  and  gesture,  but  do  not  strike.  Both  sexes 
utter,  in  their  quarrels,  in  default  of  profane  oaths,  of  wliich  their 
language  is  happily  destitute,  such  obscene  expressions  as  can 
scarcely  be  conceived ;  and  not  content  with  applying  them  to 
their  adversary,  they  heap  them  upon  his  wife,  children,  and 
parents.  They  are  certainly  far  from  being  irritable,  and  one 
daily  witnesses  incidents,  which  among  us  would  excite  instant 
strife,  pass  off  without  a  sign  of  displeasure. 

Gratitude  is  a  virtue  of  great  rarity.  They  never,  on  receiving 
a  present  or  any  other  favor,  make  any  acknowledgment ;  nor 
is  there  any  phrase  in  the  language  equivalent  to  "  1  thank  you." 
Those  who  have  associated  much  with  Christians,  and  especially 
Christians  themselves,  are  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  These, 
and  whoever  else  wish  to  express  thankfulness,  use  the  phrase, 
"I  think  it  a  favor,"  or  "It  is  a  favor."  Boodhism  necessarily 
tends  to  suppress  gratitude  by  keeping  up  the  constant  sense  of 
mercenariness.  If  a  man  does  another  a  favor,  he  supposes  it  to 
be  in  order  to  obtain  merit,  and  seems  to  feel  as  though  he  con- 
ferred an  obligation  by  giving  the  opportunity. 

Thieving  and  pilfering  are  common,  but  perhaps  not  more  so 
than  in  other  countries;  and  much  less  so  than  we  might  expect, 
considering   the    frail   and   accessible   nature    of   their    houses. 


CHARACTER.  191 

These  crimes,  too,  are  for  the  most  part  perpetrated  by  a  few  of 
the  basest  sort,  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  stamping  the  character 
of  the  nation.  The  inadequacy  of  the  government  to  the  protec- 
tion of  the  people  makes  it  surprising  that  criminal  offences  are 
not  more  common.  Sometimes  gangs  of  robbers  circumvent  a 
house,  and  while  some  plunder  it,  others  preclude  all  aid.  Boats 
are  quite  frequently  robbed,  as  the  offenders  then  are  not  easily 
traced.  Murder  not  unfrequently  accompanies  these  depre- 
dations. 

Lying,  though  strictly  forbidden  in  the  sacred  books,  prevails 
among  all  classes.  They  may  be  said  to  be  a  nation  of  liars. 
They  never  place  confidence  in  the  word  of  each  other,  and  all 
dealing  is  done  with  chicanery  and  much  disputing.  Even  when 
detected  in  a  lie,  no  shame  is  manifested ;  and  unless  put  on  oath, 
which  a  Burman  greatly  dreads,  no  reliance  whatever  can  be 
placed  on  the  word  of  any  man.  Of  course  there  are  honorable 
exceptions  to  this  general  character,  as  there  are  in  the  other 
vices. 

There,  perhaps,  never  was  a  people  more  offensively  proud. 
From  the  monarch,  who  adopts  the  most  grandiloquent  titles  he 
can  invent,  to  the  pettiest  officer,  every  man  seems  bloated  with 
self-conceit.  Accustomed  to  conquest  under  every  king  since 
Alompra,  and  holding  all  the  adjacent  tribes  in  vassalage,  they 
carry  themselves  in  a  lordly  manner.  The  meanest  citizen  seems 
to  feel  himself  superior  to  the  Peguans,  Karens,  Tongthoos,  &c, 
around  him.  Gradations  of  rank  are  most  minutely  and  tena- 
ciously maintained,  and  are  signified  in  every  thing.  Houses, 
dress,  betel-box,  water-goblet,  cap,  umbrella,  horse-equipments, 
&c,  are  all  adjusted  by  rule.  To  ride  on  an  elephant  is  the  priv- 
ilege only  of  royalty  and  high  office,  though  often  granted  as 
an  indulgence  to  others.  The  king  alone,  and  his  immediate 
family,  use  a  white  umbrella;  the  next  have  them  gilded,  the  next 
red  or  fringed,  next  green,  &c.  Subdivisions  of  these  grades 
are  marked  by  the  number  of  umbrellas  of  each  particular 
color.  Thus  one  has  twenty,  another  ten,  another  eight,  and  so 
downward. 

The  very  language  in  which  common  actions  are  mentioned  is 
made  to  minister  to  this  nicety.  Thus  there  are  three  or  four 
ways  to  speak  of  every  thing,  such  as  eating  rice,  walking  out, 
sleeping,  speaking,  dying,  one  of  which  is  always  used  of  the 
king,  another  of  priests,  another  of  rulers,  another  of  common 
persons.  It  would  be  an  insult  to  use  a  lower  phrase  than  the 
person  is  strictly  entitled  to,  though  a  higher  one  is  sometimes 


192  BURMA  II. 

used  as  a  sign  of  special  respect.  The  same  difference  is  made 
in  the  words  for  walking  abroad,  and  many  more. 

This  haughtiness  is  manifested  as  grossly  to  foreign  ambassa- 
dors as  is  done  in  China.  They  are  treated  as  suppliants  and 
tribute-bearers.  It  has  generally  been  contrived  to  have  them 
presented  on  the  great  "  beg-pardon  day,"  which  occurs  once  in 
three  months,  when  the  nobles  are  allowed  an  audience  with  the 
king,  and  lay  at  his  feet  costly  presents. 

Both  their  religion  and  government  contribute  to  this  pride. 
Holding  it  as  certain  that  they  have  passed  through  infinite 
transmigrations,  they  are  sure  they  must  have  been  highly  meri- 
torious in  former  states  of  existence  to  entitle  them  to  be  human 
beings,  who  are  but  little  lower  than  Nats,  and  stand  the  highest 
possible  chance  for  heaven. 

Burmans  seem  particularly  addicted  to  intrigue  and  chicanery. 
The  nature  of  the  government  tends  to  this,  as  will  be  seen  in  a 
subsequent  chapter.  In  dealing  with  Europeans,  they  are  also 
tempted  to  such  practices  by  consciousness  of  ignorance,  and 
by  having  often  been  shamefully  overreached.  But  while  eva- 
siveness and  subtlety  are  discernible  in  all  their  intercourse  with 
government  men  and  foreigners,  those  of  the  same  village  seem 
to  do  business  in  good  faith ;  and,  when  a  ruler  or  European  has 
established  a  character  for  fair  and  punctual  dealing,  he  is  seldom 
deceived  by  those  in  his  employ. 

That  polished  suavity  of  manners  which  so  strikingly  charac- 
terizes Hindoos,  even  of  low  caste,  is  wholly  wanting  among  the 
Burmans.  They  have  nothing  which  resembles  a  bow,  or  the 
shaking  of  hands.  When  one  is  leaving  a  house,  he  merely  says, 
"  I  am  going,"  and  the  other  replies,  "  Go."  On  receiving  a  gift  or 
a  kind  office,  an  acknowledgment  is  scarcely  ever  uttered  or  ex- 
pected. When  great  reverence  is  intended,  the  palms  of  the 
hand  are  put  together,  and  thus  raised  to  the  forehead,  adoringly, 
as  in  worship ;  but  this,  of  course,  rarely  occurs,  except  in  ad- 
dressing superiors,  and  is  then  never  omitted. 

In  general,  they  are  uncleanly.  Some  regard,  to  be  sure,  ought 
to  be  had  to  the  light  fabrics  they  wear.  If  we  wore  a  white 
jacket  as  long  as  we  do  one  of  black  bombazine,  it  would  look 
filthy  enough.  Yet  it  is  not  more  clean.  Burmans  are  fond  of 
appearing  neat,  and  the  better  classes,  when  seen  abroad,  are  gen- 
erally very  tidy.  But  their  skin,  their  hair,  and  their  houses,  are 
decidedly  slovenly.  Persons  are  always  seen  bathing  at  the  river 
or  public  wells ;  but  the  proportion  to  the  whole  population  is  very 
small.     Very  little  is  accomplished    toward  removing  the  filth 


CONDITION    OF    WOMEN.  193 

from  their  bodies  by  their  daily  ablutions,  as  they  seldom  use 
soap,  and  their  skin  is  generally  more  or  less  moistened  with  oil. 
Few  are  without  vermin  in  their  heads,  and  washing  common 
clothes  is  done  only  at  very  distant  intervals. 

This  brief  delineation  of  character  may  serve  to  show  how  dis- 
torted and  partial  are  the  views  which  mere  theorists  take  of 
heathen  society.  Formerly,  it  was  the  fashion  to  ascribe  the  great- 
est purity  and  dignity  to  an  uncivilized  and  primitive  state  of  man- 
ners, and  to  expatiate  on  the  crimes,  follies,  and  effeminacy,  of 
more  artificial  and  polished  communities.  More  recently,  it  has 
been  the  fashion  to  consider  all  who  have  not  received  our  cus- 
toms, and  our  religion,  as  sunk  in  degradation ;  devoid  of  every 
moral  and  natural  excellence ;  and  destitute  of  every  species  of 
human  happiness.  The  truth,  as  to  Burmah  at  least,  lies  between 
these  extremes. 

Women  probably  have  their  place  assigned  them  as  correctly 
in  Burmah  as  in  any  other  nation.  Their  intercourse  is  open 
and  unrestricted,  not  only  with  their  countrymen,  but  with  for- 
eigners. The  universal  custom  is  to  give  them  the  custody  of 
their  husbands'  cash ;  and  by  them  is  done  the  chief  part  of  all 
buying  and  selling,  both  in  shops  and  in  the  bazar.  They  clean 
rice,  bring  water,  weave,  and  cook ;  occasionally  assisting  in  the 
management  of  a  boat  or  the  labors  of  the  field.  But  hard  work, 
of  all  kinds,  the  universal  custom  assigns  to  men.  They  are  by 
no  means  denied  education,  nor  is  any  impediment  placed  in  the 
way  of  their  attaining  it ;  but  the  monastic  character  of  the 
schools  prevents  admission  there.  Private  schools  for  gir!s  are 
not  uncommon  in  large  places.  Females  of  the  higher  classes 
do  not  contemn  industry,  and  affect  the  languid  listlessness  of 
some  Orientals.  They  furnish  their  servants  with  useful  em- 
ployment, over  which  they  preside  with  attention.  A  British 
ambassador,  when  formally  presented  to  the  mother  of  the  queen, 
observed  in  one  of  the  galleries  three  or  four  looms  at  work, 
operated  by  the  maidens  of  her  household.  Such  a  fact  reminds 
us  of  the  occupations  of  Greek  ladies,  as  intimated  in  the  advice 
Telemachus  gives  Penelope,  in  Homer's  Odyssey:  — 

'■'Retire,  O  queen  !  thy  household  task  resume ; 
Tend,  with  thy  maids,  the  labors  of  the  loom. 
There  rule,  from  public  care  remote  and  free  : 
That  care  to  man  belongs." 

Burmans   cherish   none    of    those    apprehensions   respecting 
surplus  population,  which  dishonor  some  countries  in  Europe. 
vol.  i.  17 


194  BURMAH. 

Like  the  Chinese,  they  deem  the  increase  of  subjects  the  glory 
and  strength  of  the  throne.  Hence  their  readiness  to  have  for- 
eigners marry  Burman  women.  Hence,  too,  they  are  not  allowed 
to  leave  the  kingdom,  nor  are  the  female  progeny  of  mixed 
marriages.  Every  ship  is  searched  before  leaving  the  country, 
and  heavy  penalties  would  be  incurred  by  the  attempt  to  smuggle 
away  any  female. 

Marriages  are  not  often  contracted  before  puberty,  and  are 
consummated  without  the  sanction  of  priests  or  magistrates. 
Parents  do  not  make  matches  for  children  ;  and  every  youth  looks 
out  his  own  companion.  As  in  more  civilized  countries,  how- 
ever, this  reasonable  boon  is  denied  the  children  of  royal  blood. 
Among  common  people,  when  a  young  man  has  made  his  choice, 
he  declares  himself  to  the  mother,  or  some  friendly  matron,  and, 
if  there  be  no  objection,  he  is  permitted  to  frequent  the  house  ; 
and  something  like  a  regular  courtship  takes  place.  He  con- 
tinues his  intimacy  till  all  parties  are  agreed,  when  he  is  admitted 
to  eat  with  the  daughter,  and  sleep  at  the  house.  He  is  then 
her  husband,  and  the  neighbors  gradually  ascertain  the  fact.  The 
ratification  of  marriage  consists  in  eating  out  of  the  same  dish. 
Whenever  this  is  seen,  marriage  is  inferred :  indeed,  if  it  can  be 
proved,  they  are  married,  and  must  live  as  husband  and  wife. 
After  marriage,  the  young  man  must  reside  with  his  wife's  par- 
ents three  years,  three  months,  and  three  days  ;  serving  them  as 
a  son.  If  he  choose  not  to  do  this,  and  the  bride  be  willing  to 
leave  her  parents'  home,  he  must  pay  them  sixty  ticals ;  and  if,  at 
a  subsequent  stage  of  his  domestication,  he  choose  to  depart,  he 
pays  such  a  proportion  as  can  be  agreed  on. 

Among  the  higher  classes,  marriages  are  more  ceremonious. 
On  the  wedding  day,  the  bridegroom  sends  to  his  intended,  suits 
of  apparel  and  jewelry.  Mutual  friends  assemble  with  him  at 
the  house  of  the  bride,  where  a  liberal  entertainment  is  given. 
The  hands  of  the  couple  are  solemnly  joined,  in  the  presence  of 
the  company,  and  they  partake  out  of  the  same  dish  a  little 
pickled  tea. 

Polygamy  is  authorized  by  law,  but  is  exceedingly  rare,  except 
among  the  highest  classes.  The  original  wife  generally  retains 
preeminence,  and  the  others  perform  subordinate  duties  in  the 
house,  and  attend  her  when  she  goes  abroad. 

Divorces  are  shockingly  common.  If  both  parties  agree  on 
the  measure,  they  have  only  to  go  before  a  magistrate,  and  de- 
clare their  desire,  when  he  grants  the  separation,  without  any 
further  ceremony  than  requiring  them  to  eat  pickled  tea  before 


DIVORCES DISEASES.  195 

him,  as  was  done  at  their  marriage.  If  one  party  seek  to  put 
away  the  other,  more  trouble  and  expense  is  requisite.  A  pro- 
cess of  law  must  be  commenced,  and  a  regular  trial  had.  It 
is  therefore  seldom  attempted.  Women  may  put  away  their 
husbands  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  the  same  facilities,  as 
husbands  put  away  wives.  Each  party,  in  all  divorces,  is  at  lib- 
erty to  marry  again.  According  to  the  written  law,  when  a  man 
and  wife  separate  by  mutual  consent,  the  household  goods  are 
equally  divided,  the  father  taking  the  sons,  and  the  mother  the 
daughters. 

Instead  of  the  expensive  mode  of  putting  away  a  husband  or 
wife  which  common  law  furnishes,  a  much  easier  is  often  re- 
sorted to  with  complete  success.  The  party  aggrieved  merely 
turns  priest,  or  nun  ;  and  the  matrimonial  bond  is  at  once  dis- 
solved. They  may  return  to  secular  life  at  any  time,  and  marry 
another;  but  for  appearances'  sake,  this  is  generally  deferred 
some  months. 

In  the  British  provinces,  considerable  effort  has  been  made  to 
check  the  frequency  of  divorces,  but  without  much  success. 

It  will  be  supposed,  from  the  description  given  of  the  salu- 
brious climate  and  simple  diet  of  the  Burmans,  that  diseases  are 
few,  and  the  people  generally  healthy.  Such  is  the  fact.  Life  is 
often  prolonged  to  eighty,  and  even  ninety  years  ;  though  a  per- 
son is  old  at  sixty.  No  general  pestilence  has  ever  been  known 
but  the  cholera,  which  seldom  appears,  and  then  in  a  milder 
form  than  in  most  other  countries. 

The  principal  diseases  are  fever,  rheumatism,  consumption, 
and  bowel  complaints.  Consumption  is  a  common  mode  by  which 
old  persons  are  carried  off,  but  it  attacks  youth  comparatively 
seldom.  Intermittent  fevers  are  scarcely  known,  but  remittent 
and  continued  types  are  very  common.  The  stone  and  scrof- 
ula are  almost  unknown ;  but  dropsy,  and  asthma,  and  hernia, 
are  not  uncommon.  The  small-pox  comes  round  occasionally, 
and  carries  off  great  numbers,  especially  children.  Inoculation 
has  been  a  good  deal  resorted  to,  since  the  English  war ;  but, 
though  great  efforts  have  been  made,  for  twenty  years,  to  introduce 
vaccination,  it  has  not  succeeded.  Matter  has  been  brought 
from  Bengal,  Madras,  England,  France,  and  America ;  put  up  in 
every  possible  mode,  but  in  vain.  Fifteen  or  twenty  healthy  per- 
sons, in  the  full  course  of  cow-pox,  were  sent  to  Maulmain,  a 
li  \\  j tars  since,  at  the  expense  of  the  East  India  Company,  from 
whom  many  were  vaccinated,  but  only  a  few  successfully ;  and 


196  BURMAH. 

from  those  it  could  not  be  propagated  again.  Leprosy,  in  several 
forms,  is  seen  at  the  great  cities,  where  its  victims  collect  in  a 
separate  quarter,  and  live  chiefly  by  begging  —  the  only  beggars 
in  the  country.  The  general  form  is  that  which  attacks  the 
smaller  joints.  I  saw  many  who  had  lost  all  the  fingers  and  toes, 
and  some,  both  hands  and  feet.  In  some  cases,  the  nose  also 
disappears.  It  does  not  seem  much  to  shorten  life,  and  is  not 
very  painful,  except  in  its  first  stages.  Those  with  whom  I  con- 
versed declared  that  they  had  not  felt  any  pain  for  years.  In 
many  cases,  it  ceases  to  increase  after  a  time  :  the  stumps  of  the 
limbs  heal,  and  the  disease  is  in  fact  cured.  I  could  not  learn 
of  any  effectual  remedy:  it  seems  in  these  cases  to  stop  of  it- 
self. It  can  scarcely  be  considered  contagious,  though  instances 
are  sometimes  given  to  prove  it  so.  Persons  suffering  under 
it,  are  by  law  separated  entirely  from  other  society ;  but  their 
families  generally  retire  with  them,  mingling  and  cohabiting  for 
life.  The  majority  of  the  children  are  sound  and  healthy,'but  it 
is  said  frequently  to  reappear  in  the  second  or  third  generation. 
Lepers,  and  those  who  consort  with  them,  are  compelled  to 
wear  a  conspicuous  and  peculiar  hat,  made  like  a  shallow, 
conical  basket.  The  children,  whether  leprous  or  not,  are  al- 
lowed to  intermarry  only  with  their  own  class. 

Cutaneous  diseases  are  common,  arising,  doubtless,  partly 
from  general  want  of  cleanliness,  and  partly  from  the  frequent 
checks  which  perspiration  must  receive,  where  so  little  clo- 
thing is  worn  by  day  or  night.  It  is  thought  by  the  natives 
that  these  diseases  arise  from  the  habitual  and  free  consumption 
of  fish.  The  itch  is  very  common.  I  have  seen  neighborhoods 
where  almost  every  individual  was  affected.  A  sort  of  tetter,  or 
whitish  spots,  spreading  over  parts  of  the  body,  is  exceedingly 
common,  but  does  not  seem  to  affect  the  general  health.  It  is  of 
two  kinds ;  one,  in  which  the  spots  retain  sensitiveness,  and 
another,  in  which  they  are  entirely  insensible.  The  natives  re- 
gard the  latter  kind  as  indicating  approaching  leprosy. 

Ophthalmia  is  common.  Besides  the  brilliance  of  a  tropical 
sim,  from  which  their  light  turban  in  no  degree  defends  the  eyes, 
it  is  probable  that  the  general  practice  of  keeping  new-born 
infants  in  rooms  but  little  darkened,  and  taking  them  into  the 
open  day,  may  have  a  tendency  to  produce  this.  I  never  saw 
a  Burman  squint.  Lues  venerea  is  much  more  rare  than  with 
us,  and  generally  wears  a  milder  form.  There  are,  occasionally, 
some  horrible  cases.  Of  the  goitre,  said  to  be  common  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  I  never  saw  a  case ;  nor  had  any  person  of  whom 
I  inquired. 


DISEASES  MEDICAL    PRACTICE.  197 

Among  children,  worms  seem  to  produce  the  most  frequent 
and  fatal  diseases,  prohahly  owing  to  the  want  of  animal  food, 
and  the  unrestricted  use  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  ripe  and  un- 
ripe. Teething  is  far  less  hazardous  than  with  us,  and  is  rarely 
fatal.  The  natives  scarcely  think  of  ascribing  any  bad  symptoms 
to  the  process  of  dentition. 

There  are  many  medical  men,  but  few  who  are  respectable  in 
their  profession.  As  a  body,  they  are  the  worst  of  quacks.  They 
are  divided  into  two  schools.  One  is  called  Dat;  literally,  "ele- 
ment." These  give  no  medicine,  but  operate  wholly  by  regula- 
ting the  diet.  They  are,  in  general,  the  most  respectable  class, 
and,  in  many  cases,  succeed  very  well ;  particularly  in  fevers, 
where  they  allow  an  unlimited  quantity  of  acidulated  drink,  par- 
ticularly tamarind  water.  The  other  class  is  called  Say ;  literally, 
"medicine."  These  go  to  the  opposite  extremes,  giving  enor- 
mous doses  of  the  most  heterogeneous  substances.  They  some- 
times boast  that  a  particular  pill  is  made  up  of  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty 
ingredients,  deeming  the  prospect  of  hitting  the  cure  to  be  in 
proportion  to  the  number.  The  medicines  are  generally  of  a 
heating  kind,  even  in  fevers.  In  all  the  bazars  are  stalls  of 
apothecaries,  who  display  a  most  unimaginable  assortment  of 
loots  and  barks,  pods  and  seeds.  I  have  seen  English  walnut- 
shells  exhibited  prominently  ;  indeed,  whatever  is  astringent,  is 
carefully  saved.  Mercury  and  arsenic  have  long  been  in  use, 
and  are,  in  general,  given  with  discretion ;  but  nearly  all  their 
remedies  are  drawn  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Both  classes  of  doctors,  occasionally,  add  conjuring  and  charms 
to  their  other  practices,  and  many  medicines  are  vended  to  neu- 
tralize the  effects  of  these  dreaded  mysteries.  As  to  anatomy, 
they  know  nothing.  They  indeed  make  pretensions  to  this  science, 
and  have  books  upon  it ;  but  the  sum  of  their  knowledge  is,  that 
the  human  body  has  three  hundred  and  sixty  bones,  nine  hun- 
dred veins,  nine  hundred  muscles,  discharges  impurities  by  nine 
apertures !  &c.     Dissection  is  never  thought  of. 

A  favorite  treatment,  particularly  for  local  pains,  is  hnl-king  —  a 
practice  similar  to  the  champooing  of  the  Hindus,  but  some- 
times performed  more  roughly.  For  ordinary  pains,  the  limbs 
and  body  are  gently  squeezed  with  the  hands,  or  pressed  and 
kneaded.  For  sharper  pains,  the  elbow  is  employed,  and  for 
extreme  cases,  operation  is  performed  by  standing  on  the  patient, 
with  naked  feet,  and  carefully  moving  about  on  the  part  affected. 
I  found  the  gentler  plan  a  great  relief  for  pain  in  the  bowels,  or 
rheumatism,  and  exceedingly  refreshing,  after  great  fatigue.  It 
17* 


198  BORMAH. 

often  proved  a  delightful  soporific,  when  nothing  else  would 
enable  me  to  sleep. 

The  treatment  of  small-pox  is  very  like  that  formerly  practised 
in  this  country.  The  air  is  carefully  excluded  by  curtains,  and 
little  or  no  medicine  is  given.  The  skin  is  occasionally  washed 
with  spirits,  or  the  patient  bathes  in  water.  The  latter  plan 
seems  eminently  hazardous,  but  missionaries  have  not  only  bathed 
daily  in  cold  water  in  every  stage  of  the  pustules,  with  safety,  but 
found  it  a  delightful  relief. 

The  profession  of  midwifery  is  confined  wholly  to  women, 
and  it  is  exceedingly  rare  that  any  difficulty  occurs.  Their 
practice,  however,  seems  very  barbarous.  It  consists  chiefly  in 
hniking  the  patient,  and  frequently  with  the  most  revolting  vio- 
lence. After  delivery,  she  is  roasted  before  a  hot  fire  for  several 
days,  while  fresh  air  is  carefully  excluded  from  the  apartment. 
If  any  difficulty  afterward  occurs,  it  is  attributed  to  her  not 
having  been  sufficiently  sweated.  This  roasting  exceeds  in 
severity  any  thing  which  we  should  think  endurable.  The 
amount  of  wood  allowed  for  this  purpose  would  suffice  the 
family,  in  ordinary  times,  for  months. 

Funerals  are  conducted  with  many  demonstrations  of  grief  on 
the  part  of  immediate  relations,  or  hired  mourners.  No  sooner 
is  a  person  dead,  than  the  nearest  female  relatives  set  up  loud 
lamentations,  talking  the  while,  so  as  to  be  heard  far  and  near. 
The  house  is  soon  filled  with  the  friends  of  the  family,  who  suf- 
fer the  relations  to  vent  their  grief,  while  they  assume  all  the 
necessary  cares  and  arrangements.  The  body  is  washed  in 
warm  water,  and  laid  out  upon  a  mat  or  couch,  in  good  clothing ; 
generally  white,  which  is  the  mourning  color.  A  coffin  is  pre- 
pared, ornamented  more  or  less,  according  to  station,  in  which 
the  corpse  remains  several  days,  when  it  is  carried  in  procession 
to  the  place  of  the  dead,  and  there  burned,  with  the  coffin. 
Sometimes  the  place  of  the  viscera,  and  parts  of  the  coffin  and 
funeral  car,  are  stuffed  with  gunpowder ;  so  that,  when  the  con- 
flagration reaches  a  certain  point,  the  deceased  is  blown  up  to 
the  Nats !  Exploded  into  heaven !  The  charges  are  borne  by 
the  friends,  who  bring  to  the  house  money  and  gifts,  amounting 
sometimes  to  a  considerable  surplus.  The  principal  expenses 
are  the  customary  donatives  to  priests,  who  benefit  largely  on 
these  occasions ;  but  the  funeral  cars  are  often  costly,  and  it  is 
usual  to  give  alms  to  the  poor. 

Infants  are  carried  to  the  grave  hi  their  basket  cradle,  sus- 


FUNERALS.  199 

pended  from  a  pole  between  men's  shoulders,  with  a  neat  canopy 
of  fringes,  drapery,  &c.  The  mother,  instead  of  being  dressed 
up  for  the  occasion,  follows  weeping,  clad  in  the  common  and 
soiled  raiment,  worn  during  her  maternal  assiduities,  around  the 
bed  of  death.  They  are  not  burned,  but  buried ;  and  the  cradle, 
placed  upside  down  on  the  grave,  preserves  for  a  while  the  iden- 
tity of  the  spot,  in  an  appropriate  and  touching  manner.  All  are 
buried,  without  burning,  who  are  under  fifteen  years  of  age,  or  die 
of  small-pox,  or  in  child-birth,  or  are  drowned. 

When  a  rich  man  dies,  the  body  is  cleansed  of  the  internal 
viscera,  and  the  fluids  squeezed  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
flesh.  Honey  and  spices  are  then  introduced,  and  the  body,  en- 
cased in  beeswax,  remains  in  the  house  sometimes  for  months. 
When  the  time  for  burning  arrives,  the  town  wears  the  appear- 
ance of  a  holiday.  Musicians  are  hired,  relations  are  feasted,  and 
throngs  of  people  attend  in  then*  best  clothes.  The  body,  when 
brought  out,  is  placed  on  a  sort  of  triumphal  car,  some  resisting, 
and  others  propelling,  with  such  earnestness  and  confusion,  that 
the  coffin  seems  in  danger  of  being  dropped  between  the  house 
and  the  car.  One  party  cries, "  We  will  bury  our  dead ; "  the  other 
vociferates,  "  You  shall  not  take  away  my  friend."  When  placed 
in  the  car,  the  same  struggle  is  renewed,  aud  two  or  three  days 
are  spent  in  this  manner;  the  people  manifesting  all  the  jollity 
of  a  festival.  It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  the  resistance  must 
not  be  serious ;  and  the  party  who  carry  out  the  body  ultimately 
succeed.  The  rest  of  th^  ceremony  resembles  the  funeral  of  a 
priest,  described  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Sometimes  the  body 
is  carried  round  about,  that  the  ghost  may  not  find  its  way  back 
to  the  house.  The  remains  of  great  personages,  after  burning, 
are  collected  in  small  urns  of  glass,  ivory,  gold,  or  silver,  and  pre- 
served in  the  family.  Persons  dying  of  cholera,  which  is  deemed 
infectious,  are  not  burned,  but  must  be  buried  the  same  day. 

The  following  account  of  the  burning  of  an  At-wen-woon's 
wife,  from  Crawfurd,*  gives  a  very  satisfactory  idea  of  a  court 
funeral,  which  I  had  no  opportunity  of  seeing. 

"  The  insignia  of  the  At-wen-woon  were  borne  in  front ;  then 
came  presents  for  the  priests,  and  alms  to  be  distributed  amongst 
the  beggars,  consisting  of  sugar-cane,  bananas,  and  other  fruits, 
with  garments.  An  elephant,  on  which  was  mounted  an  ill- 
looking  fellow,  dressed  in  red,  followed  these.  The  man  in  red 
had  in  his  hands  a  box,  intended  to  carry  away  the  bones  and 


Journal  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court  of  Ava. 


200  BURMA  H. 

ashes  of  the  deceased.  This,  it  seems,  is  an  ignominious  office, 
performed  by  a  criminal,  who  is  pardoned  for  his  services.  Even 
the  elephant  is  thought  to  he  contaminated  by  being  thus  em- 
ployed, and  for  this  reason  an  old  or  maimed  one  is  selected, 
which  is  afterwards  turned  loose  into  the  forest.  A  band  of 
music  followed  the  elephant ;  after  which  came  a  long  line  of 
priestesses,  or  nuns,  all  old  and  infirm  ;  then  came  ten  or  twelve 
young  women,  attendants  of  the  deceased,  dressed  in  white,  and 
carrying  her  insignia.  The  state  palanquins  of  the  deceased  and 
her  husband;  the  bier;  the  female  relations  of  the  family,  carried 
in  small  litters,  covered  with  white  cloths ;  the  husbands'  and 
male  relations  on  foot,  dressed  in  white,  followed  in  order.  The 
queen's  aunt ;  the  wives  of  the  Woon-gyee,  the  At-wen-woon's, 
and  Woon-dauks,  with  other  females  of  distinction,  closed  the 
procession. 

"The  body  was  conveyed  to  a  broad  and  elevated  brick  terrace, 
where  it  was  to  be  burnt.  We  assembled  on  this  to  seethe  cere- 
monies to  be  performed.  The  coffin,  which  was  very  splendid, 
was  stripped  of  the  large  gold  plates  with  which  it  was  orna- 
mented, and  the  class  of  persons  whose  business  it  is  to  burn 
the  bodies  of  the  dead,  were  seen  busy  in  preparing  the  materials 
of  the  funeral  pile.  This  is  a  class  hereditarily  degraded,  living 
in  villages  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants,  and  held  to  be 
so  impure  that  the  rest  of  the  people  never  intermarry  with 
them.  By  the  common  people  they  are  called  Thuba-raja^  the 
etymology  of  which  is  uncertain ;  but  their  proper  name  is 
Chandala,  pronounced  by  the  Burmans  Sandala.  This  is  obvi- 
ously the  Sanscrit  name  of  the  Hindoo  outcasts.  The  Chan- 
dalas,  united  with  the  lepers,  beggars,  and  coffin-makers,  are 
under  the  authority  of  a  Wun,  or  governor;  hence  called  Le- 
so-unin,  or  'governor  of  the  four  jurisdictions.'  He  is  also 
occasionally  called  A'-rwat-wun,  which  may  be  translated, 
'  governor  of  the  incurables.'  This  person  is  by  no  means 
himself  one  of  the  outcasts,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  dignitary 
of  the  state.  Like  all  other  public  functionaries,  he  has  no 
avowed  salary,  but  draws  his  subsistence  from  the  narrow 
resources  of  the  degraded  classes  whom  he  rules.  Their 
villages  are  assessed  by  him  in  the  usual  manner;  and  being 
invested  with  the  administration  of  justice  over  these  outcasts, 
he  draws  the  usual  perquisites  from  this  resource.  A  consider- 
able source  of  profit  to  him  also  is  the  extortion  practised  upon 
the  more  respectable  part  of  the  community.     The  scar  of  an 


FUNERALS.  201 

old  sore  or  wound  will  often  be  sufficient  pretext  to  extort 
money  from  the  individual  marked  with  it,  to  enable  him  to 
escape  from  being  driven  from  society.  If  a  wealthy  individual 
have  a  son  or  daughter  suffering  from  leprosy,  or  a  disease 
which  may  be  mistaken  for  it,  he  will  have  to  pay  dearly  to  avoid 
being  expelled,  with  his  whole  family,  from  the  city.  The  Chan- 
dalas,  or  burners  of  the  dead,  were  represented  to  me  as  having 
originated  in  criminals  condemned  to  death,  hut  having  their 
punishment  commuted.  They  differ  from  the  Taong-m'liu  in 
this  —  that  the  punishment  of  the  former  descends  to  their 
posterity;  whereas  that  of  the  latter  is  confined  to  the  individual. 
"  In  a  short  time,  the  mourners,  consisting  of  the  female  rela- 
tions and  servants  of  the  deceased,  sat  down  at  the  foot  of  the 
coffin,  and  began  to  weep  and  utter  loud  lamentations.  Their 
grief,  however,  was  perfectly  under  control;  for  they  ceased, 
as  if  by  word  of  command,  when  the  religious  part  of  the  cere- 
mony commenced.  It  sometimes  happens  that,  when  the  fam- 
ilies of  the  deceased  have  few  servants  or  relations,  hired  mourn- 
ers are  employed  for  the  occasions.  The  first  part  of  the  office 
of  the  burners  was  to  open  the  coffin,  turn  the  body  prone, 
bend  back  the  lower  limbs,  place  six  gilded  billets  of  wood 
under  its  sides,  and  four  over  it.  The  Rahans,  or  priests,  had 
hitherto  neither  joined  the  procession  nor  taken  any  share  in  the 
funeral  rites,  but  were  assembled  in  great  numbers  under  a  shed 
at  no  great  distance.  The  high-priest,  or  Sare  d'hau,  and  another 
priest,  now  came  forward,  and,  along  with  the  husband,  took  in 
their  hands  the  end  of  a  web  of  white  cloth,  of  which  the  other 
was  affixed  to  the  head  of  the  coffin.  They  sat  down,  and  the 
friends  and  principal  officers  of  government  joined  them.  The 
priest,  followed  by  the  assembly,  with  their  hands  joined,  mut- 
tered the  following  prayer  or  creed,  viz.  '  We  worship  Boodh ; 
'  We  worship  his  law  ; '  '  We  worship  his  priests  ; '  and  then 
repeated  the  five  commandments  —  'Do  not  kill;'  'Do  not 
steal ; '  'Do  not  commit  adultery ; '  'Do  not  lie ; '  ' Do  not 
drink  wine.'  The  husband  poured  water  upon  the  cloth  from  a 
coco-nut  shell,  pronouncing,  after  the  priest,  these  words :  '  Let 
the  deceased,  and  all  present,  partake  of  the  merit  of  the  cere- 
monies now  performing.'  The  assembly  pronounced  the  words, 
'  We  partake ; '  or,  '  We  accept.'  The  pouring  of  water  upon 
the  ground  is  considered  by  the  Burmans  the  most  solemn  vow. 
It  is  as  if  it  were  calling  the  earth  to  witness,  or  rather  the  guar- 
dian Nat,  or  tutelary  spirit  of  the  place,  who,  it  is  supposed,  will 
hold  the  vow  in  remembrance,  should  men  forget  it.     Two  other 


202  BURMAII. 

priests  followed  the  first,  repeating  the  same,  or  similar  prayers 
and  ceremonies.  After  this,  the  company  retired  to  some  dis- 
tance, and  fire  was  set  to  the  funeral  pile.  Notwithstanding  the 
pomp  and  parade  of  this  ceremony,  it  was,  upon  the  whole,  not 
solemn,  and  indeed,  in  all  respects,  scarcely  even  decorous. 
The  persons  not  immediately  concerned  in  the  performance  of 
the  funeral  rites,  laughed  and  talked  as  at  a  common  meeting ; 
and  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion  seemed  to  affect  no  one  beyond 
the  husband,  the  son,  and  the  female  relations." 

Among  the  chief  amusements  are  the  drama,  dancing,  tumbling, 
music,  athletic  feats,  and  chess.  The  first  four  of  these,  as  with 
other  nations,  are  generally  connected  in  one  exhibition.  The 
dramatic  representations  are  rather  respectable  ;  though  the  best 
performers  are  generally  Siamese,  who,  in  these  matters,  are  said 
to  excel  all  others  in  India.  The  performances  are  always  open 
to  the  public,  generally  under  a  temporary  canopy,  extended  over 
the  street ;  and  in  passing,  I  sometimes  stopped  a  few  moments, 
but  not  long  enough  to  understand  the  plot.  The  dresses  are 
modest,  but  showy,  and  apparently  expensive.  Symmes  pro- 
nounces the  dialogue  to  be  "  spirited,  without  rant,  and  the  acting 
animated,  without  being  extravagant." 

Clowns,  harlequins,  and  buffoons,  whose  performances  are  not 
different  from  our  own,  fill  up  the  intervals  between  the  acts. 
Theatres  are  not  established  at  any  appropriate  building.  The 
actors  are  always  perambulatory,  and  perform  at  the  sole  expense 
of  persons  giving  an  entertainment. 

The  dancing  is  the  reverse  of  ours ;  being  performed  with  very 
slow  and  stately  movements,  and  less  with  the  feet  than  with 
other  parts  of  the  body.  The  dancer  walks  round  the  stage,  ex- 
tending his  arms,  and  placing  himself  in  every  possible  attitude. 
The  head,  arms,  back,  wrists,  knees,  and  ankles,  are  strained  this 
way  and  that,  keeping  time  to  loud  music.  No  figures  or  com- 
binations are  attempted,  but  each  dancer  makes  gesticulations, 
according  to  his  own  ideas  of  gracefulness.  Males  and  females 
do  not  dance  together ;  indeed,  there  are  scarcely  any  female  dan- 
cers, the  men  assuming  female  costume  for  the  occasion.  Their 
iong  hair,  done  up  a  la  femme,  makes  the  deception  so  complete 
that  strangers  are  confident  they  are  females.  The  English 
practice  of  dancing,  one's  self,  for  amusement,  is  quite  astonishing 
in  all  parts  of  India.  The  effort  seems  downright  drudgery,  and 
the  more  absurd  as  they  can  have  it  done  for  them,  better,  and 


AMUSEMENTS. — MUSIC.  203 

yet  so  cheap,  by  those  whose  profession  it  is !  1  have  often  been 
watched  with  astonishment  while  walking  backward  and  forward 
on  the  shore,  when  my  boat  was  moored  for  the  night.  They 
are  amazed  that  a  man  who  might  sit,  should  choose  to  walk,  or 
that,  if  able  to  lie  down,  he  should  choose  to  sit. 

The  boxing  differs  little  from  similar  abominations  in  England 
except  in  being  conducted  with  far  less  barbarity.  The  first  ap- 
pearance of  blood  terminates  a  contest. 

Cock-fighting  is  very  prevalent  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 
The  fowls  are  of '  extraordinary  corn-age,  and  the  spurs  are  armed 
with  gaffles.  Engagements  of  this  kind  may  be  seen  daily  in 
the  streets. 

Foot-ball  is  very  common,  and  played  with  great  skill.  The 
ball  is  a  hollow  sphere,  of  split  ratan,  from  six  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  which,  being  perfectly  light,  is  thrown  high  in  air  at 
each  stroke.  The  object  is  to  keep  it  aloft.  It  is  struck  not  only 
with  the  instep,  but  with  the  head,  shoulder,  knee,  elbow,  heel, 
or  sole  of  the  foot,  with  almost  unerring  precision.  This  is  cer- 
tainly a  remarkable  amusement  for  sedentary  Orientals,  and 
seems  to  be  derived  from  the  active  Chinese,  whom  I  have  seen 
at  this  game  in  several  other  parts  of  the  East. 

Chess  is  common,  especially  among  the  better  classes.  It  is 
in  some  sort  sanctioned  by  the  sacred  books ;  at  least,  instances 
are  there  recorded  of  celestial  personages  having  played  at  the 
game.  The  board  is  like  ours ;  but  instead  of  a  queen,  they 
have  a  prime  minister,  whose  moves  are  more  restricted. 

All  games  of  chance  are  strictly  forbidden  by  their  religion, 
and  may  be  said  to  be  generally  avoided.  Several  such  games 
are,  however,  in  use.  One  of  these  is  played  with  cowries  thrown 
into  a  bowl,  and  seems  to  be  the  same  practised  by  schoolboys 
in  America,  called  props.  It  prevails  extensively,  and  the  jin- 
gling of  the  shells  may  often  be  heard  all  night.  I  several  times 
saw  dominoes  played.  Card-playing  is  by  no  means  unknown, 
though  less  general  than  many  other  games.  The  card  is  about 
the  size  of  ours,  but  the  pack  is  more  numerous  and  more  beau- 
tiful. I  had  one  offered  me  for  sale  for  about  twenty  dollars, 
which  had  elaborate  paintings  on  every  card. 

The  people  may  be  said  to  be  addicted  to  music,  though  few 
are  skilful  in  producing  it.  The  common  street  music  is  horri- 
ble ;  but  among  the  great  men  I  found  several  performers,  who 
showed  not  only  great  skill,  but  genuine  taste.-    It  is  remarkable 


204 


Beating  the  Gong. 


that  all  their  tunes  are  on  a  minor  and  plaintive  key,  abounding 
in  semitones  and  slurs. 

Their  variety  of  instruments  is  not  large  ;  and,  I  think,  are  all 
specified  in  the  following  enumeration :  — 

The  Moung,  or  gong, 
is  a  sort  of  bell,  shaped 
like  that  of  a  clock,  or 
a  shallow  wooden  bowl 
with  the  edge  turned 
in,  composed  of  tin, 
bismuth,  and  copper. 
It  is  evidently  bor- 
rowed from  the  Chi- 
nese, though  made  by 
themselves.  It  is  of  va- 
rious sizes,  from  a  di- 
ameter of  three  or  four 
inches,  to  that  of  twenty 
or  thirty.  It  is  struck 
with  a  mallet  covered  with  rags  or  leather,  and  produces  a  deep, 
solemn  tone,  not  unpleasant. 

The  Pan-ma-gyee,  or  drum,  is  not  unlike  our  great  band-drum, 
but  much  heavier,  being  made,  as  all  then-  drums  are,  of  solid 
wood,  excavated.  The  parchment  is  stretched  by  the  same  ar- 
rangement. 

The  Tseing,  or  S^hing,  or 
Boundaiv,is  a  collection  of  small 
drums,  suspended  round  the  in- 
side of  a  richly-carved  frame 
of  wood,  about  three  feet  high. 
They  regularly  diminish  in  size 
from  that  of  a  two-gallon  meas- 
ure to  that  of  a  pint.  The 
player  sits  within  the  circle,  and 
with  his  hands  produces  a  rude 
tune  or  accompaniment.  Drum- 
sticks are  not  often  used.  In  the 
Drums  full  band  the  boundaw  is  never 

omitted. 
The  Megoum,  or  Me-kyoung,  is  a  guitar,  in  the  shape  of  a  croc- 
odile, with  the  strings  extending  from  shoulder  to  tail,  supported 
by  a  bridge  in  the  centre,  and  played  with  the  fingers. 


MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS.  205 

The  Soung  is  a  harp,  and  resembles  that  used  in  Wales,  but 
much  smaller  and  less  perfect.  At  one  end  of  a  hollow  base  an 
arm  rises  with  a  full  curve,  to  which  the  strings  being  fastened,  it 
gives  them  different  lengths.  The  performer  gives  semitones  by 
applying  the  finger  of  the  left  hand,  occasionally,  near  the  end  of 
a  string,  which  has  the  effect  of  shortening  it  He  performs 
however,  in  general,  with  both  hands.  I  have  heard  really  de- 
lightful music  from  this  instrument.  It  is  of  various  sizes,  from 
two  to  four  feet  long. 

The  Tey-au,  or  Ta-yaw,  is  a 
violin,  with  two  or  three  strings, 
played  with  a  bow.  The  belly 
is  sometimes  carved  out  of  a 
solid  piece.  The  tone  is  far 
from  being  pleasant. 

The  Kyay-ivyng  is  a  collection  of  twelve  or  sixteen  small 
gongs,  set  either  in  a  square  or  circular  frame,  varying  in  their  tones 
according  to  a  just  scale.  They  are  struck  with  small  sticks  an 
inch  in  diameter  and  six  or  seven  long,  covered  with  cloth.  From 
this  instrument,  also,  accompanied  by  the  voice,  I  have  heard  very 
sweet  music,  particularly  when  performed  upon  by  the  Meawarie 
Woongyee  at  Ava.  It  is  an  instrument  common  to  all  Farther 
India,  and  deserves  to  be  introduced  into  Europe. 

The  Kyay-Kovk,  called  by  Symmes  Kyezoup,  is  a  similar  in- 
strument, differing  only  in  the  form  of  the  frame  in  which  the 
gongs  are  fixed. 

The  Pa-to-lah  is  a  row  of  flat  pieces  of  bamboo,  the  largest  two 
inches  broad,  and  twelve  or  fifteen  long,  placed  on  horizontal 
strings,  and  struck  with  a  little  hammer  in  each  hand.  It  is  very 
ancient,  and  has  doubtless  given  rise  to  our  instrument  resembling 
it,  made  of  pieces  of  glass. 

The  Pay-looay  is  a  sort  of  hautboy.  The  sound  is  that  of  an 
inferior  flute.     The  mouth-piece  is  like  that  of  a  clarionet. 

The  Hneh  is  a  clarionet  without  keys,  the  end  opening  veiy 
wide,  like  a  trumpet.  The  sound  is  keen  and  shrill.  It  is  al- 
ways in  the  public  bands  of  music,  but  I  never  heard  pleasant 
tones  from  it. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Burmans  are  entirely  ignorant  of  whis- 
tling. I  have  seen  them  stare  intently  on  a  person  who  did  so, 
and  saying  to  one  another,  in  surprise,  "  Why !  he  makes  music 
with  his  mouth  !  " 

vol.  i.  18 


206  BURMA  H. 

The  manufactures  of  this  country  are  by  no  means  contempti- 
ble, and  many  trades  are  carried  on  skilfully,  particularly  in  large 
cities. 

Ship-building,  on  European  models,  is  conducted  on  an  exten- 
sive scale  at  Rangoon.  Colonel  Franklin  computes  that,  from  1 790 
to  1801,  three  thousand  tons  were  built  thus  in  that  city.  The 
cost  of  such  vessels  is  a  third  less  than  at  Calcutta,  a  half  less  than 
at  Bombay.  Native  vessels  are  very  numerous,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  roads,  and  the  great  size  and  number  of  the  water- 
courses. These  are  very  ingeniously  constructed,  and  admirably 
adapted  to  inland  navigation,  though  utterly  unlike  any  thing  seen 
in  this  country.  Some  of  them  are  of  two  hundred  or  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  tons  burden.  The  canoes  are  often  large  enough  to 
carry  eight  or  nine  tons.  In  excavating  these,  they  do  not  first 
remove  half  the  tree,  but  open  only  a  narrow  groove,  and,  after 
the  excavation,  widen  it  by  fire.  A  single  log  thus  makes  a  boat 
seven  or  eight  feet  wide.  When  opened  to  this  extent,  it  is  com- 
mon to  add  a  board,  a  foot  wide,  round  the  edge. 

Good  earthen  ware  is  made  in  several  parts  of  the  empire, 
some  of  which  is  exported.  It  consists  for  the  most  part  of  water- 
jars  and  cooking  utensils,  of  various  sizes,  generally  unglazed. 
These  are  said  to  be  the  best  made  in  India,  and  are  very  cheap. 
Ajar  the  size  of  a  common  dinner-pot  costs  but  about  three  cents. 
Some  of  them  are  the  largest  I  ever  saw,  and  contain  from  sixty 
to  one  hundred  gallons,  thick,  black,  and  well  glazed. 

The  lamps  are  of  earthen  ware,  about  eight 
.  I  inches    high,  much    on    the    ancient    classical 

jj^aggf        model.     The  wick  is  the  pith  of  a  twig. 
^ygr  They  make  no  porcelain,  and  indeed  need  very 

TIM  little,  their  utensils  of  turned  wood,  and  their 

.sjlg^       lackered  cups  and  boxes  answering  the  purpose. 

— ^sHBH1  Specimens  of  this  lackered  ware  have  been 
sent  home  by  many  of  the  missionaries.  They 
are  first  woven,  like  a  basket,  of  fine  split  ratan,  and  rendered 
water-tight  by  successive  layers  of  varnish.  The  figures  are 
scratched  on  with  a  sharp  style,  and  colored  by  spreading  on 
paint,  which  abides  in  these  traces,  but  is  wiped  off  with  a  cloth 
from  the  smooth  surface.  Of  these  boxes,  &c,  there  is  a  great 
variety ;  some  large  enough  to  contain  a  bushel.  Those  about 
four  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  same  depth,  are  generally  used 
as  coon-boxes.     The  best  of  this  ware  is  made  by  the  Shyaus. 

Jewelry  is  made  at  all  the  principal  places,  but  it  is  rare  that 


MANUFACTURES. 


207 


any  thing  of  much  taste  and  beauty  is  produced  in  this  way. 
Embossing  and  filigree  work  form  their  chef  d'ceuvres ;  and  some 
specimens  which  I  brought  home,  would  do  honor  even  to  a 
Chinese.  One  of  these  is  a  silver  box,  such  as  is  used  for  the 
tempered  quick-lime  in  coon  ;  another  is  a  coco-nut  shell,  on 
which  are  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  according  to  their  names 
and  ideas.  I  have  never  seen  more  beautiful  embossing  than 
these  present     Gems  are  beautifully  cut  and  polished. 

In  gilding  they  certainly  excel ;  putting  on  the  leaf  with  great 
precision,  and  making  it  resist  dampness.  No  European  picture- 
frames,  though  kept  with  the  greatest  care,  withstand  the  long  and 
pervasive  damp  of  the  rainy  season.  But  these  artists  make  their 
gilding  endure  not  only  in  the  house,  and  on  the  iron  tees  of  pa- 
godas, but  even  when  spread  over  common  mortar  on  the  outside 
of  a  budding.  To  give  both  smoothness  and  tact,  they  use  noth- 
ing but  the  common  thilsay  (literally  "  wood-oil ")  of  the  country, 
which  is  laid  on  repeatedly,  like  successive  coats  of  black  paint. 

The  assayers  of  pre- 
cious metals  are  expert 
and  exact ;  and,  as 
money  goes  by  weight, 
and  is,  therefore,  con- 
stantly getting  cut  to 
pieces,  and  alloyed, 
these  persons  are  nu- 
merous. I  saw  a  cou- 
ple of  them  at  work  in 
the  Rangoon  custom- 
house, and  presume 
the  sketch  will  make 
the  process  intelligible. 
A  small  furnace  is  set 
in  the  earth,  urged  by 
a  double  bellows,  made 
of  two  large  bamboos.  From  each  bamboo  a  small  tube  near  the 
bottom  conveys  the  air  directly  to  the  fire.  The  melted  metal  is 
cast  into  cakes,  weighing  two  or  three  dollars,  and  thus  passes 
into  circulation,  to  be  again  cut  into  pieces  as  occasion  may 
require. 

Cotton  and  silk  goods  are  made,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply 
the  country.  Some  of  them  are  fine  and  beautiful ;  but  in  gener- 
al they  are  coarse  and  strong,  and  always  high-priced.     In  get- 


Asssyin»  Silver. 


208  BURMA  H. 

ting  the  seed  from  the  cotton,  they  universally  use  a  small  and 
ingenious  machine,  of  which  a  good  idea  may  be  got  from  the 

picture.  It  consists  of  two  small 
cylinders,  in  contact,  one  of 
which,  moved  by  a  crank,  turns 
the  other :  the  cotton  is  drawn 
through,  and  leaves  the  seed  be- 
hind. One  person  cleans  thus  ten 
viss,  or  thirty-six  pounds,  per  day. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  weight  is 

Cleans  Cotton.  jeft  m  geed      The  ^^  sprink]ed 

with  oil,  are  used  for  torches  at  festivals,  &c,  in  the  open  air. 
The  whole  process  of  making  cotton  and  silk  goods  from  the 
raw  material  is  managed  by  women.  The  spinning-wheel  is 
like  ours,  only  smaller,  and  without  legs,  as  the  people  sit  on 
the  floor.  In  preparing  the  rolls,  they  have  nothing  like  cards, 
and,  after  whipping  it  fine  with  a  furrier's  bow,  they  form  the 
rolls  with  their  ringers.      I 

Their  loom  differs  in  no  respect,  that  I  could  discover,  from  our 
common  loom  in  America,  except  that  for  foot-paddles  they  have 
rings  or  stirrups,  in  which  the  feet  are  placed.  When  figures  are 
to  be  introduced,  however,  the  mechanism  is  ingenious,  and  the 
labor  very  tedious.  The  colors  for  this  purpose  are  each  on  a 
separate  bobbin,  or  shuttle,  passed  back  and  forth  with  the  finger, 
as  the  weaving  advances.  In  this  manner,  the  stripes  have  both 
warp  and  woof  of  the  same  color,  like  ribbons  put  together. 
Sometimes  a  more  curious  process  is  adopted,  which  carries  the 
figure  aside  into  other  stripes,  in  a  manner  which  no  British  loom 
could  imitate.  To  comb  the  warp,  they  use  the  fruit  of  the  Sah- 
thah,  a  strong  grass,  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  with  jagged,  thorny 
leaves.  The  fruit  is  the  size  of  an  ostrich  egg,  having  a  shell 
like  a  young  pine  bur.  This  being  removed  leaves  a  sharp, 
strong  hair,  which  makes  an  excellent  brush  for  the  purpose. 

The  process  of  dyeing  is  well  understood,  and  the  colors  beau- 
tiful and  various  ;  but,  probably  for  want  of  proper  mordants,  or 
from  frequent  wetting  and  strong  sun,  they  are  apt  to  be  tran- 
sient.   The  colors  of  silks,  however,  are  permanent. 

Near  Summei-kyoung  saltpetre  is  obtained ;  and  the  principal 
occupation  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  region  is  the  man- 
ufacture of  gunpowder.  This  is  of  pretty  good  quality,  but  the 
process  of  making  it  I  had  no  opportunity  of  seeing.  In  making 
fire-works,  which  are  liberally  used  on  public  occasions,  particu- 


MANUFACTURES. 


209 


larly  rockets,  they  display  great  ingenuity.  Some  of  them  are  of 
incredible  magnitude.  I  have  seen  some  from  eight  to  twelve  feet 
long,  and  four  to  seven  inches  ha  diameter.  They  are  sometimes 
still  larger.  Cox  declares  that  when  he  was  at  Ava,  he  saw  some 
made  which  contained  ten  thousand  pounds  of  powder  each. 
If  such  were  the  fact,  which  seems  impossible,  the  powder  must 
have  been  exceedingly  weak.  Large  rockets  are  made  of  a  log 
of  mahogany,  or  other  tough  wood,  hollowed  out,  and  well  hooped 
with  strong  ratans  or  thongs  of  raw  hide. 

Iron  ore  is  smelted  in  several  districts,  and  forged  into  imple- 
ments at  all  the  principal  places.  But  they  cannot  make  steel, 
and  receive  that  article  from  England,  by  way  of  Bengal.  Their 
chief  tool,  and  one  used  for  all  manner  of  purposes,  from  the 
felling  of  a  tree  to  the  paring  of  a  cucumber,  is  the  dah.  The 
handle  is  like  that  of  a  cleaver,  and  the  blade  like  a  drawing- 
knife.  It  is  also  a  prominent  weapon,  and,  when  made  for  this 
purpose,  is  somewhat  more  long  and  slender. 

Brass  is  compounded  and  wrought  with  more  skill  than  is 
shown  in  almost  any  other  of  their  manufactures.  A  good  deal 
is  made  in  sheets,  and  wrought  into  water-vases,  drinking- vessels, 
spittoons,  &c.  The  latter  are  always  of  one  form,  viz.  that  of  a 
vase  with  a  very  wide  top.    See  the  drawing,  page  186. 

In  casting  bells,  Burmah  transcends  all  the  rest  of  India.  They 
are  disproportionately  thick,  but  of  delightful  tone.  The  raised 
inscriptions  and  figures  are  as  beautiful  as  on  any  bells  I  have 
seen.  They  do  not  flare  open  at  the  mouth,  like  a  trumpet ;  but 
are  precisely  the  shape  of  old-fashioned  globular  wine-glasses,  or 
semi-spheroidal.  Several  in  the  empire  are  of  enormous  size. 
That  at  Mengoon,  near  Ava,  weighs,  as  the  prime  minister  in- 
formed me,  eighty-eight  thousand  viss — more  than  three  hun- 
dred and  thirty  thousand  pounds !  It  seems  almost  incredible ; 
but  if  any  of  my  readers,  interested  in  such  matters,  will  make 
a  computation  for  themselves,  they  will  find  it  true.  The  bell, 
by  actual  measurement,  is  twenty  inches  thick,  twenty  feet  high, 
including  the  ear,  and  thirteen  feet  six  inches  in  diameter.* 
The  weight  was  ascertained  by  the  Burmans,  before  casting,  and 
its  bulk  in  cubic  inches  proves  them  correct.  It  is  suspended  a 
few  inches  from  the  ground,  and,  like  their  other  great  bells, 
is  without  a  tongue.     That  at  Rangoon  is  not  much  smaller.     It 

*  A  friend,  distinguished  as  a  civil  engineer,  computed  the  weight,  from  this 
measurement,  to  exceed  500,000  pounds,  supposing  the  bell-metal  to  consist 
of  three  parts  copper  and  one  part  tin. 

18* 


210  BURMAH. 

will  be  recollected  that  the  largest  bell  in  the  United  States  does 
not  exceed  five  thousand  pounds.  The  Great  Tom,  at  Oxford,  in 
England,  is  seventeen  thousand  pounds,  and  the  famous,  but  use- 
less bell  at  Moscow,  is  four  hundred  forty-four  thousand  pounds. 

Gongs  are  made  at  or  near  Ava ;  but  I  could  not  see  the  pro- 
cess. Kettles,  ornaments,  images,  &c,  are  nicely  cast  at  the 
capital. 

Two  kinds  of  paper  are  made  by  Burmans.  One  is  a  thin, 
blackened  pasteboard,  made  of  macerated  cane,  and  used  for 
writing  upon  with  a  pencil  of  soap-stone.  From  this  the  writing 
may  be  removed  with  a  sponge,  as  from  a  slate.  Sometimes, 
though  rarely,  it  is  made  white,  and  written  on  with  ink.  The 
other  is  a  thin,  but  very  strong  paper,  rather  fine,  and  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  umbrellas.  English  and  Chinese  papers  are 
sold  in  the  bazars.  The  umbrellas  are  framed  of  bamboo,  and 
covered  with  glazed  paper,  and  ornamented  inside  with  flos 
silk,  like  a  rose  on  a  blanket.  They  cost  from  twenty-five  to  fifty 
cents  apiece,  and  will  last  two  or  three  seasons.  I  saw  various 
manufactories  of  them  in  the  upper  cities ;  but  the  seaboard  is 
chiefly  supplied  from  China,  by  way  of  Penang. 

Along  the  coast,  salt  is  made  to  a  considerable  extent ;  but  solar 
evaporation,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  is  not  resorted  to.  It  is  a 
monopoly  of  government,  and  yields  a  considerable  revenue. 
The  process  is  hasty  and  imperfect,  and  so  conducted  that  little 
or  nothing  can  be  done  but  in  the  months  of  February,  March, 
and  April.  Each  manufacturer  pays  a  tax  of  about  forty  ticals, 
without  reference  to  the  extent  of  his  works.  The  article,  though 
thus  taxed,  is  but  half  the  price,  or  less,  which  it  costs  when 
cheapest  in  Bengal,  seldom  averaging  more  than  fifty  cents  per 
bushel. 

The  manufacture  of  marble  is  almost  confined,  as  has  been 
stated,  to  images  of  Gaudama.  They  are  made  principally  at  the 
quarries  near  Sagaing,  a  few  miles  from  Ava.  The  export  of 
these  idols  is  prohibited,  but  some  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Tenasserim  provinces. 

Glass  is  not  made  at  all ;  nor  do  the  habits  of  the  people  require 
it.  Good  cordage,  even  to  large  cables,  is  made  of  coir,  or  coya, 
the  bark  of  the  coco-nut  tree.  Fishing-nets  and  small  cordage 
are  truly  beautiful.  Sandal-makers  are  numerous,  and  their  work 
handsome  and  durable ;  but  boots  and  shoes,  in  our  mode,  they 
cannot  make.  Foreigners,  however,  find  no  difficulty  in  getting 
them  made  by  Chinese,  who  live  in  all  the  towns,  and  make 
almost  any  thing,  if  the  pattern  be  furnished. 


211 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Government  —  Orders  of  Nobility  —  Grades  of  Community  —  Magistracy  — 
Laws  —  Division  of  Property. 

The  monarch  is  absolute.  Custom  and  convenience  require 
him  to  ask  counsel  of  the  nobles  touching  important  matters,  but 
he  is  not  bound  to  adopt  it.  Indeed,  he  often  treats  his  courtly 
advisers  with  contempt,  and  sometimes  with  violence  —  even 
chasing  them  out  of  his  presence  with  a  drawn  sword.  On  a 
late  occasion,  for  a  very  slight  offence,  he  had  forty  of  his  highest 
officers  laid  on  their  faces  in  the  public  street,  before  the  palace 
wall,  and  kept  for  hours  in  a  broiling  sun,  with  a  beam  extended 
across  their  bodies.  He  is,  however,  seldom  allowed  to  know 
much  of  passing  events,  and  particularly  of  the  delinquencies  of 
particular  officers,  who  are  ever  ready  to  hush  up  accusations  by 
a  bribe  to  their  immediate  superior.  No  office,  title,  or  rank, 
except  that  of  the  king,  is  hereditary.  Promotion  is  open  to  all 
classes. 

Next  in  rank  to  the  royal  family  are  the  woon-gyees,  (from 
woon,  governor,  and  gyee,  great,)  or  public  ministers  of  state.  Of 
these  there  are  commonly  four,  but  sometimes  five  or  six,  forming 
a  court  or  council,  which  sits  daily  in  the  lot-dau.  His  majesty 
is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  present  at  the  deliberations.  Royal 
acts  are  issued,  not  in  the  king's  name,  but  in  that  of  this  council. 
Causes  of  every  kind  may  be  brought  here  for  decision. 

Below  these  are  the  woon-douks,  (from  woon,  governor,  and 
douk,  prop,)  or  assistant  woons,  who  attend  at  the  lut-dau,  and 
express  their  opinions.  They  have  no  right  to  vote,  but  may  re- 
cord their  dissent.  They  cooperate  in  carrying  into  execution 
great  matters  of  state  policy,  and  are  often  exceedingly  influential. 

Of  about  the  same  grade,  but  rather  inferior,  are  the  a-twen- 
woons,  (from  a-twen,  inside,  and  woon,  governor,)  of  whom  there 
are  generally  from  four  to  six.  These  constitute  the  cabinet,  or 
privy  council ;  and  have  access  to  his  majesty  at  all  times.  They 
do  not  act  publicly  as  king's  officers,  nor  sign  imperial  docu- 
ments, but  are  in  daily  session  in  a  room  near  the  palace.  Their 
influence  with  the  king  procures  them  great  respect,  and  many 
bribes. 

There  are  six  or  eight  government  secretaries,  called  sa-re- 
dau-gyee,  (great  government  writers,)  whose  business  is  similar  to 


212  BURMAH. 

that  of  the  state  secretaries.  It  is  not  necessary  to  describe  mi- 
nutely the  other  grades  of  officers.  They  descend,  in  regular  pro- 
gression, down  to  the  head-man  of  a  hamlet;  each  exercising 
arbitrary  sway  over  those  next  beneath. 

The  life  of  men  in  power  is  divided  between  idleness,  sensu- 
ality, intrigue,  and  oppression.  To  their  superiors  they  cannot 
without  danger  avoid  flattery,  fawning,  and  deceit.  From  in- 
feriors they  derive  a  maintenance  by  fraud,  deceit,  bribery,  and 
violence.  General  knowledge  is  beyond  their  reach,  for  the 
books  of  the  country  do  not  contain  it.  The  liberality  and  intel- 
ligence gained  from  intercourse  with  foreigners  is  wanting,  for 
this  also  they  do  not  have.  From  first  to  last,  they  are,  with  few 
exceptions,  harpies,  who  seek  only  their  own  advantage,  and 
neither  love  nor  pity  the  people.  The  country  labors  under  the 
curse  which  Jehovah  threatens  to  send  upon  a  wicked  people  — 
"  Governors  who  should  be  like  fire  among  the  wood,  and  like  a 
torch  of  fire  hi  a  sheaf;  who  should  devour  all  the  people  round 
about,  on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left." 

Orders  of  nobility  are  marked  by  the  tsa-lo-ay,  or  gilded 
necklace.  The  particular  grade  is  indicated  by  the  number  of 
chains  composing  it,  which  are  united  at  different  places  by 
bosses.  Three  strands  of  common  chain-work  indicate  the 
lowest  rank  ;  three,  of  more  curious  construction,  the  next  above  ; 
then  come  those  of  six,  nine,  and  twelve  ;  which  last  is  the  high- 
est for  a  subject.  Chief  princes  of  the  blood  wear  eighteen,  and 
the  monarch  himself  twenty-four. 

The  community  is,  by  common  estimation,  divided  into  eight 
classes  —  the  royal  family,  great  officers,  priests,  rich  men,  labor- 
ers, slaves,  lepers,  and  executioners,*  and  perhaps  some  others. 
Even  among  these  are  different  degrees  of  respectability.  None 
of  the  classes  constitute  an  hereditary  caste,  except  lepers  and 
slaves  of  pagodas.  The  latter  are  the  most  respectable  of  all 
outcasts.  All,  except  slaves  and  outcasts,  may  aspire  to  the  highest 
offices,  which  are  frequently  filled  by  persons  of  low  origin. 

The  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial  functions  are  not  sepa- 
rated, but  a  measure  of  power  in  each  is  enjoyed  by  every  officer. 
Hence  arise  innumerable  and  shameful  abuses.  Having  no 
salary,  every  government-man  regards  his  district,  or  office,  as 

*  Executioners  are  reprieved  felons,  dead  in  law,  and  marked  by  a  tattooed 
circle  on  the  cheek,  and  often  by  the  name  of  their  crime  tattooed  in  legible 
letters  upon  their  breast.  They  are  not  allowed  to  sit  down  in  any  man's  house, 
and  all  intimacy  with  them  is  forbidden. 


GRADES    OF    COMMUNITY.  213 

his  field  of  gain  ;  and  hesitates  at  no  measures  to  make  it  profit- 
able. Most  of  the  rulers  keep  spies  and  retainers,  who  discover 
who  has  money,  and  how  it  may  be  got.  Accusations  of  all  sorts 
are  invented,  and  the  accused  has  no  way  of  escape,  but  by  a  pres- 
ent. Real  criminals  may  almost  invariably  elude  justice  by  a 
bribe,  if  it  bear  some  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  offence. 
Gangs  of  robbers  frequently  practise  their  trade  by  the  connivance 
of  a  ruler  who  shares  their  gams.  One  of  the  native  Christians, 
who  had  been  in  the  employ  of  a  ruler  before  his  conversion,  as- 
sured me,  that  often,  on  finding  some  one  who  had  laid  up  a  little 
wealth,  his  master  would  employ  some  retainer,  to  place  a  few 
goods  under  the  intended  victim's  house,  by  night,  in  order  to 
bring  against  him  the  charge  of  theft.  In  the  morning,  it  would 
be  loudly  proclaimed  that  this  retainer  of  the  great  man  had  been 
robbed.  A  general  search  would  ensue,  and  the  goods  being 
soon  detected  under  the  victim's  house,  the  evidence  would  be 
declared  complete.  The  wretched  man,  whose  only  fault  was 
thrift  and  saving,  would  be  condemned  to  some  severe  punish- 
ment, and  escape  only  by  paying  a  fine  as  great  as  it  was  sup- 
posed he  was  able  to  bear. 

It  would  require  greater  space  than  can  here  be  spared,  to  give 
any  coiTect  conception  of  the  general  misrule  of  men  in  power. 
We  give  one  other  instance.  The  late  war  having  introduced 
into  Rangoon  and  vicinity  the  Bengal  coins,  the  woon-gyee  en- 
gaged largely  in  making  four-anna  pieces,  which  were  really 
worth  but  two.  They  were  soou  well  known,  and  only  passed 
for  their  real  value.  The  incensed  great  man  sent  the  herald 
about  the  city,  proclaiming  that  whoever  objected  to  take  them  at 
their  nominal  value,  should  suffer  a  specified  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. Business  was  for  a  while  completely  checked,  and  at 
length,  after  making  some  severe  examples,  he  was  obliged  to 
let  the  people  return  to  iveighing  their  money,  as  before. 

An  absolute  monarch  being,  in  fact,  proprietor  both  of  his  do- 
mains and  his  people,  he  cannot  but  see  that  the  number  of  his 
subjects,  and  their  prosperity,  form  his  true  greatness  and  honor. 
Hence,  though  he  may  be  a  bad  man,  prudence  and  policy  dic- 
tate a  rule  which  shall  minister  to  the  general  good.  It  seems 
ever  to  have  been  thus  in  Burmah.  The  king  enacts  salutary 
laws,  and  views  his  people  with  kindness ;  but  sycophants  and 
intriguers  pervert  his  plans,  and  frustrate  his  intentions.  Around 
Ava,  his  personal  knowledge,  and  accessibleness  to  petition 
through  many  avenues,  check  the  movements  of  unprincipled 
nobles,  and  spread  comparative  peace  and  security.     Hence  the 


214  BURMAH. 

superior  populousness  of  that  vicinity.  The  following  account 
of  the  system  of  provincial  administration  is  extracted  from 
"  Crawfurd's  Embassy  to  the  Court  of  Ava ; "  that  gentleman 
having  had,  by  several  month's  intercourse  with  Burman  officers, 
a  better  opportunity  than  myself  of  ascertaining  these  points.  I 
allow  myself  to  dwell  on  this  topic,  as  giving  the  reader  an  op- 
portunity of  judging  of  the  state  of  the  country  and  degree  of 
civilization. 

"  The  country  is  divided  into  provinces  of  very  unequal  size  ; 
these  into  townships,  the  townships  into  districts,  and  the  districts 
into  villages  and  hamlets,  of  which  the  number  in  each  is  indefinite. 
The  word  Myo,  [Myu,]  which  literally  means  a  fortified  town,  is 
applied  both  to  a  province  and  a  township ;  for  there  is  no  word 
to  distinguish  them.  The  province  is,  in  fact,  an  aggregate  of 
townships ;  and  each  particular  one  derives  its  name  from  the 
principal  town  within  its  boundary,  being  the  residence  of  the 
governor.  The  district  or  subdivision  of  the  township,  in  like 
manner,  takes  its  name  from  the  principal  village  witbin  it  This 
arrangement  somewhat  resembles  that  which  prevails  in  China, 
although  much  ruder.  The  governor  of  a  province  is  called 
Myo-wun,  and  is  vested  with  the  entire  charge  of  the  province, 
civil,  judicial,  military,  and  fiscal.  The  Myo-wun  commonly  ex- 
ercises the  power  of  life  and  death  ;  but  in  civil  cases,  an  appeal 
lies  from  his  authority  to  the  chief  council  at  the  capital.  All  the 
public  business  of  the  province  is  transacted  in  an  open  hall, 
called  a  Rung,  with  the  epithet  (Thau,  or  royal. 

"  The  government  of  the  townships  is  intrusted  to  an  officer, 
named  a  Myo-thu-gyi.  These  words,  commonly  pronounced  by 
us,  and  by  the  Mohammedans,  Myo-su-gi,  may  be  interpreted 
'  chief  of  the  township ; '  for  the  word  '  thu '  means  head,  or 
head-man:  the  others  have  been  explained.  The  districts  and 
villages  are  administered  by  their  own  chiefs,  named  Thu-gys ; 
in  the  latter  instance  the  word  'rua,'  pronounced  'yua,'  a  village, 
or  hamlet,  being  prefixed.  These  are  all  respectively  subordinate 
to  each  other. 

"  No  public  officer  under  the  Burmese  government  ever  re- 
ceives any  fixed  money-salary.  The  principal  officers  are  re- 
warded by  assignments  of  land,  or,  more  correctly,  by  an  assign- 
ment of  the  labor  and  industry  of  a  given  portion  of  the  inhab- 
itants ;  and  the  inferior  ones  by  fees,  perquisites,  and  irregular 
emoluments,  as  will  be  afterwards  explained.  Extortion  and 
bribery  are  common  to  the  whole  class. 

a  The  executive  and  judicial  functions  are  so  much  blended  in 


MAGISTRACY.  215 

the  Burmese  form  of  administration,  that  the  establishments  pe- 
culiarly belonging  to  the  latter  are  not  very  numerous.  At  the 
capital  there  is  a  judicial  officer  of  high  rank,  called  the  Ta-ra- 
ma-thu-gyi;  the  principal  administration  of  justice,  at  the  capital, 
at  least,  appears  in  former  times  to  have  been  conducted  by  this 
officer,  but  he  seems  now  to  have  been  deprived  of  the  greater 
part  of  it  by  the  encroachments  of  the  two  executive  councils. 
The  inducements  to  this,  of  course,  were  the  profits  and  influence 
which  the  members  of  these  bodies  derived  from  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  The  three  towns,  with  their  districts,  composing 
the  capital,  have  each  their  Myo-wun,  or  governor,  and  these  are 
assisted  in  the  municipal  administration  of  their  respective  juris- 
dictions by  officers  named  Myo-chare,  commonly  pronounced 
Myo-saye,  meaning  '  town  scribe.'  They  are  in  reality,  however, 
a  sort  of  head  constables,  and  well  known  as  such  to  all  strangers, 
as  the  busy,  corrupt,  and  mischievous  agents  of  the  local  authori- 
ties. The  palace,  from  its  peculiar  importance  in  Burman  esti- 
mation, has  its  own  distinct  governors,  no  less  than  four  in  num- 
ber, one  to  each  gate ;  their  name,  or  title,  is  Wen-m'hu ;  they 
have  the  reputation  of  having  under  their  authority  each  a  thou- 
sand men.  In  the  municipal  or  provincial  courts,  there  is  an  offi- 
cer called  the  SitKai,  who  is  a  kind  of  sheriff  or  principal  con- 
servator of  the  peace,  and,  in  imitation  of  the  councils  at  the 
capital,  an  officer  named  Na-kan-d'hau,  who  discharges  the  office 
of  public  informer.  Most  of  the  Burman  officers  in  the  prov- 
inces, down  to  the  Rua-thu-gyi,  or  chief  of  a  village,  have  asses- 
sors of  their  own  nomination,  called  Kung,  who  take  the  drudgery 
off  the  hands  of  their  chiefs,  leaving  the  decision  to  the  latter.  A 
Myo,  or  town,  it  should  be  observed,  is  divided  into  wards,  or 
Ayats,  each  of  which  is  under  the  direction  of  an  inferior  police- 
officer,  called  the  Ayat-gaong.  The  most  intelligent  and  active 
officers  connected  with  the  administration  of  justice,  are  the  She- 
nes,  or  pleaders.  These  persons  are  described  as  being  tolerably 
well  acquainted  with  the  law  and  its  forms,  and  are  occasionally 
useful  and  industrious.  To  each  court  and  public  officer  there 
are  attached  a  competent  number  of  Na-lains,  or  messengers; 
and  annexed  to  the  principal  courts  is  always  to  be  found  the 
T'haong-m'hu,  or  executioner,  with  his  band  of  branded  ruffians. 
"  The  Myo-thu-gyis  and  Rua-thu-gyis,  or  chiefs  of  townships, 
districts,  and  villages,  exercise  a  limited  judicial  authority  within 
their  respective  jurisdictions,  and  are  answerable  for  the  conser- 
vation of  the  peace.  Appeals,  in  most  instances,  lie  from  their 
authority  to  that  of  the  provincial  officers.     In  civil  cases,  these 


216  BURMAH. 

inferior  officers  try  all  causes  subject  to  appeal ;  but  in  criminal 
ones,  their  authority  is  limited  to  inflicting  a  few  strokes  of  a  ra- 
tan,  and  they  can  neither  imprison  nor  fetter.  In  all  cases  of 
any  aggravation,  it  is  their  duty  to  transmit  the  offender  to  the 
T'haong-m'hu,  sheriff,  or  executioner  of  the  provincial  town. 
The  authority  of  the  chief  of  the  township  was,  of  course,  some- 
what more  extended  than  that  of  the  district  or  village,  and  it 
rested  with  him  to  hear  and  decide  upon  causes  where  the  parties 
belonged  to  different  districts  or  villages.  When  the  chief  of 
towns  or  villages  failed  to  produce  offenders  under  accusations, 
they  were  made  to  answer  the  accusation  in  their  own  persons  at 
the  provincial  courts." 

The  written  code,  civil  and  penal,  though  severe,  is,  on  the 
whole,  wise  and  good  ;  but  is  little  better  than  a  dead  letter.  It 
is  principally  derived  from  the  Institutes  of  Menu.  This  work, 
of  great  celebrity  among  the  Hindus,  was  translated  into  English 
by  the  late  Sir  William  Jones.  It  seems  to  have  been  received 
by  the  Burmans  from  Arracan,  but  at  what  period  is  not  certain. 
Their  translation  is  called  Dam-a-tkat.  Every  monarch  adds  to 
it,  or  alters,  as  may  please  him ;  and  under  some  reigns  it  bears 
little  resemblance  to  the  original.  For  all  practical  purposes  it  is 
almost  a  nullity,  being  never  produced  or  pleaded  from  in  courts. 
Rulers,  from  highest  to  lowest,  decide  causes  according  to  their 
own  judgment,  or,  more  frequently,  according  to  their  interest 
As  a  great  part  of  their  income  is  derived  from  lawsuits,  they 
generally  encourage  litigation.  They  receive  bribes  unreserved- 
ly, in  open  court,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  accept  the  gifts  of  both 
parties.  Their  oppressions  have  scarcely  any  restraint  but  the 
fear  of  ruining  their  own  interest  by  carrying  matters  too  far.  As 
to  seeking  the  good  of  their  country,  or  the  promotion  of  justice, 
there  appears  to  be  no  such  thing  thought  of,  except  perhaps  by 
the  king  and  a  few  of  those  immediately  about  him. 

The  form  of  a  judicial  oath  deserves  insertion,  as  a  curiosity. 
It  is  as  follows :  —  "I  will  speak  the  truth.  If  I  speak  not  the 
truth,  may  it  be  through  the  influence  of  the  laws  of  demerit,  viz. 
passion,  anger,  folly,  pride,  false  opinion,  immodesty,  hard-heart- 
edness,  and  skepticism  ;  so  that  when  I  and  my  relations  are  on 
land,  land  animals,  as  tigers,  elephants,  buffaloes,  poisonous  ser- 
pents, scorpions,  &c,  shall  seize,  crush,  and  bite  us,  so  that  we 
shall  certainly  die.  Let  the  calamities  occasioned  by  fire,  water, 
rulers,  thieves,  and  enemies,  oppress  and  destroy  us,  till  we  perish 
and  come  to  utter  destruction.  Let  us  be  subject  to  all  the  ca- 
lamities that  are  within  the  body,  and  all  that  are  without  the 


LAWS.  217 

body.  May  we  be  seized  with  madness,  dumbness,  blindness, 
deafness,  leprosy,  and  hydrophobia.  May  we  be  struck  with 
thunderbolts  and  lightning,  and  come  to  sudden  death.  In  the 
midst  of  not  speaking  truth,  may  I  be  taken  with  vomiting  clotted 
black  blood,  and  suddenly  die  before  the  assembled  people. 
When  I  am  going  by  water,  may  the  aquatic  genii  assault  me, 
the  boat  be  upset,  and  the  property  lost ;  and  may  alligators, 
porpoises,  sharks,  or  other  sea-monsters,  seize  and  crush  me  to 
death  ;  and  when  I  change  worlds,  may  1  not  arrive  among  men 
or  nats,  but  suffer  unmixed  punishment  and  regret,  in  the  ut- 
most wretchedness,  among  the  four  states  of  punishment,  Hell, 
Prita,  Beasts,  and  Athurakai. 

"  If  I  speak  truth,  may  I  and  my  relations,  through  the  influence 
of  the  ten  laws  of  merit,  and  on  account  of  the  efficacy  of  truth, 
be  freed  from  all  calamities  within  and  without  the  body ;  and 
may  evils  which  have  not  yet  come,  be  warded  far  away.  May 
the  ten  calamities  and  the  five  enemies  also  be  kept  far  away. 
May  the  thunderbolts  and  lightning,  the  genii  of  waters,  and  all 
sea-animals,  love  me,  that  I  may  be  safe  from  them.  May  my 
prosperity  increase  like  the  rising  sun  and  the  waxing  moon  ; 
and  may  the  seven  possessions,  the  seven  laws,  the  seven  merits 
of  the  virtuous,  be  permanent  in  my  person  ;  and  when  I  change 
worlds,  may  I  not  go  to  the  four  states  of  punishment,  but  attain 
the  happiness  of  men  and  nats,  and  realize  merit,  reward,  and 
annihilation."  A  Burman  seldom  ventures  to  take  the  oath,  not 
only  from  his  terror  of  its  imprecations,  but  from  the  expense. 
Captain  Alves  *  states  the  following  to  be  the  charges  in  a  cer- 
tain case  —  "  Administration  of  the  oath,  ten  ticals ;  messenger 
for  holding  the  book  over  the  head,  one  tical ;  other  messengers, 
two  ticals ;  recorders,  two  ticals ;  pickled  tea  used  hi  the  cere- 
mony, half  a  tical." 

Trial  by  ordeal  is  very  seldom  used,  but  is  not  wholly  unknown. 
It  is  practised  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  the  parties  are  made 
to  walk  into  the  water,  and  whichever  can  hold  out  longest  under 
the  surface,  gains  the  cause.  Sometimes  it  is  by  trying  which 
can  hold  the  finger  longest  in  hot  water  or  melted  lead.  A  veiy 
common  mode  of  punishment  is  the  stocks,  used  also  as  a  torture 
to  extract  confessions  or  bribes.  The  instrument  resembles  the 
one  which  is  well  known  in  Europe,  only  that  it  is  so  constructed 
as  to  raise  the  feet  from  the  ground,  if  desired.  The  accused  is 
thus  raised  sometimes  till  his  shoulders  or  head  barely  touch  the 

*  Report  on  Bassein. 
VOL.  1.  19 


218  BURMA  H. 

floor.  In  this  painful  position,  he  is  glad  to  pay  any  demands  in 
order  to  be  lowered  again.  Burman  prisons  are  so  insecure  as  to 
make  it  necessary  to  resort  generally  to  the  stocks  or  iron  fetters. 

The  following  notices  of  Burman  laws  are  deemed  important, 
as  throwing  light  on  the  character  of  the  people.  The  wife  and 
children  of  an  absconding  debtor  are  responsible  for  his  debts  ; 
but  a  woman  is  not  required  to  pay  debts  contracted  by  her  hus- 
band during  a  former  marriage.  If  a  debtor  wish  to  prosecute 
his  creditor  for  vexatious  endeavors  to  get  his  pay,  his  cause  can- 
not be  heard  by  the  judge  till  the  debt  is  first  paid.  Where  sev- 
eral persons  are  securities  for  a  debt,  each  security  is  responsible 
for  the  whole  amount,  so  that  the  first  one  the  creditor  can  lay 
hold  of  must  liquidate  the  debt.  The  property  of  insolvents 
must  be  divided  equally,  without  any  preference  of  creditors. 
Property  proved  to  be  lost  in  any  town,  must  be  made  good  by  a 
tax  on  the  inhabitants,  if  the  thief  be  not  discovered.  A  man 
finding  lost  silver  or  gold  receives,  on  restoring,  one  sixth ;  if 
other  property,  one  third.  The  eldest  son  Inherits  all  the  arms, 
apparel,  bed,  and  jewels,  of  his  father;  the  remainder  of  the 
property  is  divided  equally  into  four  parts,  of  which  the  widow 
takes  three,  and  the  other  children  one  between  them.  If  a  father 
give  one  of  his  sons  a  sum  of  money  for  the  purposes  of  trade, 
that  son  returns  the  capital,  without  interest,  at  the  death  of  the 
father,  to  be  divided  with  the  rest  of  the  inheritance ;  but  the  gains 
are  his  own.  Before  a  man's  property  can  be  divided,  the  widow 
must  pay  all  his  debts,  and  give  a  portion  in  alms. 

The  common  punishments  are,  for  minor  offences,  imprison- 
ment, labor  in  chains,  the  stock,  and  fines.  Then  follow  flogging, 
branding,  maiming,  slavery  to  pagodas,  and  death. 

Theft  is  punished  by  putting  the  offender  in  the  stocks,  where 
he  stays  till  his  friends  can  raise  money  enough  to  appease  the 
great  man,  beside  making  restitution.  For  repeated  offences, 
imprisonment  and  fetters  are  added  ;  and  the  incorrigible,  when 
no  longer  able  to  pay  fines,  are  tattooed  with  a  circle  on  the  cheek, 
or  the  name  of  the  offence  on  their  breast.  Persons  thus  marked 
are  deprived  of  all  civil  rights,  that  is,  become  dead  in  law,  and 
are  consigned  to  the  class  of  executioners. 

Capital  punishment  seldom  occurs,  and  almost  exclusively  for 
murder  and  treason.  It  is  inflicted  by  beheading,  drowning,  or 
crucifixion.  The  number  of  executions  in  the  viceroyship  of 
Rangoon  is  about  twenty  in  a  year.  Killing  a  person  of  the  la- 
boring class,  in  the  heat  of  passion,  is  punished  by  a  fine  of  ten 
slaves,  and  proportionally  up  to  seventy  or  one  hundred  slaves, 


LAWS.  219 

for  a  person  of  higher  rank.  If  a  man  insults  another  grievously, 
he  must,  if  able,  pay  a  proper  fine  ;  but  if  very  poor,  he  is  to  be 
led  through  the  town  with  his  face  smeared  with  charcoal.  A 
libel  is  punished  by  inflicting  the  same  penalty  which  would  have 
been  incurred  by  the  fault  unjustly  charged  upon  another.  But 
if  the  truth  of  the  charge  be  proved,  it  is  not  a  libel.  Whoever 
refuses  to  appear  before  the  judge,  loses  his  cause. 

A  husband  may  administer  corporal  punishment  to  his  wife, 
for  encouraging  too  great  intimacy  with  other  men,  neglect  of 
domestic  duties,  quarrelsomeness,  gadding  about,  meddling  too 
much  in  the  concerns  of  neighbors,  or  extravagance.  He  is  first 
required,  however,  to  admonish  her  repeatedly  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses.  If  she  still  remain  incorrigible  after  a  reasonable 
number  of  floggings,  he  may  divorce  her. 

If  a  man  accidentally  set  fire  to  a  neighbor's  house,  he  is  fined 
one  third  the  value  of  his  body ;  *  but  if  he  was  drunk,  or  in  a 
violent  passion  at  the  time,  he  must  pay  the  full  value  of  his  body. 
A  woman  whose  husband  has  gone  as  a  soldier,  may  many  again 
if  she  hear  not  from  him  lor  six  years :  if  he  went  on  business, 
seven  years  are  required,  and  if  on  a  religious  object,  ten.  If  a 
woman  buy  a  man  and  marry  him,  and  afterward  divorce  him, 
he  is  no  longer  a  slave.  If  a  father  sell  his  child,  and  afterwards 
die  possessed  of  property,  so  much  of  it  as  is  equal  to  the  price 
for  which  the  child  was  sold  must  be  paid  to  that  child,  in  addi- 
tion to  his  share  of  the  inheritance.  A  slave  sent  to  war  and 
captured,  is  free  if  he  escape  and  return.  If  a  master  violently 
beat  his  slave,  his  bond  debt  is  reduced  one  third.  If  death  ensue, 
the  parents  of  the  slave  may  claim  twice  the  value  of  his  body  ; 
and  if  there  be  no  parents,  that  sum  is  paid  to  the  judge.  If  a 
slave  abscond  from  a  master  known  to  be  cruel,  there  is  no  pen- 
alty for  the  person  who  receives  and  harbors  him.  If  the  master 
has  not  been  cruel,  he  may  exact  full  value  of  the  slave's  ser- 
vices for  the  time.  If  a  man  permit  his  runaway  slave  to  be 
maintained  by  another  during  a  time  of  scarcity,  he  cannot  after- 
ward claim  him.  A  master  may  not  seize  his  runaway  in  another 
village,  but  must  notify  the  head-man,  who  shall  deliver  Mm  up. 
If  a  stranger  harbor  a  runaway,  knowing  him  to  be  such,  he  is 
punishable  as  a  thief;  but  if  he  be  a  near  relation,  there  is  no 
penalty. 

If  a  man  die  insolvent,  and  charitable  people  choose  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  a  regular  funeral,  they  are  not  chargeable  with 

*  This  will  generally  pay  for  the  house  of  a  common  person. 


220  BURMAH. 

any  of  his  debts;  but  if  they  be  particular  friends,  or  distant  rela- 
tions, they  must  pay  one  quarter  of  his  debts  ;  and  if  near  rela- 
tions, one  half.  The  head-man  of  a  village  or  district  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  all  robberies  committed  in  his  jurisdiction,  and  must 
make  good  the  loss,  with  heavy  fines,  or  produce  the  offenders. 

Changing  a  landmark  is  punished  by  a  heavy  fine.  Debts 
contracted  by  betting  may  be  recovered  from  the  loser,  but  not 
from  his  family  or  heirs.  A  man  hurt  in  wrestling,  or  other  ath- 
letic games,  cannot  recover  damages ;  but  if  he  be  killed,  the  in- 
jurer  must  pay  the  price  of  his  body.  A  woman  or  a  child 
charging  a  man  with  bodily  injury,  may  adduce,  as  evidence, 
marks  of  violence  on  then  persons.  But  if  a  man  charge  a 
woman  or  a  child  in  the  same  manner,  such  marks  are  not  re- 
ceived as  proof,  but  witnesses  must  be  adduced.  An  empty  ve- 
hicle must  give  place,  on  the  road,  to  one  that  is  loaded,  and  if 
loaded  men  meet,  he  who  has  the  sun  on  his  back  must  give 
way. 

The  value  of  the  bodies  of  men  and  animals  is  fixed.  Thus  a 
new-born  male  child  is  four  ticals,  a  female  three,  a  boy  ten,  a 
girl  seven,  a  young  man  thirty,  a  young  woman  thirty-five.  Of 
rich  persons  twice  these  prices  are  exacted ;  and  of  principal 
officers  still  larger  sums,  rapidly  increasing  in  proportion  to 
rank. 

In  the  provinces  held  by  the  East  India  Company,  a  salutary 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  administration  of  justice,  though  it 
is  still  susceptible  of  great  improvement.  The  criminal  code  is 
nearly  like  that  of  Bengal,  and  the  civil  is  founded  on  Burman 
practice,  the  Dam-a-that,  and  the  Yesa-that  or  Raja-that,  which 
last  is  a  collection  of  decisions  and  laws  made  by  successive 
kings.  A  qualified  Burman  is  connected  with  every  cutchery, 
who  explains  provincial  customs  for  the  information  of  the 
magistrate.  The  only  tax  on  justice  is  a  charge  of  ten  per  cent, 
on  the  amount  of  a  suit,  paid  by  the  plaintiff,  but  which  is  not  ex- 
acted of  the  very  poor.  One  rupee  is  paid  for  a  summons,  and 
half  a  rupee  for  each  subpoena  to  witnesses ;  but  these  also  are 
remitted  to  the  indigent  Professional  pleaders  are  not  allowed, 
but  each  party  manages  his  own  cause,  or  gets  a  friend  to  do  it 
for  him.  The  trial  by  jury  has  beeu  partly  introduced,  and  de- 
lights the  natives.  They  deem  the  office  of  juryman  honorable, 
and  will  accept  no  pay  for  their  services.  Changes  also  have 
been  made  in  the  mode  of  taxation,  which  tend  to  alleviate  the 
condition  of  the  people,  though  the  entire  amount  assessed  is 
about  as  before. 


DIVISION    OF    PROPERTY.  221 

Perhaps  no  country  could  have  a  better  system  for  the  division 
of  property.  The  land  is  all  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  crown ; 
but  any  one  may  occupy  as  much  as  he  pleases,  and  in  any  place 
not  already  held  by  another.  He  has  only  to  enclose  and  culti- 
vate it,  and  it  is  his.  If  the  boundary  be  not  maintained,  or  the 
enclosed  space  be  for  several  successive  years  unimproved,  it  re- 
verts to  the  king,  and  may  be  taken  up  by  any  other.  Of  course 
there  are  no  very  large  landholders ;  and  it  is  worth  no  man's 
while  to  hold  large  unimproved  estates. 

This  system  does  not  in  any  degree  prevent  the  regular  inher- 
itance, sale,  or  renting  of  estates  ;  which  proceed  just  as  with  us. 
The  king  himself  often  purchases  lands.  Mortgages,  leases,  &c, 
are  also  taken  ;  but  a  man  who  loans  money  on  mortgage  has  the 
entire  use  and  income  of  the  land  or  house,  instead  of  a  fixed  rate 
of  interest,  and  if  not  paid  in  three  years,  the  property  is  forfeited 
to  the  lender,  be  it  what  it  may. 
19* 


222 


CHAPTER  V. 

Revenue  —  Commerce  —  Currency  —  Army  —  Navy  —  Slavery  —  Division 
of  Time  —  Weights  and  Measures  —  Language  —  Literature  —  Degree  of 
Civilization. 

The  revenue  of  the  crown  is  derived  from  a  tenth  of  all  impor- 
tations from  abroad,  tonnage,  export  duties,  a  stated  tax  on  every 
family,  and  an  excise  on  salt,  fisheries,  fruit-trees,  and  petroleum. 
Except  the  tax  on  families,  which  is  generally  required  in  specie, 
these  are  taken  in  kind.  Whatever  the  government  is  obliged  to 
purchase,  is  generally  paid  for  in  articles  so  obtained.  A  small 
part  is  exchanged  for  the  precious  metals.  No  tax  is  levied  on 
lands  or  personal  property.  Unmarried  men  are  not  taxed,  except 
in  bearing  their  proportion  of  the  assessment  on  families.  The 
royal  treasury  is  further  replenished  by  fines,  escheats,  confisca- 
tions, presents,  the  produce  of  crown  lands,  and  ivory,  all  of  which 
belongs  to  the  king. 

Arbitrary  assessments  are  made  from  time  to  time  on  particular 
provinces,  districts,  cities,  or  villages,  from  which  the  people  have 
no  escape.  The  royal  order  for  a  certain  amount  is  transmitted 
to  the  local  chief,  who  proportions  at  his  pleasure  the  part  each 
family  shall  pay,  and  takes  care  always  to  levy  a  larger  sum  than 
he  is  required  to  transmit.  If  a  few  men  or  boats  are  required, 
he  is  almost  sure  to  call  on  those  whom  he  knows  will  pay  to  be 
excused  ;  and  thus  makes  it  an  opportunity  for  taxing  to  his  own 
benefit.  The  same  is  done  when  artificers  or  soldiers  are  re- 
quired. Thus  the  general  government  is  really  poor,  while  the 
people  are  oppressed.  It  of  course  often  happens  that  individuals 
assessed  for  their  proportion  of  these  multifarious  exactions  plead 
poverty.  In  such  cases,  the  stocks  or  the  ratan  soon  extract 
consent,  and  often  compel  persons  to  sell  their  little  property,  or 
even  their  children,  to  satisfy  the  demand. 

All  the  worst  features  of  this  horrible  system  are  seen  in  the 
case  of  the  Karens,  Toungthoos,  Zebains,  and  other  tribes  mixed 
among  the  Burmans,  and  treated  as  inferiors  and  vassals.  These 
poor  creatures  are  taxed  about  fifteen  ticals  per  family  per  annum, 
besides  being  subject  to  the  exactions  above  named. 

Princes,  governors,  and  other  principal  officers,  are  allowed  to 


REVENUE -"-COMMERCE.  223 

collect,  for  their  own  benefit,  the  taxes  from  specified  villages  or 
districts,  and  generally  exercise  an  unbridled  spirit  of  extortion. 
Lower  chiefs  have  the  costs  of  litigation,  &c.  for  then  support, 
to  which  they  add  the  profits  of  shameless  bribery.  The  meanest 
subordinates  contrive  to  make  their  posts  lucrative ;  and  even  the 
keeper  of  a  city  gate  expects  occasional  fees  for  allowing  persons 
to  pass  through  with  then  common  burdens. 

Of  course,  the  welfare  of  every  little  province  depends  greatly 
on  its  local  ruler.  The  only  remedy,  when  exactions  become  in- 
tolerable, is  to  remove  into  a  district  more  equitably  governed. 
Such  a  course  is  necessarily  attended  with  loss  and  inconve- 
nience ;  and  sooner  than  resort  to  it,  the  people  endure  much  and 
long.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  uncommon  for  them  to  seek 
this  relief.  As  the  grants  of  district  revenues  are  made  by  the 
fiat  of  the  king,  and  revoked  at  his  pleasm-e,  no  great  man  is  sure 
of  continued  wealth.  The  loss  of  favor  at  court  is  attended  with 
the  immediate  loss  of  his  estates.  All  the  local  agents  and  offi- 
cers being  dependent  on  their  feudal  lord,  they,  too,  hold  an 
uncertain  tenure.  Thus,  from  highest  to  lowest,  there  is  no  en- 
couragement to  attempt  the  improvement  of  land  or  people.  In 
all  its  ramifications,  the  government  is  a  system  of  covetousness. 

Among  the  possessions  of  the  king,  we  must  not  omit  to  notice 
his  elephants.  He  is  regarded  as  owning  all  in  the  kingdom,  and 
has  generally  from  one  to  two  thousand  which  have  been  caught 
and  tamed.  The  white  elephant,  of  which  there  is  now  but  one, 
is  estimated  beyond  all  price.  He  is  treated  like  a  prince  of  the 
blood,  and  has  a  suite  composed  of  some  of  the  most  prominent 
officers  hi  the  court.  Indeed,  the  vulgar  actually  pay  him  divine 
honors,  though  this  is  ridiculed  by  the  intelligent. 

Burmah  has  considerable  foreign  commerce,  but  wholly  carried 
on  in  foreign  bottoms.  The  natives,  however,  perform  coasthig 
voyages,  which  they  sometimes  extend  to  Mergui  and  Chittagong, 
and,  in  rare  cases,  to  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Penang. 

The  limited  extent  of  sea-coast,  now  left  to  Burmah,  furnishes 
but  two  good  harbors,  namely,  Rangoon  and  Bassein.  These  are 
both  excellent ;  but  the  latter  has  very  little  trade,  and  foreign 
vessels  never  go  there. 

The  harbors  in  the  British  possessions  are  inferior  to  these. 
Mergui  is  very  safe  and  easy  of  access,  but  very  small.  Amherst 
is  middling,  but  approachable  only  by  a  narrow  channel,  which 
extends  across  the  tide.     Ships  of  three  hundred  tons  or  more 


224  BURMAH. 

may  with  caution  go  up  to  Maul  main,  the  channel  being  well 
buoyed,  and  pilots  always  to  be  had,  at  Amherst. 

The  number  of  clearances  of  square-rigged  vessels  from  the 
port  of  Rangoon  amounts  to  about  a  hundred  annually. 

The  exports  are  teak-wood,  cotton,  ivory,  wax,  cutch,  and  stick 
lac,  and  in  small  quantities,  lead,  copper,  arsenic,  tin,  edible  birds' 
nests,  indigo,  amber,  tobacco,  honey,  tamarinds,  gnapee,  gems, 
sharks'  fins,  orpiment,  sapan-wood,  and  sea-slugs.  The  nine 
last-named  articles  are  of  such  limited  amount  as  scarcely  to  de- 
serve notice.  By  far  the  most  important  item  is  teak,  which 
is  chiefly  sent  to  Calcutta  and  Madras.  The  value  of  this  article 
alone  amounted,  in  former  years,  to  £200,000  per  annum.  It  is 
now  not  more  than  a  fifth  part  of  that  quantity.  About  two  million 
pounds  of  raw  cotton  is  sent  to  Dacca,  where  it  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  fine  muslins  for  which  that  place  has  been  so 
celebrated.  The  Burman  collector  informed  a  merchant  at  Ava, 
that  about  thirty  million  pounds  are  sent  up  the  Irrawaddy,  annual- 
ly, to  China ;  but  Colonel  Burney  estimates  it  at  about  four  millions. 
Nearly  four  millions  per  annum  are  sent  to  Arracan.  None  is 
exported  in  the  seed.  The  sea-slug  is  derived  from  the  coasts 
of  Mergui.  It  is  commonly  called  Biche  de  ?ner.  It  is  a  large 
marine  worm,  somewhat  resembling  a  leech,  which,  when  prop- 
erly cured,  is  regarded  as  a  great  luxury  by  the  Chinese.  The 
mode  of  curing  is  to  boil  them  in  salt  water,  and  then  dry,  or 
perhaps  smoke  them.  There  are  three  principal  kinds  —  black, 
red,  and  white.  The  white  sell  at  ten  to  twelve  dollars  per  tical, 
(one  hundred  thirty-three  pounds,)  the  red  for  twenty-five  dollars, 
and  the  black  for  fifty  dollars.  Of  each  of  these  there  are  various 
sizes.  Some,  when  dried,  are  seven  or  eight  inches  long,  and  one 
and  a  half  in  diameter;  others  are  not  larger  than  a  man's  finger. 
The  sharks'  fins  have  a  skin  which  is  valued  for  polishing  substances 
in  the  manner  of  fine  sand-paper.  Then  chief  value  is  for  the 
tendons,  which  are  an  article  of  food  with  the  Chinese.  They 
are  drawn  out  and  dried,  resembling  in  this  state  silver  wire,  and 
are  used  in  soup,  as  the  Italians  use  vermicelli.  Gnapee  is  made 
from  prawns,  shrimps,  or  any  cheap  fish,  salted  and  pounded 
into  a  consistent  mass.  It  is  frequently  allowed  to  become  par- 
tially putrefied  in  the  process.  It  is  sometimes  called  in  com- 
merce Baluchong. 

An  active  trade  is  carried  on  with  China,  chiefly  by  way  of 
Yunnan.  Small  caravans  begin  to  arrive  at  Ava  from  that  prov- 
ince, in  December.     About  the  first  of  February,  the  great  cara- 


COMMERCE.  225 

van  arrives,  and  afterward  smaller  ones,  till  the  first  of  March. 
The  smaller  consist  of  fifty,  a  hundred,  or  two  hundred  men, 
and  the  great  one  of  ahout  a  thousand.  Each  man  has  several 
ponies,  or  mules,  sometimes  fifteen  or  twenty,  who  cany,  in  pan- 
niers, from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  pounds.  Being  twenty- 
five  days  on  the  road,  the  beasts  are  in  low  condition.  They  are 
guided  by  large,  black,  shaggy  dogs,  some  of  which  go  before,  and 
others  fetch  up  stragglers.  These  are  sometimes  sold  at  Ava  at 
from  twenty  to  thirty  ticals  ;  but  they  generally  pine  away  in  the 
hot  season,  and  die. 

The  Chinese  mart,  where  these  caravans  stop,  is  at  Madah, 
thirteen  miles  north  of  Umerapoora ;  inhabited  chiefly  by  Cas- 
sayers.  Extensive  enclosures  are  there,  in  which  the  fair  is  opened, 
while  the  cattle  are  sent  to  graze.  They  bring  raw  and  floss  silk, 
(which  the  Burmans  weave,)  satins,  velvets,  crape,  cordage,  yellow 
sulphuret  of  arsenic,  tea,  spirits,  honey,  paper,  gold  leaf,  hams, 
shallow  iron  pans,  sweetmeats,  dried  fruits,  walnuts,  chestnuts, 
and  apples.  They  take  back  chiefly  raw  cotton,  Bengal  opium, 
British  goods,  gems,  amber,  ivory,  betel-nuts,  sharks' fins,  and  birds' 
nests.  Many  of  these  merchants  avail  themselves  of  the  Irra- 
waddy  River,  for  a  considerable  distance  above  Ava.  Crawfurd 
estimates  this  interior  trade  with  China  to  amount  to  nearly  two 
millions  of  dollars  per  annum. 

There  are  several  caravans  of  Shyans,  who  come  annually  to 
the  city  of  Ava,  where  a  large  suburb  is  appropriated.  They 
come  and  go  in  troops  of  fifty  or  one  hundred,  from  December  to 
March,  and  amount  in  the  whole  to  about  a  thousand.  Their 
goods  are  brought  on  bullocks,  which  are  in  fine  order,  and  often 
on  their  own  backs.  They  bring  a  few  horses,  but  only  for  sale, 
and  they  are  not  loaded.  Then  goods  are  stick-lac,  umbrellas, 
black  jackets,  cotton  cloth  of  various  sorts  and  colors,  lackered 
boxes,  (which  are  far  superior  to  those  of  Burman  manufacture,) 
ground-nuts,  sugar,  lead,  &c.  They  take  back  salt,  gnapee,  dried 
fish,  and  betel-nuts. 

Monay  is  a  great  mart  of  internal  trade,  and  sends  annually  to 
Maulmain  a  trading  caravan,  and  many  cattle  for  the  supply  of 
the  British  troops.     The  journey  occupies  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  days.     The  amount  of  the  trade  is  about  seventy-five  thou 
sand  rupees  per  annum. 

Considerable  inland  trade  is  carried  on  from  one  part  of  the 
kingdom  to  another,  by  boats  and  wagons. 

The  lower  provinces  send  up  the  country  salt,  rice,  dried 
fish,  gnapee,  and  foreign  manufactures  ;  receiving  in  return  pe- 


226  BDRMAH. 

troleum,  saltpetre,  paper,  piece  goods,  sugar,  tamarinds,  and 
various  other  articles. 

In  Pegu,  a  region  scarcely  equalled  in  facilities  for  inland  navi- 
gation, trade  is  carried  on  almost  wholly  hy  boats,  and  few  roads 
exist ;  mere  paths  connect  the  towns  and  villages.  In  the  upper 
provinces,  which  are  hilly,  and  have  few  boatable  streams,  good 
roads  are  maintained,  and  merchants  transmit  their  goods  from 
town  to  town,  in  wagons  drawn  by  oxen. 

The  trading  vessels,  on  the  Irrawaddy,  are  all  constructed  on 
the  same  plan,  except  those  built  by  or  for  foreigners.  They 
are  long,  flat,  and  narrow  ;  the  larger  ones  being  provided  with 
outriggers  to  prevent  their  oversetting.  Oars  and  setting-poles 
are  almost  entirely  depended  upon  to  propel  them,  and  tracking 
is  often  resorted  to ;  but  square  sails  are  spread,  when  the  wind  is 
fair  and  the  water  high.  Those  of  the  larger  sort  have  one 
mast,  and  a  yard  of  great  length,  on  which  are  suspended  as 
many  sails  as  the  case  requires,  one  being  slightly  attaclfed  to 
the  other.  A  specimen  of  these  is  given  in  the  picture  of  Sa- 
gaing.  Smaller  boats  have  the  sail  stretched  between  two  bam- 
boo masts  fastened  to  the  sides  near  the  bow.  Of  these,  a  good 
idea  may  be  obtained  from  the  cut  on  page  85.  These  sails,  in 
very  small  boats,  often  consist  of  the  pessos  of  the  boatmen. 

The  wagons  and  carts  are  superior  in  construction  to  those 
of  Bengal,  and  some  other  parts  of  India.  The  wheel  consists 
of  one  strong  piece  of  wood,  the  length  of  the  diameter,  and 
about  two  feet  wide,  through  which  the  axle  passes,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  rim  is  made  of  fellahs.  See  picture  on 
page  96. 

When  used  for  merchandise,  they  are  well  covered  with  bam- 
boo mats,  over  which  a  painted  cloth  is  often  spread.  A  travel- 
ling team  consists  of  four  or  six  bullocks,  and  proceeds  about 
15  miles  a  day  ;  a  spare  bullock  or  two  following,  in  case  of  any 
becoming  sick  or  lame.  Merchants  generally  go  in  companies, 
and  at  night  draw  up  the  wagons  in  a  circle,  to  secure  them  and 
their  cattle  from  wild  beasts.  Within  this  circle  the  drivers 
and  their  passengers  light  then-  fires,  dress  their  food,  attend 
their  cattle,  tell  their  romances,  and  pass  the  night. 

Not  the  slightest  restriction  is  laid  on  merchants  or  traders 
from  any  nation.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  invited  and  en- 
couraged ;  and  generally  accumulate  property.  They  may  go 
and  come,  or  settle,  in  any  part  of  the  kingdom. 

In  the  Tenasserim  and  Arracan  provinces,  no  duties  are  levied 
on  any  articles  from  any  country ;  and  probably  will  not  be,  for 


CURRENCY.  227 

many  years.  The  policy  is  to  open  markets  for  English  manu- 
factures ;  and  this  is  gradually  heing  done,  not  only  in  the  prov- 
inces under  their  sway,  but  in  adjacent  districts,  especially  the 
Shyan  country  round  Monay. 

The  commerce  of  particular  cities  and  towns,  such  as  Ran- 
goon, Maulniain,  &c,  is  more  fully  stated  in  my  accounts  of  those 
places. 

The  country  has  no  coinage.  Silver  and  lead  pass  in  frag- 
ments of  all  sizes,  and  the  amount  of  every  transaction  is  regu- 
larly weighed  out;  as  was  done  by  the  ancients.  Gen.  xxiii.  16. 
Ezra  viii.  25.  It  is  cast  by  the  assayers,  in  thin  round  cakes, 
weighing  two  or  three  ticals,  but  is  cut  up  with  mallet  and  chisel, 
to  suit  each  sale.  The  price  of  a  thing,  therefore,  is  always  stated 
in  weight,  just  as  if  we  should  say,  hi  answer  to  a  question  of  price, 
"  an  ounce,"  or  "  a  dram."  When  an  appearance  like  crystal- 
lization, is  upon  the  centre  of  the  cake,  it  is  known  to  be  of  a 
certain  degree  of  alloy,  and  is  called  "flowered  silver."  Of 
this  kind,  which  is  called  Huet-nee,  the  tical  is  worth  fifteen  per  cent, 
more  than  the  Sicca  rupee.  The  Dyng  has  the  flowered  ap- 
pearance over  all  the  cake,  in  larger  and  longer  crystals;  and  is 
cast  into  cakes  weighing  about  twenty  ticals  ;  but  varies  exceed- 
ingly in  fineness,  being  of  all  qualities,  from  Huet-nee  to  ten 
per  cent,  purer.     It  is  assumed  to  be  five  per  cent,  purer. 

An  inferior  kind  of  silver,  even  to  tweuty-five  per  cent,  alloy, 
circulates  freely,  for  smaller  barter.  The  people,  however,  are 
not  deceived  in  its  quality,  for  the  degree  of  purity  is  detected 
by  them  with  great  readiness,  chiefly  by  the  appearance  left  on 
the  cake  at  cooling. 

Silver,  in  passing  from  hand  to  hand,  becomes  more  and  more 
alloyed,  so  that,  when  a  man  is  asked  the  price  of  a  thing,  he  says, 
"  Let  me  see  your  money  ?  "  He  then  regulates  his  charge  by 
the  quality  of  the  silver,  and  a  piece  is  chopped  off  to  meet  the 
bill ;  change,  if  any,  being  weighed  in  lead. 

Gold  is  scarcely  used  as  a  circulating  medium,  being  absorbed 
in  gilding  sacred  edifices,  or  in  jewels.  By  Burman  estimate, 
gold  is  eighteen  times  the  value  of  silver.  It  often  rises  to 
twenty  or  more,  when  the  people  are  compelled  to  obtain  it  at 
any  price,  to  pay  their  tax  toward  the  gilding  of  some  pagoda. 

Small  payments  are  made  in  lead.  Each  vender  in  the  bazar 
!i.:s  a  basket  lull  of  this  lead.  Its  general  reference  to  silver 
is  about  five  hundred  to  one.  It  varies  exceedingly,  however, 
in  its  proportion ;  sometimes  fifteen  viss  of  lead  is  given  for  a 


228  BURMAIT. 

Ileal,  and  sometimes  only  seven  or  eight,  at  Ava.  In  distant  parts 
of  the  country,  where  the  silver  is  more  alloyed,  three  or  four 
viss  is  given  ibr  a  tical. 

The  late  king,  Menderagyee,  attempted  to  introduce  small 
silver  coin,  which  he  made  with  a  mint  establishment  imported 
from  England.  But  he  required  his  ticals  to  pass  for  sixty  per 
cent  above  their  real  worth,  and  the  copper  for  nearly  tlnec  times 
its  worth.  The  consequence  was  a  universal  stagnation  of 
business  ;  and,  after  virgin g  his  law  so  far  as  to  execute  some  for 
contumacy,  he  was  at  length  obliged  to  let  silver  and  lead  pass 
by  weight,  according  to  their  real  worth,  as  before.  The  people 
are  not  anxious  for  coin.  They  cannot  trust  their  rulers  ;  they 
love  liiggling  in  bargains  ;  they  make  a  profit  on  then  money, 
as  well  as  goods,  by  increasing  its  alloy  ;  and  a  numerous  class 
of  assay  ers,  or  brokers,  called  Pwa-zahs,  (by  foreigners,  Poy-zahs,) 
subsist  by  melting  up  silver,  to  improve  or  deteriorate  it  as  they 
are  desired.  This  they  do  before  the  owner's  face,  and'  have 
only  the  crucible  and  scoriae  for  their  trouble. 

At  Rangoon,  the  Madras  rupee  circulates  generally  for  a  tical ; 
and  along  the  rivers  up  to  Prome,  it  is  known,  and  will  be  re- 
ceived. But  at  the  capital,  and  throughout  the  interior,  it  is 
weighed,  and  deemed  an  inferior  silver.  In  Arracan  and  the  Te- 
nasserim  provinces,  rupees,  pice,  and  pie,  now  circulate  as  in 
Bengal,  and  money  is  scarcely  ever  weighed. 

The  common  rate  of  interest,  when  collateral  security  is  de- 
posited, is  two  or  three  per  cent,  a  month  ;  when  there  is  no  secu- 
rity, four  or  five  per  cent.  If  the  interest  become  equal  to  the  prin- 
cipal, the  debt  is  cancelled.  Creditors,  therefore,  exact  new  notes 
from  their  debtors  every  few  months,  if  the  interest  be  not  paid. 

There  is  no  standing  army,  though  a  few  men  are  hired  by 
the  month,  in  some  principal  places,  to  bear  arms,  as  a  sort  of 
guard.  There  is  no  military  class  in  Burniah,  probably  owing 
to  the  religious  prohibition  of  taking  life.  It  is  indeed  never  dif- 
ficult to  raise  an  army,  as  each  petty  ruler  is  obliged  to  bring 
forth  his  men  by  conscription ;  but  when  raised,  it  is  a  mere 
rabble,  destitute  both  of  the  spirit  and  the  officers  requisite  to 
constitute  a  respectable  force.  They  march  under  the  same 
men  who  rule  them  in  private  life,  and  can  seldom  have  the 
slightest  inducement  to  leave  their  homes.  There  is  no  cause 
of  exemption  from  military  duty,  but  bodily  incapacity;  and 
every  man  whose  immediate  ruler  selects  him,  must  march.  In 
general,  he  receives  neither  pay  nor  rations,  but  shares  the  plun- 


NAVY SLAVERY.  229 

der.  But  in  the  late  war,  the  government  paid  wages  and  a 
large  bounty.  The  march  of  an  army  through  their  own  coun- 
try is  marked  with  nearly  the  same  extortions  as  in  a  conquered 
province.  Cases  of  desertion  or  disobedience  are  severely  pun- 
ished in  the  persons  of  the  soldier's  family  or  relations ;  who, 
for  his  misconduct,  are  spoiled  of  then  goods,  sold,  or  even  put 
to  death.  Of  late  years,  muskets  have  been  imported  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  and  some  cannon.  The  former  are  of  the 
poorest  quality,  and  the  latter  lie  about  for  the  most  part  with- 
out carriages,  and  are  of  little  consequence. 

Burman  soldiers  are  crafty,  hardy,  and  courageous.  Though, 
in  the  late  war,  cannon  and  congreve  rockets  robbed  them  of 
much  of  their  established  character  for  valor,  yet,  on  all  occasions, 
they  behaved  with  a  bravery  which  British  troops  have  seldom 
met  in  the  East.  Discarding  the  turban  in  the  hour  of  battle, 
they  rush  rapidly  on,  with  dishevelled  hair,  and  fierce  gesticula- 
tions ;  and  whatever  personal  coinage,  without  proper  arms,  can 
do,  they  generally  accomplish. 

There  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  any  navy,  as  it  consists  only 
of  long  canoes,  wholly  unfit  for  sea.  These  are  rowed  and 
fought  by  the  same  men.  They  generally  contain  forty  or  fifty 
men,  who  sit  two  on  a  seat,  using  short  oars,  and  having  their 
dab  beside  them.  A  small  representation  of  one  of  these  is 
given  in  the  engraving  of  Sagaing.  As  a  river  police,  they  are 
all-sufficient.  Many  of  these  are  perfectly  gilded,  within  and 
without,  and  even  the  oars.  Some  of  them  are  intended  to  con- 
vey the  king  and  royal  family,  and  have  handsome  canopies, 
built  in  the  centre  or  bow,  for  that  purpose. 

Slavery  exists  throughout  the  kingdom  and  its  dependencies, 
and  of  course  in  the  provinces  lately  ceded  to  the  British.  It  is 
produced  both  by  debt  and  capture.  Around  Ava,  most  of  the 
slaves  are  prisoners  of  war,  and  then-  descendants.  In  other 
places  they  are  chiefly  bond-debtors.  A  few  are  annually  intro- 
duced through  a  slave  trade  habitually  carried  on  along  the  fron- 
tiers. I  cannot  learn  that  Burmans  themselves  engage  in  this 
traffic,  but  they  do  not  hesitate  to  purchase.  Muniporians  and 
Arracanese  are  brought  into  Ava,  especially  on  the  Siam  fron- 
tier, where  they  are  often  caught  and  carried  across  the  ill-de- 
fined boundary.  The  entire  number  of*  persons  brought  into 
bondage  by  this  slave  trade  is  proportionably  small.  Debtor 
Blares  are  numerous  in  every  part  of  the  country.  The  king's 
VOL.   I.  .J 


230  BUKMAH. 

brother  told  me  he  estimated  their  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
population  as  one  to  seven  or  eight.  This  might  be  true  at  Ava, 
but  I  think  it  much  more  than  the  general  average.  Persons 
borrowing  money,  mortgage  themselves  when  unable  to  give  other 
security,  and  become  servants  to  the  lender,  till  the  money  is  paid. 
The  sum  borrowed  is  sometimes  very  small,  perhaps  only  a  few 
rupees ;  but  this  makes  no  difference  in  the  condition,  or  in  the 
services  required. 

In  Burmah  Proper  there  is  no  remuneration  towards  liquidating 
the  debt ;  so  that  the  person  continues  in  bondage  for  life,  except 
the  money  can  somehow  be  obtained.  In  the  provinces  ceded  to 
Britain,  it  is  provided  by  law,  that  the  debt  shall  diminish  at  the 
rate  of  four-  pice  (about  three  cents)  per  day,  by  which  process 
freedom  is  ultimately  obtained.  The  master  has  power  to  in- 
flict corporeal  and  other  punishments  on  bond-servants  as  on 
other  slaves,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  drawing  blood.  They  are 
also  bought  and  sold  without  their  consent,  but  may  change 
masters  at  pleasure  by  obtaining  a  person  to  offer  for  them  the 
amount  of  the  debt.  On  the  sum  being  tendered  by  the  servant, 
the  master  is  not  at  liberty  to  refuse. 

The  progeny  of  servants  are  free.  By  the  written  laws,  if  a 
man  become  father  to  a  male  child  by  his  slave,  he  may  keep  it, 
but  the  woman  is  thenceforth  free.  If  it  be  a  female  child,  the 
father  and  mother  are  considered  to  own  but  half;  and  if  she  pay 
or  procure  to  be  paid  the  other  half,  the  child  is  necessarily  free. 
But  this  rule  is  obsolete ;  and,  by  universal  custom,  a  slave  who 
bears  to  her  master  a  child  of  either  sex  is  free.  If  she  choose 
to  remain,  he  is  obliged  to  support  her  as  his  wife.  Fathers  may 
pledge  their  wives  and  children  for  money  borrowed,  or,  in  other 
words,  sell  them,  as  the  money  is  often  taken  up  without  intention 
of  repayment.  The  only  escape  from  slavery  for  life,  in  such  a 
case,  is  for  the  person  to  obtain  by  some  means  the  amount  due. 
Such  sales  are  very  common,  as  a  man  seldom  has  any  other  se- 
curity to  give  ;  but  in  most  cases,  a  man  redeems  his  family  as 
soon  as  he  can. 

Slaves  are  not  treated  with  more  severity  than  hired  laborers. 
A  state  of  society  where  the  modes  of  living  are  so  simple,  ren- 
ders the  condition  of  the  slave  little  different  from  that  of  his 
master.  His  food,  raiment,  and  lodging,  among  all  the  middling 
classes  at  least,  are  not  essentially  different.  Being  of  the  same 
color,  they  and  their  children  incorporate  without  difficulty  with 
the  mass  of  the  people  on  obtaining  freedom.  The  same  fact  tends 
to  ameliorate  their  condition.     In  fine,  their  state  does  not  much 


SLAVERY DIVISION    OF    TIME.  231 

differ  from  that  of  hired  servants  who  have  received  their  wages 
for  a  long  time  in  advance.  Belonging  to  persons  in  the  higher 
conditions  does  not  increase  the  severity  of  the  bondage  ;  for 
though  the  distinction  is  greater,  the  services  are  less.  Many 
slaves  live  at  their  own  houses,  just  as  other  people,  but  liable  to 
be  called  on  for  labor,  which,  in  many  cases,  is  required  ouly  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  a  country  where  rank  is  never  for  a  moment  forgotten,  and 
where  the  master  has  the  power  of  a  magistrate  over  all  his  de- 
pendants, servitude  creates  a  boundary  which  is  in  no  danger  of 
being  passed.  The  effect  is  to  make  the  servant,  in  many  cases, 
the  friend  and  companion  of  the  master  to  a  degree  not  ventured 
upon  by  masters  in  countries  where  employment  does  not  create 
dependence,  and  where  familiarity  may  induce  assumptions.  Still 
the  slaves  of  a  despotic  master  can  never  be  certain  of  his  favor, 
and  can  seldom  afford  or  dare  to  be  honest.  They  enforce  his 
most  unjust  exactions,  as  readily  as  any  other  commands.  From 
infancy  they  are  trained  to  craftiness,  and  all  their  life  serves  to 
confirm  this  vice. 

The  slaves  to  pagodas  are  in  some  respects  better  off  than  other 
slaves,  or  even  than  common  poor  people,  though  it  is  considered 
as  a  condemnation.  They  become  such,  chiefly  by  being  given 
to  some  pagoda  by  a  great  man,  as  a  meritorious  offering.  Some- 
times they  are  malefactors,  whose  punishment  is  thus  commuted. 
More  generally  they  are  unoffending  inhabitants  of  some  district, 
whose  prince  or  ruler,  for  any  cause,  chooses  to  make  such  a 
donation. 

The  Burman  year  consists  of  twelve  lunar  months,  making  the 
year  only  three  hundred  and  fifty-four  days  long.  To  supply  this 
deficiency,  a  whole  intercalary  month  is  introduced  every  third 
year.  The  further  rectifications  which  become  necessary,  are 
made,  from  time  to  time,  by  royal  proclamation,  at  the  instance 
of  the  astronomers.  The  common  era  corresponds  with  our 
A.  D.  639.  The  year  commences  about  the  middle  of  April,  so 
that  the  15th  of  April,  1839,  is  the  first  day  of  their  year  1201. 
In  numbering  the  clays  of  the  month,  they  go  no  higher  than  fif- 
teen ;  that  is,  from  new  moon  to  full,  and  from  full  moon  to  new. 

They  have  four  worship-days  in  a  month,  viz.  new  and  full 
moon,  and  halfway  between  them  ;  so  that  there  is  an  interval, 
sometimes  of  seven  days,  and  sometimes  of  eight.  Without  any 
regard  to  this  arrangement,  time  is  divided  into  exact  weeks  of 
seven  days  each.     What  is  very  remarkable,  the  days  are  called 


232  BURMAH. 

from  the  planets,  as  are  ours.  Thus  they  name  the  first  day  of 
the  week  from  the  sun,  the  second  from  the  moon,  thud  from 
Mars,  fourth  from  Mercury,  fifth,  Jupiter,  sixth,  Venus,  seventh, 
Saturn.     The  arrangement  is  the  same  in  Siam. 

Both  day  and  night  are  divided  into  four  equal  parts.  I  never 
found  any  instrument  for  keeping  time,  though  there  is  a  sort  of 
clepsydra  at  Ava.  In  the  "  provinces,"  our  mode  of  arranging 
the  hours  is  becoming  common ;  and  time-pieces  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  hands  of  wealthy  natives. 

Burman  weights  are  exhibited  in  the  following  table,  and  are 
used  both  for  goods  and  money. 

2  Small  Ruays  equal.. .  1  Large  Ruay,  or  1  pice. 

4  Large  Ruays 1  Bai  or  Ruay,. .  1  anna. 

2  Bais 1  Moo, 2  annas. 

2  Moos 1  Mat, 4  annas,  (G2£  gr.  troy.) 

4  Mats 1  Kyat, ]  tical. 

100  Kyats 1  Piakthah  or  viss  (3TV?r  lbs.  avoirdupois.) 

The  small  ruay  is  the  little  scarlet  bean,  [abrus  preccdorius,) 
with  a  black  spot  upon  it,  called  in  America,  craVs  eye.  The 
large  ruay  is  the  black  oblong  bean,  of  the  adenantkera  pavonina. 
The  other  weights  are  of  brass,  handsomely  cast,  and  polished. 

By  late  experiments  at  the  Calcutta  mint,  the  tical  is  found  to 
be  252  grains  Troy,  and  to  weigh  exactly  one  cubic  inch  of  distilled 
water,  at  the  temperature  of  90°. 

The  kind  of  silver  used  may  make  the  value  more  or  less  than 
these  rates.  See  more  on  this  subject,  under  the  head  Currency, 
p.  227. 

MEASURES  OP  LENGTH. 

8    Thits  (fingers' breadth)  equal  1  Maik,  (breadth  of  the  hand  with 

thumb  extended.) 

1  \  Maiks 1  Twah  (span.) 

2  Twahs 1  Toung  (cubit.) 

4    Touno-s 1  Lan  (fathom.) 

7        do 1  Tah  (bamboo  or  rod.) 

140         do.       or  20   Tabs 1  Oke-tha-pah. 

7000        do.      or  1000  Talis 1  Taing  (.2  miles,  581  ft.,  8  in.) 

fi  4    Taings,  or  Daings,  or  6400  ?  X  Uzena'  .or  about  12^  miles> 

10      mi           „nnni    -I.             C  (in  little   use   except  in  the 

Talis,  or  320  Okethapas,    I  v               .                  ^ 

}  sacred  books.) 


MEASCRES LANGUAGE.  233 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

2  Lamyets  are  equal  to 1  Lamay . 

2  Lamays 1  Salay  (about  1  pint.) 

4  Salays 1  Pyee  (two  quarts.) 

2  Pyees 1  Sah  (a  gallon.) 

2  Sahs 1  Saik  (a  peck.) 

2  Saiks 1  Kwai. 

2  Kwais 1  Ten. 

100  Tens 1  Coyan. 

The  ten  is  what  Europeans  in  the  country  call  a  basket,  from 
the  basket  measure  of  that  capacity.  This  full  of  clean  rice  is 
a  common  allowance  to  a  laborer  for  one  month.  It  is  deemed 
to  weigh  fifty-eight  and  two  fifths  pounds,  avoirdupois,  or  six- 
teen viss,  or  forty  Penang  catties. 

The  language  is  remarkably  dissimilar  to  the  other  languages 
of  the  East.  The  character  is  beautifully  simple,  and  is  writ- 
ten with  facility.  The  style  of  forming  letters,  whether  in  print- 
ing or  writing,  is  precisely  the  same.  The  page  of  engraved 
specimens  furnishes  a  satisfactoiy  view  of  these  and  other  Ori- 
ental characters.  There  are  eleven  vowels  and  thirty-three  con- 
sonants. About  a  thousand  characters  must  be  used  in  printing, 
in  consequence  of  the  numerous  combinations. 

The  structure  of  the  language  is  natural,  but  very  unlike  the 
English.  The  pronunciation  is  difficult,  owing  partly  to  the 
gutturals,  and  partly  to  the  extreme  nicety  of  the  difference  in 
sound  between  words  which  mean  very  different  things,  and  are 
often  spelled  precisely  alike  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  it  is  a  difficult 
language  to  acquire.  All  pure  Burman  words  are  monosyllables ; 
but  there  are  numerous  polysyllables,  derived  chiefly  from  the 
Pali.  There  being  no  inflections  to  any  part  of  speech,  greatly 
simplifies  the  grammar.  Number,  person,  mood,  and  tense,  are 
formed  by  suffixes.  Negatives  and  adjectives  are  formed  by  pre- 
fixes to  verbs.  The  fastidiousness  respecting  rank,  introduces 
a  perplexing  variety  of  phrases  to  mean  the  same  action  in 
different  persons,  to  which  allusion  has  already  been  made. 
Even  in  regard  to  common  actions,  the  verbs  used  are  widely 
different ;  e.  g.  for  our  term  to  wash,  are  many  words ;  one  is 
used  for  washing  the  face,  another  for  washing  the  hands,  another 
for  washing  linen  in  mere  water,  another  for  washing  it  with 
soap,  another  for  washing  dishes,  &c. 
20* 


234  BURMA  H. 

Instead  of  a  perplexing  variety  of  spelling-books,  they  have  a 
Them-bong-gyee,  or  spelling  and  reading  book,  of  about  forty 
pages  octavo,  of  great  antiquity,  and  so  perfect,  as  that  no  other 
has  ever  been  deemed  necessary  by  the  missionaries.  It  is  drawn 
up  philosophically,  and  when  committed,  the  learner  is  in  posses- 
sion of  every  possible  sound  in  the  language,  except  a  few  from 
some  Pali  Avords  which  have  crept  into  common  use. 

Books,  as  is  generally  known,  are  written  usually  on  palm-leaf, 
with  an  iron  pen  or  style.  The  leaf  is  prepared  with  care,  and 
of  good  books,  the  edges  are  gilded.  Some  have  the  margins 
illuminated,  and  gilded  with  considerable  elegance.  The  book 
is  defended  by  thin  slabs  of  wood,  more  or  less  ornamented. 
Sometimes  thin  leaves  of  ivory  are  used,  and  occasionally  gilded 
sheet  iron.  For  common  books,  a  thick,  black  paper  is  used, 
which  is  written  upon  with  a  pencil  of  steatite.  The  writing 
may  be  removed  with  the  hand,  as  from  a  slate  ;  and  such  books, 
called  Tha-bike,  last  a  long  time.  They  are  in  one  piece,  of  several 
yards  long,  and  folded  like  a  fan.  They  can,  of  course,  be  used 
on  both  sides ;  and  every  portion  may  be  sealed  up  by  itself, 
thus  furnishing  a  good  idea  of  the  book  mentioned  Rev.  v.  1, 
which  was  "  written  within  and  on  the  back  side,  sealed  with 
seven  seals." 

The  number  of  books  is,  of  course,  not  large  in  a  country 
where  printing  is  unknown.  All  principal  citizens,  however, 
possess  a  few;  and  the  royal  library  at  Ava  contains  some  thou- 
sand volumes,  kept  in  large  and  elegant  chests,  assorted  under 
different  heads,  such  as  law,  history,  medicine,  poetry,  painting, 
and  music.  The  greater  part  of  the  literature  is  metrical,  and 
consists  of  ballads,  legends  of  Gaudama,  histories  of  the  kings, 
astronomy,  and  geography. 

The  sacred  books  are  in  Pali,  a  dialect  or  corruption  of  the 
Sunscrit.  The  shape  of  the  character  is  seen  on  the  engraved 
page  of  specimens.  It  is  wholly  a  dead  language,  few  even  of 
the  priests  being  able  to  read  it,  and  still  fewer  understanding 
what  they  read.  It  was  probably  the  vernacular  tongue  of  Gau- 
dama, that  is,  the  Magdoh  or  Magadeh  of  Behar.  Buchanan 
seems  mistaken  in  supposing  the  Pali  of  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and 
Siam,  to  be  different.  He  was  probably  led  into  the  error  by  the 
language  being  written  in  the  respective  characters  of  those 
countries,  as  it  often  is.  Mr.  Wilson  thinks  it  a  misnomer  to 
call  the  language  Pali,  and  that  that  term  belongs  properly  to  the 
character,  and  Magadeh  or  Puncrit  to  the  language,  correspond- 


LITERATURE.  235 

ing  to  the  terms  Magari  and  Sunscrit  He  remarks,  also,  that  the 
language  differs  from  Sunscrit  only  in  enunciation,  being  more 
soft,  and  liquifying  all  the  harsh  sounds. 

The  rudiments  of  education  are  widely  diffused,  and  most  men, 
even  common  laborers,  learn  to  read  and  write  a  little.  But  few 
go  beyond  these  attainments.  Women  of  respectability  generally 
can  read,  but  comparatively  few  of  those  in  humble  life.  There 
is  no  objection  manifested  to  their  learning;  but  as  almost  the 
only  schools  are  the  Kyoungs,  where  girls  are  not  admitted,  they 
are  necessarily  left  untaught,  except  where  the  parents  can  afford 
to  pay  a  schoolmaster.  Boys  begin  to  attend  the  Kyoung  at 
eight  or  ten  years,  but  do  not  assume  the  yellow  cloth  till  several 
years  after.  They  learn  slowly,  and,  at  the  expiration  of  four  or 
five  years,  have  attained  little  more  than,  in  a  very  bungling  way, 
to  read  and  write,  and  to  add,  subtract,  and  divide.  Those  who 
take  the  yellow  cloth,  and  live  in  the  Kyoung,  become  able  to 
understand  a  few  books,  and  learn  their  system  of  the  universe. 
If  they  continue  priests,  and  aspire  after  literature,  they  go  on  to 
get  a  smattering  of  Pali  and  astrology,  and  if  they  mean  to  reach 
the  summit  of  Parnassus,  study  the  Then-gyo,  or  book  of  meta- 
physics ! 

It  has  been  often  said  that  the  Biu-mans  are  "  a  reading  peo- 
ple." They  might  more  properly  be  called  "  a  people  that  can 
read."  The  written  and  colloquial  styles  are  so  different,  that 
few  understand  readily  the  sentiments  of  a  book.  The  mass  of 
the  people  being  wholly  without  books  or  periodicals,  their 
reading  is  confined  to  the  short  written  instruments  employed 
in  the  transaction  of  business.  It  is  truly  remarkable  that  so 
many  children  are  taught  to  read,  when  it  is  foreseen  so  little 
use  can  ever  be  made  of  the  acquisition.  It  certainly  is  a  provi- 
dential preparation  for  the  diffusion  of  the  word  of  truth,  and 
ought  to  encourage  the  friends  of  missions  in  then-  design  of  dis- 
tributing the  Scriptures  and  scriptural  tracts. 

Properly  speaking,  there  are  no  literary  institutions  in  the 
country,  and  few  ever  go  beyond  then*  acquisitions  at  the  Kyoimg. 
Such  as  the  literature  is,  it  is  almost  abandoned  to  the  pongyees. 
A  very  few,  especially  among  the  nobles,  are  addicted  to  reading. 
The  most  distinguished  now  is  the  Mekara  prince,  who  reads 
English,  and  collects  foreign  pictures,  maps,  coins,  implements,  &c. 

As  to  astronomy  and  geography,  the  more  they  learn,  the  more 
they  are  in  error,  for  a  more  absurd  system  could  not  be.  They 
describe  eight  planets,  viz.  the  sun,  moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars, 


236  BURMAH. 

Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Rahu,  the  last  being  invisible.  All  these  re- 
volve round  the  earth,  the  sun  going  quicker  than  the  moon. 
None  of  these  planets  are  round,  but  are  extended  plains,  formed 
in  the  manner  explained  in  the  chapter  on  religion.  Eclipses  are 
produced  by  Rahu,  (pronounced  Ya-hu,)  an  immense  monster,  who 
puts  the  sun  or  moon  under  his  chin,  when  the  eclipse  is  partial, 
or  takes  it  into  his  huge  mouth,  and  then  the  eclipse  is  total. 

They  are  not  without  maps  of  various  portions  of  their  coun- 
try ;  but  sadly  rude  and  imperfect,  being  made  without  mathe- 
matical or  astronomical  instruments  of  any  sort.  I  saw  some 
in  which  the  artist,  coming  to  the  edge  of  the  paper  in  tracing 
out  a  river,  turned  up  the  side,  and  round  the  top  ;  thus  placing 
cities  and  streams  to  the  north  and  north-west,  which,  in  fact, 
were  due  east ! 

No  branch  of  knowledge  is  cultivated  with  avidity  but  alche- 
my, in  which  absurd  pursuit  nearly  every  person,  pretending  to 
literature,  engages  more  or  less.  The  royal  family  is  not  exempt 
from  this  folly.  Then-  only  hope  is  to  transmute  base  metals, 
minerals,  &c,  into  gold.  In  procuring  specimens  of  mineralogy, 
the  natives  always  supposed  this  was  my  sole  purpose ;  and  in 
every  bazar  are  sold  stones  and  petrifactions,  for  the  operatives 
in  this  sublime  science.  As  to  the  elixir  of  immortality,  which 
former  lunatics  of  tins  sort  hoped  to  discover,  it  never  enters 
into  the  head  of  a  Burman  alchemist.  He  has  no  idea  of  im- 
mortality. Neither  his  religion  or  philosophy  permits  the  thought 
Did  he  obtain  it,  it  would  dash  all  his  hopes  of  nic-ban. 

Whether  the  state  of  society  exhibited  in  Burmah  be,  on  the 
whole,  more  conducive  to  happiness,  than  the  species  of  civili- 
zation which  we  enjoy,  is  a  question  I  leave  to  philosophers.  It 
ill  becomes  us  to  scorn  all  states  of  society  which  differ  greatly 
from  our  own,  without  inquiring  how  far  our  estimate  may  be 
formed  by  mere  education  and  habit.  I  would  certainly  prefer 
to  engraft  science  and  religion  on  the  condition  of  man  in  Bur- 
mah, to  having  them  accompanied  by  our  forms  of  society,  and 
social  constitution.  There,  human  wants  have  a  definite  limit, 
easily  reached ;  and  leaving  ample  leisure  to  almost  every  mem- 
ber of  society  for  the  pursuits  of  religion  and  science.  With 
us,  it  is  scarcely  possible  for  the  great  majority  to  fulfil  the  pre- 
cepts of  religion,  or  cultivate  by  science  their  immortal  powers. 
The  laboring  man  can  only  by  incessant  efforts  keep  himself 
and  family  supplied  with  what  they  think  necessaries.     With 


DEGREE    OF    CIVILIZATION.  237 

every  grade  above,  it  is  the  same.  Not  only  is  religion,  but 
reason  and  health,  sacrificed,  in  our  pursuits,  exertions,  and 
amusements.  In  vain  do  sacred  teachers  and  philosophers  cry 
out  against  the  universal  perversion.  So  long  as  society  is  so 
constructed,  the  evils  must  remain.  Prisons,  hospitals,  poor 
rates,  executions,  poverty,  disease,  celibacy,  and  innumerable 
sufferings,  grow  up  from  these  evils. 

On  the  whole,  the  Burmans  are  fully  entitled  to  be  called  a 
civilized  people.  A  regular  government,  a  written  language,  an 
established  literature,  a  settled  abode,  foreign  commerce,  respect- 
able architecture,  good  roads  and  bridges,  competent  manufac- 
tures, adequate  dress,  gradations  of  rank,  and  the  condition  of 
women,  conspire  to  establish  their  claim  to  be  so  considered. 
Their  exact  place  in  the  scale  of  civilization  is  not  so  easily 
settled.  In  intellect,  morals,  manners,  and  several  of  the  points 
just  named,  they  are  not  surpassed  by  any  nation  of  the  East, 
and  are  certainly  superior  to  any  natives  of  this  peninsula.  Prior 
to  the  recent  entrance  of  Europeans,  the  degree  of  civilization, 
whatever  it  was,  seemed  to  be  fixed  and  complete.  No  change 
in  laws,  habits,  manufactures,  food,  dwellings,  poetry,  painting, 
or  indeed  any  thing  else,  had  been  made  for  centuries  ;  or  if 
made,  yet  so  slowly  as  to  impart  no  excitement  to  the  public 
mind.  Now,  the  case  is  decidedly  different.  They  not  only  have 
contact  with  many  Europeans,  but  confess  inferiority ;  and  in 
some  things  are  adopting  our  modes  and  manufacture.  In  tLe 
Tenasserim  provinces,  this  is  especially  the  case ;  and  should 
England  resign  those  possessions,  the  effects  of  her  dominion  on 
the  population  will  remain  and  extend.  If  the  present  king 
should  retain  the  views  of  state  policy  which  he  expressed  to  me 
whfle  a  subject,  and  which  he  is  the  fittest  man  in  the  kingdom 
to  execute,  Burmah  must  rapidly  rise  in  political  importance. 

The  introduction  of  the  art  of  printing  would,  probably,  do 
more  for  this  people  than  any  other  in  India.  Active,  intelligent, 
and  persevering,  the  whole  community  would  feel  the  impulse 
of  diffused  knowledge.  All  would  read,  all  would  be  quickened, 
all  would  contribute  to  the  general  improvement.  It  would 
bring  with  it  that  stupendous  influence,  which  is  the  wonder  of 
these  latter  days  —  the  power  of  voluntary  association.  Men  and 
women  would  form  small  communities  for  the  accomplishment 
each  of  some  favorite  aim.  Every  improvement  could  be 
made  general.  Every  useful  project  would  find  friends,  and 
succeeding  generations  enjoy  accumulating  light 


238  BURMAH. 

But  in  allowing  myself  these  anticipations,  1  take  for  granted 
that  missionary  efforts  will  be  hugely  increased,  and  their  effects 
fall  upon  the  whole  community.  True  religion  can  alone  enable 
the  press  to  produce  its  fullest  blessings.  Without  this,  it  may 
elevate  the  arts,  improve  science,  and  advance  the  general  wealth ; 
but  it  leaves  them  a  race  of  rebels  against  the  eternal  Lord  — 
a  kingdom  of  Satan.  Indeed,  without  religion,  the  press  could 
not  accomplish  the  worldly  prosperity  of  the  state.  A  press, 
directed  by  genuine,  steady,  and  persevering  benevolence,  must 
operate  for  Burmah,  ere  she  rise  from  the  dust,  and  sit  joy- 
ously among  the  nations.  As  yet,  all  the  power  of  the  press 
is  in  our  hands.  What  a  trust!  How  are  the  Baptists  in 
America  bound  to  follow  up,  with  tenfold  energy,  the  work 
they  have  so  well  begun !  How  should  the  friends  of  man 
lend  their  aid  in  disseminating  among  this  people  the  rudi- 
ments of  true  science,  the  principles  of  right  government, 
and  the  blessings  of  pure  religion !  Even  now,  she  is  the 
first  native  power  in  Farther  India,  and  is  second  in  all  the  East 
only  to  China.  Within  and  around  her,  are  a  hundred  tribes  of 
people,  over  none  of  whom  is  her  influence  less  than  that  of 
France  over  the  smaller  states  of  Europe.  Let  Burmah  embrace 
the  Christian  faith,  and  she  has  at  her  command,  money  and  mis- 
sionaries for  all  their  tribes. 


239 


CHAPTER  VL 

Extent  of  Boodhism  —  Meaning  of  the  Term  —  Antiquity  of  the  System  — 
History  of  Gaudama —  The  next  Boodh  —  The  Bedagat  —  Theory  of  the 
Universe  —  The  Four  Islands  —  This  Island,  or  the  Earth — Origin  and 
Fall  of  Man  —  Celestial  Regions  —  Hells — No  Eternal  God  —  Universe 
eternal  —  Moral  Code  —  Merit  —  Discourse  of  Gaudama  —  Religious 
Edifices  —  Images  —  Impressions  of  Gaudama's  Foot  —  Worship  —  Of- 
ferings —  Public  Days  —  Superstitions  —  Nat-worship  —  Priests  ;  their 
Dress,  Residences,  Morals,  Office,  Support,  Numbers,  Orders.  Funerals  — 
Priestesses  —  Sects  —  Toleration  —  Remarks. 

Boodhism  is,  probably,  at  this  time,  and  has  been  for  many 
centuries,  the  most  prevalent  form  of  religion  upon  earth.  Half 
of  the  population  of  China,  Lao,  Cochin-China,  aud  Ceylon ;  all 
of  Camboja,  Siam,  Burmah,  Thibet,  Tartary,  and  Loo-choo  ;  and  a 
great  part  of  Japan,  and  most  of  the  other  islands  of  the  southern 
seas,  are  of  this  faith.  A  system  which  thus  enchains  the  minds 
of  half  the  human  race,  deserves  the  attention  of  both  Christians 
and  philosophers,  however  fabulous  and  absurd. 

Chinese  accounts  make  the  introduction  of  Boodhism  into  that 
empire  to  have  occurred  about  A.  D.  65.  Marshman  supposes 
the  Siamese  and  Laos  to  have  received  the  system  about  three 
centuries  before  Christ.  A  very  great  increase  of  the  Boodhist 
faith  is  known  to  have  occurred  in  China  early  in  the  sixth 
century,  which  may  have  resulted  from  the  flight  of  priests  with 
him,  about  that  time,  from  the  persecution  of  the  Brahminists. 

Boodh  is  a  general  term  for  divinity,  and  not  the  name  of  any 
particular  god.  There  have  been  innumerable  Boodlis,  in  dif- 
ferent ages,  among  different  worlds,  but  in  no  world  more  than  five, 
and  in  some,  not  any.  In  this  world,  there  have  been  four  Boodhs, 
viz.  Kan-ka-than,  Gau-na-gong,  Ka-tha-pa,  and  Gaudama.  In  the 
Siamese  language,  these  are  called  Kak-a-san,  Ko-na-gon,  Kasap, 
and  Kodom.     One  is  yet  to  come,  viz.  Aree-ma-day-eh. 

It  has  been  often  remarked,  that  Gaudama  was  one  of  the  incar- 
nations of  Vishnu,  and  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  cow.  This  idea 
has  probably  originated  with  the  Hindus,  and  is  advanced  to  sup- 
port their  assertion,  that  this  religion  is  a  branch  of  theirs.  But  no 
two  systems  can  be  more  opposite,  or  bear  less  evidence  of  one 
being  derived  from  the  other.  Brahminism  has  incarnations,  but 
Boodhism  admits  of  none,  for  it  has  no  permanent  God.  If,  in 
its  endless  metempsychosis,  any  being  shoidd  descend  from  the 


240  BURMAH. 

liighest  forms  of  existence,  to  take  human  nature,  it  would  not  be 
an  incarnation  of  Deity,  but  a  real  degradation  of  being,  and  the 
person  so  descending  would  become,  literally,  a  man.  If  he  ever 
rise  again,  it  must  be  by  another  almost  infinite  change,  now  to 
better,  and  now  to  worse,  as  merit  is  gained  or  lost.  While 
Hinduism  teaches  one  eternal  deity,  Boodhism  has  now  no  god. 
That  has  a  host  of  idols ;  this  oidy  one.  That  enjoins  bloody 
sacrifices ;  this  forbids  all  killing.  That  requires  atrocious  self- 
tortures  ;  this  inculcates  fewer  austerities  than  even  Popery.  That 
makes  lying,  fornication,  and  theft,  sometimes  commendable,  and 
describes  the  gods  as  excelling  in  these  enormities ;  this  never 
confounds  right  and  wrong,  and  never  excuses  any  sin.  That 
makes  absorption  into  Deity  the  supreme  good ;  this  annihilation. 
In  fine,  I  know  of  no  important  resemblance.  None  of  the  Brah- 
minical  books  are  regarded  by  Boodhists  as  authoritative,  and  no 
practices  seem  to  be  derived  from  them.  The  fact  that  Boodhist 
priests  often  worship  kneeling  on  a  cow-hide,  is  no  evidence 
of  affiliation  to  Brahminism,  as  has  been  asserted.  They  dis- 
claim any  religious  preference  for  the  hide  of  a  cow.  It  is,  in 
fact,  just  a  piece  of  leather,  of  any  kind,  folded  up  like  a  book, 
carried  either  by  the  priest  or  his  attendant,  and  laid  on  the 
ground  when  he  kneels  before  a  pagoda,  to  keep  him  from  soiling 
his  robe. 

There  are  some  reasons  for  considering  Boodhism,  if  not  the 
parent  system,  yet  probably  more  ancient  than  Brahminism.  In 
various  parts  of  Hindustan  are  found  indications  that  Boodhism 
was  once  the  prevailing  faith.  The  caves  of  Elephanta  *  and 
Eloraf  contain  images  of  Gaudama  of  great  antiquity.}  Colonel 
Franklin  discovered  one  of  colossal  size  among  the  ruins  of 
Palibothea.  I  have  one  of  terra-cotta,  bearing  inscriptions  in  the 
ancient  Devnagari  character.  The  Vedas  themselves  mention 
Boodh.  The  Poorannas  were  unquestionably  written  some  cen- 
turies later  than  the  period  of  Gaudama.  The  splendid  ruins  at 
Prambana,  Boro  Budo,  and  Singa  Sari  in  the  interior  of  Java,  are 
regarded  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  as  having  claims  to  the  highest 
antiquity  of  any  such  structure  on  the  island ;  and  from  Captain 
Baker's  descriptions  of  these,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their 

*  On  ail  island  of  that  name  near  Bombay. 

t  In  the  province  of  Aurungabad. 

{  For  descriptions  of  these  very  remarkable  caves,  see  Seely's  Wonders  of 
Ellora ;  C.  Malet ;  Transactions  of  Bombay  Lit.  Soc.  art.  9  and  15 ;  Daniel's 
Voyage  to  India  ;  Transactions  Royal  Asiat.  Soc.  vol.  ii. ;  Modem  Traveller, 
vol.  iv. ;  Duperron's  Prelim.  Disc,  to  his  Zend  Avista ;  Asiatic  Researches, 
vol.  i. 


RELIGION  241 

Boodhist  origin.  The  images  are  of  Boodh.  The  very  term 
Budo,  or  Bud'ho,  is  in  the  Javanese  language  synonymous  with 
"ancient"  or  "pagan."  The  Javanese  speak  of  the  times  when 
Boodhism  was  the  religion  of  their  country  as  the  "ancient 
times."  Their  ancient  laws  make  no  distinctions,  in  the  award  of 
punishment,  in  favor  of  a  Brahmin,  hut  always  in  favor  of  a  king. 
This  is  so  opposite  to  the  religion  of  the  Hindus,  that  when  they 
were  made,  Brahmins  could  have  had  no  ascendency.  They, 
however,  early  acquired  power,  and  when  Mahometanism  was 
brought  to  Java,  it  found  the  Hindu  faith  established  as  the 
religion  of  the  country. 

Brahminism  was  introduced  into  Bali  between  three  and  four 
hundred  years  ago,  previous  to  which,  the  reigning  religion  was 
Boodhism.*  The  existence  of  caste,  and  the  position  of  Brah- 
mins on  the  pinnacle  of  it,  indicate  the  seniority  of  Boodhism. 
Had  the  religion  of  the  latter  been  the  progenitor,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  caste  would  have  been  inherited,  almost  beyond  a  doubt. 
We  can  scarcely  imagine  that  an  established  priesthood  should 
resign  such  power  and  rank,  as  is  held  by  the  political,  money- 
making,  haughty,  and  sensual  Brahmins. 

Boodh  is  possibly  the  Budda  or  Butta  of  Bochart  and  Beauso- 
bre  ;  the  Bod  of  the  Arabians;  the  Boutta  of  Clemens  Alexandri- 
nus;  the  Baouth  of  Gentil.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  so 
similar  in  their  structure  to  a  pagoda,  and  so  evidently  contain 
sacred  relics,  and  not  the  bones  of  kings,  that  they  bear  strong 
evidences  of  being  Boodhist  pagodas. 

The  probability  seems  to  be  that  Brahminism  grew  out  of 
Boodhism,  and  gained  power  and  numbers  in  Hindustan  till  the 
close  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  when  they  were  able 
to  commence  that  persecution  of  which  their  own  records  speak, 
and  which  drove  out  the  teachers  of  Boodhism  into  Farther  India, 
whence  it  extended  into  China 

Gaudama  was  the  son  of  Thoke-daw-da-reh,  or,  as  it  is  writ- 
ten in  Sunscrit,  Soodawdaneh,  king  of  Ma-ge-deh,  (now  called 
Behar,)  in  Hindustan. 

He  had  previously  lived  in  four  hundred  millions  of  worlds, 
and  passed  through  innumerable  conditions  in  each.  In  this 
world,  he  had  been  almost  every  sort  of  worm,  fly,  fowl,  fish,  or 
animal,  and  almost  every  grade  and  condition  of  human  life. 
Having,  in  the  course  of  these  transitions,  attained  immense 
merit,  he  at  length  was  born  son  of  the  above-named  king.     The 

*  CrawfurcTs  Indian  Archipelago,  book  vi.  ch.  2 
vol.  i.  21 


242 


moment  he  was  born,  he  jumped  upon  his  feet,  and,  spreading  out 
his  arms,  exclaimed, "  Now  am  I  the  noblest  of  men !  This  is  the 
last  time  I  shall  ever  be  born  ! "  His  height,  when  grown  up,  was 
nine  cubits.  His  ears  were  so  beautifully  long,  as  to  hang  upon 
his  shoulders ;  his  hands  reached  to  his  knees ;  his  fingers  were 
of  equal  length  ;  and  with  his  tongue  he  could  touch  the  end  of 
his  nose !  All  which  are  considered  irrefragable  proofs  of  his 
divinity. 

When  in  this  state,  his  mind  was  enlarged,  so  that  he  remem- 
bered his  former  conditions  and  existences.  Of  these  he  re- 
hearsed many  to  his  followers.  Five  hundred  and  fifty  of  these 
narratives  have  been  preserved,  one  relating  his  life  and  adven- 
tures as  a  deer,  another  as  a  monkey,  elephant,  fowl,  &c,  &c. 
The  collection  is  called  Dzat,  and  forms  a  very  considerable  part 
of  the  sacred  books.  These  legends  are  a  fruitful  source  of  de- 
signs for  Burman  paintings.  Of  these  I  purchased  several,  which 
do  but  bring  out  into  visible  absurdity  the  system  they  would 
illustrate. 

He  became  Boodh  in  the  thirty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  and  re- 
mained so  forty-five  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time,  having  per- 
formed all  sorts  of  meritorious 
deeds,  and  promulgated  excellent 
laws,  far  and  wide,  he  obtained 
"  nicban,"  that  is,  entered  into  an- 
nihilation, together  with  five  hun- 
dred priests,  by  whom  he  had 
been  long  attended.  This  oc- 
curred in  Hindustan,  about  two 
thousand  three  hundred  and 
eighty  years  ago,  or  B.  C.  546. 
The  Cingalese  make  his  death 
to  have  occurred  B.  C.  542,  and 
the  Siamese,  who  also  reckon 
time  from  that  era,  make  it  B.  C. 
544.  At  his  death,  he  advised 
that,  in  addition  to  obeying  his 
laws,  his  relics  and  image  should 
be  worshipped,  and  pagodas  built 
to  his  memory,  till  the  develop- 
ment of  the  next  Boodh.  He  is  in- 
variably represented  in  the  same; 
manner,  except  that  sometimes  he 


RELIGION.  243 

is  made  to  wear  a  crown,  necklace,  ornaments  on  his  arms,  &c. 
The  common  representation  is  given  in  my  Bible  Dictionary ;  the 
other  is  exhibited  in  the  accompanying  cut.  I  have  seen  them  of 
all  sizes,  from  half  an  inch  long,  to  seventy-five  feet — of  wood, 
stone,  brass,  brick,  clay,  and  ivory. 

The  next  Boodh  is  to  appear  in  about  seven  or  eight  thousand 
years  from  the  present  time.  His  height  will  be  eighty  cubits  ; 
his  mouth  will  be  five  cubits  wide,  and  the  length  of  the  hairs 
of  his  eyebrows  five  cubits.  The  precise  time  of  his  arrival  is 
not  predicted. 

No  laws  or  sayings  of  the  first  three  Boodhs  are  extant.  Those 
of  Gaudama  were  transmitted  by  tradition,  till  four  hundred  and 
fifty  years  after  his  decease,  when  they  were  reduced  to  writing  in 
Ceylon,  that  is,  A.  D.  94.  These  are  the  only  sacred  books  of  the 
Burmans,  and  are  all  in  the  Pali  language.  They  are  comprised 
in  three  divisions,  or  books,  viz.  Thoke,  Winnee,  and  Abeeda- 
mah.  Each  of  these  is  divided  into  distinct  books,  or  sections. 
The  whole  is  called  the  Bedagat.  Copies  of  parts  of  these  works 
are  not  scarce,  though  found  chiefly  with  the  priests.  Entire 
copies  are  rare.  Some  of  them  are  truly  elegant,  the  leaf  being 
covered  with  black  varnish,  as  fine  and  glossy  as  enamel,  and 
over  this  the  words  written  in  gold  letters. 

They  are  all  in  the  same  form,  and  strung  on  a  cord.  The 
outsides  are  often  defended  by  a  handsomely  carved  and  gilded 
board,  of  the  same  size  as  the  leaves,  The  strings  with  which 
they  are  tied  are  about  an  inch  wide,  and  a  fathom  long,  with 
some  sentence  woven  in  with  the  texture.  These  are  either 
some  quotation  from  a  sacred  book,  or  some  pious  sentiment. 
One  of  those  in  my  possession  reads  thus :  —  "  This  book-string  is 
offered  you,  with  affectionate  regard,  to  tie  up  your  sacred  book ; 
that  precious  book  where  you  will  find  the  door  by  which  to 
enter  Nicban." 

The  cosmogony  of  the  Bedagat  is  not  precisely  alike  in  the 
different  books ;  and  even  in  the  same  book  inconsistencies  often 
occur.  The  following  sketch  therefore,  though  derived  from  the 
best  informed  priests  and  missionaries,  differs  in  some  respects 
from  various  statements  which  have  appeared,  and  is  to  be  re- 
ceived as  the  scheme  set  forth  in  such  books  as  my  informants 
had  read. 

The  universe  is  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  systems, 
called  Sak-yas.  These  systems  touch  each  other  at  the  circum- 
ference, and  the  angular  spaces  between  them  are  filled  up  with 
very  cold  water.     Each  side  of  these  spaces  is  three  thousand 


244  EL'RMAH. 

uzenas  long.  Of  these  innumerable  systems,  some  are  constantly 
becoming  chaotic,  and  reproduce  themselves  in  course  of  time. 
Of  these  formations  and  dissolutions  there  was  never  a  beginning, 
and  will  never  be  an  end. 

Each  system  consists  of  a  great  central  mountain  surrounded 
by  seas,  and  four  great  islands,  each  surrounded  by  five  hundred 
smaller  ones,  and  with  celestial  and  internal  regions.  Of  this 
great  mountain,  the  eastern  side  is  of  silver,  the  western  of  glass, 
the  northern  of  gold,  and  the  southern  of  dark  ruby.  It  is  called 
Myenmo,  and  is  eighty-four  thousand  uzenas  high.  Its  base  is 
equally  deep.  The  top  is  flattened  to  a  plain  forty-eight  thousand 
uzenas  in  diameter.  Seven  chains  of  mountains,  and  seven  great 
rivers  or  seas,  encircle  the  mount  on  every  side. 

The  four  great  islands  have  each  a  shape,  to  which  that  of  the 
smaller  ones  belonging  to  it,  is  exactly  conformed.  Ours  is  oval, 
the  western  is  round,  the  northern  is  a  parallelogram,  and  the 
eastern  semilunar.  The  color  of  each  set  of  islands  is  derived 
from  that  side  of  the  mountain  next  to  them.  The  inhabitants 
have  both  their  color  and  the  shape  of  then-  faces  conformed  to 
that  of  the  island  on  which  they  dwell.  Those  on  the  eastern 
islands  are  uine  cubits  high,  those  on  the  western  six,  those  of 
the  northern  thirteen.  The  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern islands  practise  agriculture  and  the  aits,  much  as  we  of  the 
southern  do  ;  but  those  of  the  northern  have  no  such  employments. 
A  tree  is  there  which  yields  all  manner  of  garments,  meats,  fish, 
&c.  They  have  no  sorrows  or  pains  ;  and  every  individual  lives 
just  a  thousand  years.  Between  the  great  islands  ships  cannot 
pass.  The  sea  there  rises  in  waves  sixty  or  seventy  uzenas  high, 
and  contains  fishes  six  hundred  and  seven  hunched  uzenas  long, 
the  mere  movement  of  whose  bodies  often  creates  tempests 
which  reach  hundreds  of  uzenas  ! 

This  earth  is  the  southern  cluster  of  islands,  and  we  are  living 
on  the  large  one.  It  is  a  convex  plane,  not  a  sphere,  and  is  di- 
vided by  mountains  and  navigable  seas.  Its  diameter  is  ten 
thousand  uzenas,  and  the  thickness  of  the  crust  or  surface  on 
which  we  live  is  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  uzenas.  Be- 
low this  is  water  twice  as  deep  as  the  earth  is  thick.  The  whole 
is  supported  on  a  stratum  of  air  twice  as  deep  as  the  water, 
and  which  supports  itself  by  internal  concussions  or  explosions. 
Beneath  is  vacuum. 

In  the  other  three  islands  and  their  dependencies,  the  inhabit- 
ants have  always  had  the  same  length  of  life.  But  in  ours,  the 
period  constantly  varies.     At  first,  our  race  lived  as  many  years 


RELIGION.  245 

as  there  would  be  drops  of  rain  if  it  rained  three  years  incessant- 
ly. In  a  Siamese  version  of  the  same  book,  it  is  given  as  a  period 
of  years  embracing  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  ciphers.  Fall- 
ing off  in  virtue  and  correct  habits,  the  term  gradually  contracted, 
in  the  course  of  myriads  of  ages,  to  ten  years.*  Then  mankind 
was  led  to  reflect  and  reform,  and  the  period  gradually  enlarged, 
as  they  became  more  temperate  and  correct,  till  it  rose  even  to  the 
primitive  duration.  By  succeeding  degeneracy,  it  gradually  con- 
tracted again  to  ten.  Of  these  increases  and  diminutions  there 
have  been  eleven,  and  will  be  fifty-three  more,  before  the  sakiya 
system,  to  which  we  belong,  will  be  again  destroyed.  At  this 
time,  the  period  of  life  is  contracting  through  our  increasing  de- 
generacy, and  has  fallen  to  eighty  years. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  three  other  islands  and  their  dependen- 
cies are  always  reproduced  in  the  same  island.  But  our  world 
has  this  advantage,  that  by  merit  we  may  rise  to  the  several 
heavens,  and  even  to  Nicban  itself. 

When,  by  the  power  of  fate,  a  system  is  to  be  destroyed,  it  oc- 
curs either  by  fire,  water,  or  wind.  The  process  of  renovation  is 
exemplified  in  the  following  account  of  our  own  world,  which, 
like  the  others,  has  repeatedly  been  destroyed  and  renewed. 
After  lying  in  a  state  of  chaos  many  ages,  the  crust  of  the  earth 
recovered  firmness,  and  was  covered  with  a  thin  crust  of  sweet 
butter.  The  grateful  fragrance  ascending  to  the  heavens,  celes- 
tial beings  were  filled  with  desire  to  eat  it,  and,  assuming  human 
shape,  came  down  in  large  numbers.  Their  bodies  were  lumi- 
nous, and  they  needed  no  other  light.  Becoming  quarrelsome 
and  corrupt,  the  delicious  crust  disappears,  and  their  bodies  be- 
come dark.  In  their  distress,  the  sun  appears ;  and  afterward, 
the  moon  and  stars.  Compelled  now  to  seek  other  food,  they 
find  rice  growing  without  a  husk,  and  thus  needing  no  labor. 
Fire,  spontaneously  issuing  from  the  stones,  cooks  it.  This  gross 
food  at  length  excited  various  passions,  and  mankind  became  di- 
vided into  sexes.  Marriage  followed.  The  race  degenerating 
still  more,  was  obliged  to  choose  a  king.  Quarrels  multiply,  and 
men  disperse  over  the  world.  Climate,  water,  and  food,  then 
produce  the  diversities  we  see  among  nations. 

The  celestial  regions  consist  of  twenty-six  heavens,  one  above 
another ;    and   the    infernal    regions    of   eight   principal   hells, 

*  It  is  exceedingly  remarkable  how  universal,  among-  all  nations,  is  the 
tradition,  that  our  rare  was  originally  pure  and  happy,  but,  becoming  corrupt, 
fell  from  their  high  enjoyments,  and  became  heir  to  the  sorrows  we  now  see. 

21* 


246  BDRMAH. 

each  surrounded  by  sixteen  smaller  ones.  The  base  of  Myenmo 
Mount  is  inhabited  by  dragons,  great  birds,  and  animals  of  un- 
known shapes.  The  middle  region  constitutes  the  lower  of  the 
six  inferior  heavens,  and  is  inhabited  by  powerful  beings,  called 
Stedoo-mahah-rajah.  The  summit  is  the  next  inferior  heaven, 
called  Tah-wa-ting-tha.  Above,  in  open  space,  are  the  four 
others,  viz.  Ya-viah,  Toke-tke-dah,  Par-an-ing-meta,  and  Etha- 
iva^dee.  The  inhabitants  of  all  these  are  called  Nats.  They 
never  perform  servile  labor,  for  trees  bear  in  profusion  eveiy 
object  of  necessity  or  gratification.  The  term  of  their  lives  is 
about  nine  million  tunes  longer  than  the  present  term  of  ours. 
Their  children  are  born  with  the  degree  of  maturity  that  ours 
have  at  fifteen  years  old.  What  we  call  thunder,  is  the  noise  they 
make  when  at  play ;  and  rain  is  produced  by  the  agitation  they 
make  in  the  air  in  running  about. 

In  these  first  six  heavens,  the  inhabitants  have  body  and  soul, 
like  ourselves ;  in  the  next  sixteen,  they  are  pure  matter  ;  and  in 
the  last  four,  pure  spirit. 

The  aim  of  mortals  is  to  attain,  after  death,  to  Tah-wa-ting- 
tha,  the  diameter  of  which  is  the  same  as  this  earth.  Like  the 
abodes  of  the  Nats,  it  abounds  in  good  things,  of  which  the  Be- 
dagat  contains  copious  and  minute  details.  Among  the  glorious 
possessions  of  Thig-ya-men,  its  king,  (whose  principal  residence 
is  fully  described,)  is  a  huge  white  elephant.  This  animal,  named 
Ay-ra-woon,  is  fifty  uzenas  high,  and  has  seven  heads ;  each  head 
has  seven  tusks,  and  each  tusk  seven  tanks.  In  each  of  these 
tanks  grow  seven  lilies :  each  lily  has  seven  blossoms ;  each  blos- 
som has  seven  petals ;  each  petal  bears  up  seven  palaces,  and  in  each 
palace  are  seven  nymphs,  or  wives  of  the  king,  each  surrounded 
by  five  hundred  attendants.  Another  elephant  has  one  great 
head,  thirty  uzenas  long,  on  which  the  king  occasionally  rides ; 
and  thirty-two  smaller   heads,  for  the  thirty-two  royal  princes. 

Of  the  principal  hells,  four  inflict  punishment  by  heat,  and  the 
other  four  by  cold.  Each  of  these  is  ten  thousand  uzenas  wide. 
In  the  sixteen  minor  hells,  the  wicked  suffer  every  conceivable 
misery,  not  connected  with  cold  or  heat.  Worms  of  vast  size 
bite  them ;  their  bowels  are  torn  out,  their  limbs  racked,  and  their 
bodies  lacerated  or  beaten  with  dreadful  hammers.  They  are 
pierced  with  red-hot  spits,  crucified  head  downward,  gnawed  by 
dogs,  and  torn  by  vultures.  These  and  a  thousand  other  evils 
are  described  with  minuteness  in  the  Bedagat,  and  often  depicted 
in  the  drawings  of  native  artists.    The  inhabitants  are  six  miles 


RELIGION.  247 

high,  and  are  continually  creeping  and  roaming  about,  in  the  vast 
caves  of  their  dreadful  abode. 

For  killing  a  parent  or  a  priest,  a  man  will  suffer  in  one  of  the 
hells  of  fire,  during  the  whole  period  of  a  sakiya  system.  To 
deny  or  disbelieve  the  doctrines  of  Gaudama,  incurs  eternal  suf- 
fering in  fire.  Killing  men  or  animals,  causing  criminals  to  be 
executed,  insulting  women,  old  men  or  priests,  cheating,  receiv- 
ing bribes,  selling  any  intoxicating  liquor,  and  parricide,  are  pun- 
ished in  the  worst  hells.  In  some  books,  a  regular  scale  is  made 
out  for  estimating  the  gradation  of  guilt  in  all  these  crimes. 

Merit  may  be  gained  by  good  conduct  in  any  of  these  hells,  so 
that  except  the  criminality  has  incurred  eternal  torment,  the  suf- 
ferers may  rise  again  to  become  insects,  beasts,  men,  nats,  &c. 

Such  are  the  accounts  which  fUl  the  sacred  books,  and  with 
which  I  might  fill  many  pages.  It  is  not  important  that  1  quote 
more.  1  have  quoted  thus  much,  as  part  of"  the  history  of  the 
human  mind,  and  as  necessary  to  a  proper  estimate  of  the  Boodh- 
ist  religion. 

Of  any  supreme  God,  or  any  eternal  self-existent  being,  Boodh- 
ism  affords  no  intimation ;  nor  of  any  creation  or  providence. 
From  the  annihilation  of  one  Boodh,  till  the  development  of 
another,  there  is  literally  no  God.  Intervening  generations  must 
worship  his  image,  law,  and  priests,  and  for  then  rules  of  life 
keep  the  sayings  of  the  last  Boodh,  viz.  Gaudama. 

Not  only  has  the  universe  and  all  its  sakiya  systems  existed 
from  eternity,  but  also  the  souls  of  all  the  inhabitants,  whether 
animals,  men,  or  celestials.  These  souls  have  from  eternity  been 
transmigrating  from  one  body  to  another,  rising  or  falling  in  the 
scale  of  existence  and  enjoyment,  according  to  the  degree  of 
merit  at  each  birth.  This  rise  or  fall  is  not  ordered  by  any  in- 
telligent judge,  but  is  decided  by  immutable  fate.  In  passing 
through  these  various  forms  of  existence,  the  amount  of  sorrow, 
endured  by  each  soul,  is  incalculable.  The  Bedagat  declares 
that  the  tears  shed  by  any  one  soul,  in  its  various  changes  from 
eternity,  are  so  numerous,  that  the  ocean  is  but  as  a  drop  in  com- 
parison !  Existence  and  sorrow  are  declared  to  be  necessary 
concomitants  ;  and  therefore  "  the  chief  end  of  man  "  is  to  finish 
this  eternal  round  of  changes,  and  be  anndiilated. 

The  great  doctrines  of  this  faith  are  five ;  viz.  1.  The  eternal 
existence  of  the  universe,  and  all  beings.  2.  Metempsychosis. 
3.  Nicban,  or  anndiilation.  4.  The  appearance,  at  distant  periods, 
of  beings  who  obtain  deification  and  subsequent  annihilation. 
5.  The  obtaining  of  merit.     Of  the  first  four  of  these,  enough 


248  BURMAII. 

lias  been  already  said.  The  last  is  more  deserving  of  notice, 
embracing,  as  it  does,  the  whole  system  of  morals. 

Merit  consists  in  avoiding  sins,  and  performing  virtues  ;  and 
the  degree  of  it  is  the  sole  hope  of  the  Boodhist.  The  forgive- 
ness of  sins,  and  the  receipt  of  favor  through  the  merit  of 
another,  are  doctrines  unknown.  That  suffering  can  be  hi  any 
way  regarded  as  a  blessing,  is  to  him  absurd. 

The  sins  which  are  to  be  avoided  are  described  in  a  moral 
code,  consisting  of  five  principal  and  positive  laws :  —  1.  Thou 
shalt  not  kill.  2.  Thou  shalt  not  steal.  3.  Thou  shalt  not  com- 
mit adultery.  4.  Thou  shalt  not  he.  5.  Thou  shalt  not  drink 
any  intoxicating  liquor.  These  are  explained  and  branched  out 
so  as  to  include  all  sins  of  the  same  kind,  under  each  head. 
The  first  of  these  laws  is  extended  to  all  killing  even  that  of 
animals  for  food.  The  very  religious  will  not  kill  vermin.  War 
and  capital  punishments  are  considered  forbidden  by  the  first 
law. 

Sins  are  divided  into  three  classes :  — 1.  Those  of  the  body ; 
such  as  killing,  theft,  fornication,  &c.  2.  Those  of  the  tongue ; 
as  falsehood,  discord,  harsh  language,  idle  talk,  &c.  3.  Those 
of  the  mind ;  as  pride,  covetousness,  envy,  heretical  thoughts, 
adoring  false  gods,  &c. 

The  sacred  books  portray  strongly  the  evils  of  pride,  anger, 
covetousness,  and  inordinate  appetites.  Men  are  urged  to  avoid 
excessive  perfumes,  ornaments,  laughter,  vain  joy,  strong  drink, 
smoking  opium,  wandering  about  the  streets  in  the  night,  ex- 
cessive fondness  for  amusements,  frequenting  bad  company,  and 
idleness.  Those  who  aspire  to  Nicban  are  cautioned  to  abhor 
sorcery,  not  to  credit  dreams,  nor  be  angry  when  abused,  nor 
elated  when  approved,  not  to  flatter  benefactors,  nor  to  indulge  in 
scorn  or  biting  jests,  and  most  carefully  to  avoid  enkindling  strife. 

The  states  of  the  mind  are  resolved  into  three  classes:  —  1.  When 
we  are  pleased  in  the  possession  of  agreeable  things.  2.  When 
we  are  grieved  and  distressed  by  evil  things.  3.  When  neither 
do  good  things  gratify  us,  nor  evil  things  distress.  The  last  is 
the  best  state ;  and  in  it  a  man  is  rapidly  preparing  for  Nicban. 
In  this  there  is  no  small  resemblance  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Stoics,  and  some  approach  to  the  Christian  doctrine  of  weanedness 
from  the  world.  Some  of  their  books  abound  in  good  compar- 
isons ;  such  as,  that  he  who  runs  into  sinful  enjoyments  is  like  a 
butterfly,  who  flutters  round  a  candle  till  it  falls  in ;  or  one  who, 
by  licking  honey  from  a  knife,  cuts  his  tongue  with  the  edge. 
There   is   scarcely  a  prohibition  of  the  Bedagat,  which  is  not 


RELIGION.  '249 

sanctioned  by  our  Holy  Scriptures  ;  and  the  arguments  appended 
to  them  are  often  just  and  forcible. 

Merit  is  of  three  kinds :  —  1.  Theela,  or  the  observance  of  all 
the  prohibitions  and  precepts,  and  all  duties  fairly  deducible 
from  them;  such  as  beneficence,  gentleness,  integrity,  lenity, 
forbearance,  condescension,  veneration  to  parents,  love  to  man- 
kind, &c.  2.  Dana,  or  giving  alms  and  offerings.  This  includes 
feeding  priests,  building  kyoungs,  pagodas,  and  zayats,  placing 
bells  at  pagodas,  making  public  roads,  tanks,  and  wells,  planting 
trees  for  shade  or  fruit,  keeping  pots  of  cool  water  by  the  way- 
side for  the  use  of  travellers,  feeding  criminals,  birds,  animals, 
&c.  3.  Bawana,  or  repeating  prayers,  and  reading  religious 
books.  Of  this  last,  there  are  three  degrees,  or  sorts ;  the  first 
consisting  in  merely  reciting  prayers,  or  reading  thoughtlessly ; 
the  second,  and  more  meritorious,  is  praying  or  reading,  with 
a  mind  attentive  to  the  exercise  ;  the  third,  and  most  excellent, 
is  the  performing  these  exercises  with  strong  desires  and  awak- 
ened feelings.  He  who  neglects  to  lay  up  merit,  is  compared  to 
a  man  who  sets  out  on  a  journey  through  an  uninhabited  country, 
beset  with  wild  beasts,  and  provides  himself  neither  with  food 
nor  weapons. 

Alms-deeds  are  meritorious  according  to  the  objects  on  which 
they  are  bestowed  ;  according  to  the  following  general  scale :  — ■ 
1.  Animals.  2.  Common  laborers,  fishermen,  &c.  3.  Merchants 
and  the  upper  classes,  when  in  necessity.  4.  Priests.  For  alms 
of  the  first  class,  the  rewards  are  long  life,  beauty,  strength, 
knowledge,  and  prosperity,  during  a  hundred  transmigrations ; 
for  those  of  the  second  class,  the  same,  during  a  thousand 
transmigrations ;  for  the  third,  the  same,  during  ten  thousand ; 
for  the  fourth,  a  vastly  greater  number,  but  indefinite,  beiug 
graduated  according  to  the  degree  of  sanctity  the  particular 
priests  may  possess.  Alms  given  by  a  poor  man  are  declared 
to  be  incomparably  more  meritorious  than  those  given  by  the 
rich.  So  great  merit  is  conferred  by  acts  of  Dana,  that  persons 
are  distinguished  in  society  by  honorable  appellations  on  this 
account.  The  7nost  meritorious  deed  is  to  make  an  idol,  and  this 
in  proportion  to  its  size  and  value.  He  who  has  done  this  is 
called  thenceforth  Pya-taga.  He  who  builds  a  pagoda  becomes 
a  Tsa-dee-taga.  Next  is  he  who  builds  a  kyoung  —  kyoung-taga. 
He  who  has  sacred  books  transcribed,  is  a  Sah-taga.  He  who 
incurs  the  expenses  of  making  a  priest,  is  Thengan-taga.  The 
builder  of  a  zayat  is  zayat-taga ;  the  maker  of  a  tank,  yay-gon-taga. 


250  BURMAH. 

These,  and  similar  titles,  are  in  common  use,  and  are  regarded 
with  the  same  respect  as  squire,  captain,  colonel,  deacon,  &c, 
are  with  us. 

In  attaining  Bawana,  the  third  sort  of  merit,  a  prominent  ex- 
ercise, is  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  words  "aneit-sa,  doke-kha, 
Jlh-nah-ta."  The  first  of  these  words  implies  our  liability  to  out- 
ward injuries  and  evils  ;  the  second,  our  exposure  to  mental  suf- 
ferings ;  the  third,  our  entire  inability  to  escape  these  evils.  The 
repetition  of  this  prayer  or  soliloquy  is  of  far  greater  merit  than 
even  alms-giving.  To  keep  some  reckoning  in  this  most  im- 
portant particular,  the  votary  commonly  uses  a  string  of  beads, 
and  passes  one  through  his  fingers  at  each  repetition. 

Many  discourses  said  to  have  been  delivered  by  Gaudama, 
are  given  in  the  Bedagat.  In  these,  the  duties  of  parents,  chil- 
dren, husbands,  wives,  teachers,  scholars,  masters,  slaves,  &c,  are 
drawn  out  and  urged,  in  a  manner  which  would  do  honor  to  any 
casuist. 

The  following  is  part  of  one  of  these,  addressed  to  a  distin- 
guished personage,  who  sought  his  instruction  how  to  avoid 
evil :  — 

"  Know  thou,  that  to  keep  from  the  company  of  the  ignorant, 
and  choose  that  of  learned  men ;  to  give  honor  to  whom  it  is  due ; 
to  choose  a  residence  proper  to  our  station,  and  adapted  for 
procuring  the  common  wants  of  life ;  and  to  maintain  a  prudent 
carriage,  —  are  means  of  preserving  a  man  from  evil  doings.  The 
comprehension  of  all  things  that  are  not  evil,  the  exact  knowl- 
edge of  the  duties  of  our  station,  and  the  observance  of  modesty 
and  piety  in  our  speech,  are  four  excellent  modes  of  renouncing 
wickedness. 

"By  ministering  a  proper  support  to  parents,  wife,  and  family; 
by  purity  and  honesty  in  every  action ;  by  alms-deeds  ;  by  observ- 
ing the  divine  precepts ;  and  by  succoring  relations,  —  we  may 
be  preserved  from  evil.  By  such  a  freedom  from  faults,  that  not 
even  the  inferior  part  of  our  nature  manifests  any  affection  for 
them ;  by  abstinence  from  all  intoxicating  drink ;  by  the  continual 
practice  of  works  of  piety ;  by  showing  respectfulness,  humility, 
and  sobriety  before  all ;  and  gratitude  to  our  benefactors ;  and, 
finally,  by  listening  often  to  the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God, — - 
we  overcome  evil  inclinations,  and  keep  ourselves  far  from  sin. 
Docility  in  receiving  the  admonitions  of  good  men ;  frequent  visits 
to  priests ;  spiritual  conferences  on  the  divine  laws ;  patience, 
frugality,  modesty;  the  literal  observance  of  the  law;  keeping 


RELIGION.  251 

before  our  eyes  the  four  states  into  which  living  creatures  pass 
after  death;  and  meditation  on  the  happy  repose  of  Nicban  ;  — 
these  are  distinguished  rules  for  preserving  man  from  wicked- 
ness. 

"  That  intrepidity  and  serenity  which  good  men  preserve  amid 
the  eight  evils  of  life  ;  (abundance  and  want,  joy  and  sorrow, 
popularity  and  abandonment,  censure  and  praise  ;)  their  freedom 
from  fear  and  inquietude;  from  the  dark  mists  of  concupiscence; 
and,  finally,  their  insensibility  to  suffering;  —  these  are  four  rare 
gifts,  that  remove  men  far  from  evil.  Therefore,  O  sir !  imprint 
well  upon  your-  heart  the  thirty-eight  precepts  I  have  just  deliv- 
ered. Let  them  be  deeply  rooted  there,  and  see  that  you  put 
them  in  practice." 

Pagodas  are  innumerable.  In  the  inhabited  parts,  there  is 
scarcely  a  mountain  peak,  bluff"  bank,  or  swelling  hill,  without 
one  of  these  structures  upon  it.  Those  of  Pegu  and  Siam  are 
all  formed  upon  one  model,  though  the  cornices  and  decorations 
are  according  to  the  builders'  taste.  In  general,  they  are  entirely 
solid,  having  neither  door  nor  window,  and  contain  a  deposit  of 
money,  or  some  supposed  relic  of  Gaudama.  From  the  base 
they  narrow  rapidly  to  about  mid-way,  and  then  rise  with  a  long 
spire,  surmounted  with  the  sacred  tee.  This  is  the  style  of 
pagodas  shown  in  my  Bible  Dictionary,  and  in  Mrs.  Judson's 
Memoir.  Some  of  those  around  Ava,  and  especially  those  at 
Paghan,  are  less  tapering,  and  more  resembling  temples.  One 
of  these  recently  built  at  Ava  is  shown  on  page  ]  42.  This  pagoda 
is  new,  and  was  hardly  finished  when  I  took  it.  Much  of  the 
minute  tracery  on  the  stucco  is  necessarily  omitted  in  a  drawing 
on  so  reduced  a  scale. 

The  sacred  tee  is  of  sheet  iron,  wrought  into  open  work 
and  gilded.  It  of  course  rusts  off  in  time,  and  is  seldom  seen 
on  an  old  structure.  Its  shape  is  that  of  a  bell,  or  the  bowl  of  a 
wine-glass,  and  may  be  distinguished  in  the  foreground  of  the 
landscape  of  Tavoy.  Round  the  rim  are  suspended  small  bells, 
to  the  clappers  of  which  hang,  by  a  short  chain,  a  sheet-iron  leaf, 
also  gilded.  The  wind  moving  the  pendent  leaf,  strikes  the  clap- 
pers against  the  bells,  and  keeps  up  a  pleasant  chime.  Around 
all  chief  pagodas  are  smaller  ones,  sometimes  amounting  to 
hundreds,  and  of  great  size.  Particular  descriptions  of  individ- 
ual pagodas  are  found  in  other  parts  of  this  book. 

I  am  not  sure  of  the  origin  of  the  term  pagoda,  applied  by 
European  writers  to  this  structure.     The  term  is  unknown  to 


252 


BURMAH. 


Burmans  or  Siamese.  The  former  call  it  Tsa-dee,  and  sometimes 
Pra-tsa-dee,  but  more  commonly  simply  Phra  —  god.  The  latter 
call  it  Cha-dee  or  Prachadee. 


IlHal 

Burman  Zayat. 

Zayats  are  not  exclusively  religious  buildings.  Some  are  in- 
tended to  contain  idols,  and  some  are  for  the  accommodation  of 
-worshippers  and  travellers,  and  for  town  halls.  The  majority 
contain  no  idols,  and  are  intended  only  to  afford  shelter  for  wor- 
shippers and  travellers.  Some  of  these  are  mere  sheds,  open 
on  all  sides;  but  in  almost  all  cases,  they  are  built  in  a  far  more 
durable  and  costlv  manner  than  dwelling-houses. 


RELIGION.  253 

Every  village  has  a  zayat,  where  the  stranger  may  repose  or 
stay  ibr  many  days,  if  lie  please  ;  and  many  d  time  I  found  them 
a  comfortable  lodging-place.  Like  the  choultries  of  Hindustan, 
they  are  of  unspeakable  utility  in  a  country  destitute  of  inns, 
and  where  every  house  has  its  full  complement  of  inmates. 

Many  zayats,  especially  near  great  cities,  are  truly  beautiful, 
and  very  costly.  The  ceilings  and  pillars  are  not  only  elabo- 
rately carved,  but  completely  gilded,  and  the  stucco  floors  rival 
marble  in  hardness  and  polish.  One  of  these  is  given  in  the 
above  cut,  which  represents  a  zayat  in  the  enclosure  of  the  great 
pagoda  at  Rangoon.  It  has  a  shrine  for  Boodh,  which  is  rather 
rare  in  zayats  ;  and  on  the  left  are  some  of  the  huge  stone  jars 
used  to  receive  the  offerings  of  the  worshippers.  By  an  error 
of  the  engraver,  they  are  but  one  third  of  the  proper  size. 

Near  all  considerable  cities  are  a  number  of  zayats,  which 
may  be  called  temples,  erected  to  contain  collections  of 
idols,  amounting  in  some  cases  to  hundreds.  In  general,  these 
are  all  colossal,  and  some  are  huge.  In  each  collection  will 
be  found  a  recumbent  image,  sixty,  eighty,  or  even  a  hundred 
feet  long,  made  of  brick  covered  with  stucco,  and  often  gilded. 
Almost  all  the  idols  which  are  larger  than  life  are  thus  formed  ; 
but  so  skilful  are  the  artists  in  working  in  lime,  that  the  images 
have  the  appearance  of  polished  marble.  Groups  of  images 
representing  Gaudama  walking  with  his  rice-pot,  followed 
by  attendants  with  theirs,  or  illustrating  some  conspicuous  pas- 
sage in  his  life,  are  not  uncommon. 

The  doors  or  gateways  of  religious 
edifices  are  generally  guarded  by  huge 
Balus  and  lions,  as  they  call  them.  The 
Balu  is  an  evil  genius,  personified  as  a 
hideous  man,  armed  with  a  great  club. 
A  representation  of  one  of  these  frightful 
demons  is  given  at  the  foot  of  page  132. 
They  are  often  of  colossal  size,  but  are 
not  so  uniformly  of  one  pattern,  as  the 
lions.  The  lions  are  always  precisely 
alike,  however  different  in  size  ;  and  as 
there  are  no  lions  in  Burmah,  they  have 
stumbled  on  a  representation  which  horribly  caricatures  that 
lordly  beast. 

Sometimes    other   images   are   added,   as    crocodiles,   turtles, 
dogs,  &c.     In  the  compounds  of  the  best  pagodas,  are  various 
vol.  i.  22 


254 


structures,  more  or  less  elegant,  presented  by 
wealthy  worshippers.  Some  of  these  resem- 
ble umbrellas ;  others  are  like  shrines ;  but 
the  most  common  are  streamers,  fastened  to 
a  mast  Some  of  these  are  truly  beautiful. 
They  are  cylinders  of  fine  book  muslin,  kept 
round  by  light  hoops  of  ratan,  and  ornamented 
with  figures  cut  out  of  silver  or  gold  paper. 
On  the  top  is  the  carved  and  gilded  henza, 
or  sacred  bird  —  a  creature  of  imagination, 
resembling  nothing  in  heaven  above  or  earth 
beneath. 

Images  and  sacred  edifices  pass  through  no 
form  of  consecration ;  and  an  intelligent 
Burman,  when  pressed  in  argument,  stren- 
uously denies  that  he  worships  these  thjngs. 
He  claims  to  use  them  as  Papists  do  a  cruci- 
fix. He  places  no  trust  in  them,  but  uses 
them  to  remind  him  of  Gaudama,  and  in 
compliance  with  Gaudama's  commands. 
Hence  he  feels  no  horror  at  beholding  them 
decayed ;  and  the  country  is  full  of  such  as 
have  gone  to  ruin.  The  merit  of  making  a 
very  small  pagoda,  or  image,  is  much  greater  than  the  repairing 
even  of  the  largest.  The  son,  therefore,  suffers  the  father's 
structure  to  sink  into  ruin,  though  trifling  repairs  might  prolong 
its  existence  for  years.  The  builder  himself  seldom  attempts  to 
repair  the  ravages  of  time,  which  in  this  country  proceed  with 
extraordinary  rapidity;  preferring  to  build  anew,  if  again 
prompted  to  the  same  species  of  piety.  That  the  common 
people  do  really  and  truly  worship  the  very  pagodas  and 
images,  is  most  evident.  Indeed,  such  seldom  deny  it.  Few 
would  dare  to  strike  or  deface  one.  Even  the  Christians  are 
often  unable  to  summon  courage  to  do  such  a  deed. 

Impressions  of  Gaudama's  foot  are  shown  in  various  places,  and 
receive  religious  worship.  Several  of  these,  not  only  in  Burmah, 
but  in  Ceylon,  Siam,  and  Lao,  are  affirmed  to  have  been  really 
stamped  there  by  the  deity  himself,  and  are  adduced  as  evidences 
of  his  extensive  travels.  The  rest  are  avowed  copies  of  these 
impressions,  and  are  more  numerous.  Some  are  in  stone,  and 
some  in  stucco,  generally  handsomely  gilded  and  canopied  by 
some  respectable  structure.     Those  of  Burmah  and  Ceylon  seem 


RELIGION. 


255 


not  to  be  precisely  alike.  Below  is  a  Burman  copy  greatly  re- 
duced. I  have  a  full  description  of  the  figures  in  every  com- 
partment, but  could  not  get  their  mystic  significations,  if  they  have 
any.  The  serpents  or  nagahs,  which  encircle  the  foot,  are  al- 
ways added  hi  representations,  for  ornament. 


Gaudama's  Foot. 


Worship  is  not  performed  collectively,  though  crowds  assemble 
at  the  same  time  on  set  days.  Each  one  makes  his  offerings, 
and  recites  his  prayers  alone.  No  priests  officiate ;  no  union  of 
voices  is  attempted.  On  arriving  at  the  pagoda  or  image,  the 
worshipper  walks  reverently  to  within  a  convenient  distance, 
and,  laying  his  offering  on  the  ground,  sits  down  behind  it,  on  his 
knees  and  heels,  and,  placing  the  palms  of  his  hands  together, 


256  BURMAH. 

raises  them  to  his  forehead,  and  perhaps  leans  forward  till  his 
head  touches  the  ground.  This  is  railed  the  sheeko.  He  then 
utters  his  prayers  in  a  low  tone,  occasionally  bowing  as  before, 
and,  having  finished,  rises  and  carries  forward  his  gift,  laying  it 
somewhere  near  the  idol  or  pagoda.  Some  proceed  first  to  one 
of  the  great  bells,  which  hang  near,  and  strike  several  times  with 
one  of  the  deer's  horns  which  always  lie  beneath.  When  one 
goes  alone,  this  is  seldom  omitted. 

The  prayer  consists  of  the  form  already  quoted,  ("Aneitsa, 
Dokekha,  Ahnahta,")  or  of  a  repetition  of  certain  protestations, 
such  as,  "  I  will  not  lie,  I  will  not  steal,  I  will  not  kill,"  &c.  Each 
speaks  audibly ;  but  no  one  is  disturbed,  though  scores  kneel  side 
by  side.  No  greetings  or  recognitions  are  seen  ;  nothing  seems 
to  divert  their  attention  ;  and  the  profound  humility  of  both  pos- 
ture and  gesture,  give  a  solemn  aspect  to  the  whole  scene.  Old 
people,  who  cannot  remember  the  forms,  and  persons  who  are 
diffident  of  their  ability  in  this  exercise,  get  some  priest  to 'write 
them  a  few  sentences,  which  they  carry  before  the  pagoda  or  idol, 
and,  fastening  it  in  one  end  of  a  stick,  stick  the  other  end  in  the 
ground,  and  put  themselves  for  a  time  into  the  posture  of  prayer 
behind  it.  At  Ava,  quantities  of  these  may  be  gathered  any 
worship-day.  The  beads  used  in  worship  are  made  usually  of 
black  coral,  or  of  the  hard  shell  of  the  coco-nut.  There  are 
fifty  or  sixty  on  a  string.  Some  persons  carry  them  at  ail  times 
in  their  hand,  especially  the  priests,  and  appear,  by  passing  over 
one  at  a  time,  to  be  saying  their  prayers,  even  in  the  midst  of 
conversation. 

Frequently  a  worshipper  spends  an  entire  day  or  night  at  the 
pagoda,  reclining  in  some  of  the  zayats.  When  the  night  is 
chosen,  he  takes  his  bed  and  some  refreshments,  candles,  &c. 
These  are  so  light  that  the  most  aged  persons  cany  them  with 
ease,  suspending  the  bed  from  one  end  of  a  pole,  and  the  water- 
jar,  offering,  &c,  from  the  other.  I  often  met  these  people  in 
the  zayats  lying  about,  reading  from  palm-leaves,  or  returning  in 
the  morning  to  their  homes.  They  reminded  me  of  the  embar- 
rassment I  felt,  when  a  child,  in  reading  of  our  Savior's  ordering 
men  to  "take  up  their  bed  and  walk."  These  beds  consist  of  a 
clean  mat,  which  weighs  but  three  or  four  pounds,  and  a  short, 
round  pillow,  with  sometimes  a  cloth  or  sheet.  The  latter  are 
rolled  up  in  the  mat,  and  tied  with  a  twine,  so  that  the  whole  is 
both  light  and  portable. 

None  but  priests  go  to  the  pagoda  without  carrying  some  of- 
fering, though  it  be  but  a  flower,  or  a  few  sprigs  plucked  from  a 


RELIGION.  257 

bush,  in  passing.  A  tasteful  nosegay  is  the  common  gift,  but 
those  who  can  afford  it  carry,  once  a  week,  articles  of  food  and 
raiment.  The  former  is  always  cooked  in  the  nicest  manner, 
and  delicately  arranged  in  saucers  made  of  the  fresh  plantain 
leaf.  Women  carry  their  gifts  in  shallow  baskets  on  their  heads, 
and  men  in  their  hands,  or  suspended  from  the  ends  of  a  shoul- 
der-pole. They  proceed  in  groups,  gossiping  and  gay,  and  dis- 
play their  piety  with  exuberant  self-complacency. 

There  are  four  days  for  public  worship  in  every  lunar  month ; 
viz.  at  the  new  and  full  moon,  and  seven  days  after  each,  so  that 
sometimes  their  sabbath  occurs  after  seven  days,  and  sometimes 
after  eight.  The  new  and  full  moons  are  the  principal  sabbaths  ; 
but  few  persons  observe  even  all  of' these.  Even  those  who  at- 
tend the  pagoda,  always  continue  their  business,  except  during 
the  brief  absence.  The  aspect  of  the  city  or  village,  therefore,  is 
not  changed,  and  the  stranger  would  not  know  the  day  had  ar- 
rived, did  he  not  visit  the  pagoda,  or  the  principal  avenues  lead- 
ing to  it.  There  is,  in  fact,  no  sabbath  in  Burmah,  nor  is  any  re- 
quired by  their  religion.  It  is  meritorious  to  observe  the  day, 
but  not  sinful  to  disregard  it. 

The  number  of  worshippers  at  the  chief  pagodas,  is  always 
sufficient  on  Sundays  to  produce  a  large  amount  of  offerings,  and 
on  such  days  the  slaves  of  the  pagoda  take  care  of  such  as  are 
useful,  and  divide  the  whole  among  themselves.  On  other  days, 
dogs  and  crows  consume  the  offerings,  often  attacking  a  gift  the 
moment  the  worshipper  quits  it,  and  devouring  it  without  the 
slightest  molestation.  I  used  to  supply  myself  sometimes  with  a 
handsome  bouquet  from  before  the  idol,  walking  unmolested 
among  prostrate  worshippers.  Whatever  flowers  or  fragments 
are  left  to  the  next  morning  are  swept  out  like  common  dirt. 

Burmans  are  oppressed  with  a  multitude  of  inconvenient  super- 
stitions. They  observe  dreams,  omens,  lucky  and  unlucky  days, 
and  believe  in  the  casting  of  nativities,  supernatural  endowments, 
relics,  charms,  witchcraft,  invulnerability,  &c.  The  aspect  of 
the  stars,  the  howl  of  dogs,  the  flight  of  birds,  the  involuntary 
motions  of  the  body,  the  cawing  of  crows,  the  manner  in  which 
fowls  lay  their  eggs,  the  holes  made  by  rats,  and  a  hundred  such 
things,  are  constantly  observed.  A  man  will  not  make  his  canoe 
of  the  intended  tree,  if  it  falls  in  an  unlucky  manner,  or  the  knots 
are  discovered  to  be  unfortunately  arranged.  They  are  especially 
observant  of  the  lines  hi  the  palms  of  one's  hand.  If  the  lines  on 
the  end  of  the  fore-finger  are  disposed  in  circles,  it  indicates 
23* 


258  BURMA  H. 

prosperity ;  if  in  arcs  of  a  circle,  great  unhappiness,  &c.  Short 
fingers  are  regarded  as  a  sign  of  lasciviousness. 

Amulets  and  charms  are  worn  hy  both  sexes,  but  not  by  a  large 
number,  as  among  Hindus.  One  of  these,  common  among  mili- 
tary men,  is  the  insertion  of  pieces  of  gold,  or  other  metal,  and 
sometimes  small  gems,  under  the  skin  of  the  arm,  between  the 
elbow  and  shoulder.  I  was  allowed,  by  one  of  the  Christians  at 
Ava,  to  take  from  his  arm  several  of  these.  They  are  of  gold, 
inscribed  with  cabalistic  letters. 

Circumstances,  of  course,  often  tend  to  confirm  these  imagina- 
tions. The  fall  of  the  royal  spire  when  the  king  removed  his 
residence  from  Umerapoora  was  immediately  succeeded  by  the 
news  of  the  capture  of  Rangoon.  Comets  are  regarded  as  por- 
tending great  disasters,  and  one  appeared  during  the  advance  of 
the  British  army. 

The  fear  of  witches  prevails  universally,  and  physicians  de- 
rive much  of  their  profits  from  the  sale  of  medicines  which  are 
to  give  security  from  their  arts.  As  in  other  countries,  the  per- 
sons charged  with  possessing  infernal  powers  are  generally  poor 
old  women.  These  sometimes  favor  the  suspicion  for  purposes 
of  gain,  and  sometimes  are  subject  to  maltreatment.  Vultures 
and  owls  are  birds  of  evil  omen,  and  families  will  sometimes  va- 
cate a  house  on  which  one  of  these  birds  has  alighted.  The 
tattooing  of  the  body  is  regarded  as  a  charm.  Endeavoring  to 
ridicule  an  individual,  once,  for  the  extent  to  which  he  had  car- 
ried this  operation,  he  gravely  assured  me  that  it  rendered  him 
invulnerable.  Pulling  out  my  knife,  and  offering  to  test  the  asser- 
tion, he  instantly  declined,  affirming  that  if  he  were  a  good  man, 
such  would  indeed  be  the  effect,  but  that  he  was  not  a  good  man ! 

Many  of  the  people,  especially  among  the  Karens,  Toungthoos, 
&c,  worship  Nats,  which  have  been  mentioned  as  inhabiting  the 
six  lower  heavens,  and  are  supposed  to  possess  great  power  in 
human  affairs.  In  honor  of  these,  little  huts,  resembling  a  com- 
mon dog-house,  are  erected  on  a  post ;  and  on  another,  of  the  same 
height  in  front,  is  fastened  a  flat  board,  on  which  the  offerings  are 
placed.  Images  of  Nats  are  often  seen  among  collections  of 
idols,  in  the  capacity  of  attendants.  They  bear  a  human  form, 
and  are  portrayed  as  being  very  elegantly  dressed.  Such  figures 
frequently  ornament  the  base  of  the  flag-staffs,  and  sacred  umbrel- 
las erected  near  pagodas.  I  never  saw  any,  however,  in  or  near 
the  little  huts  erected  for  their  worship.  Feasts  are  often  made  to 
them,  to  avert  calamity,  or  to  be  healed  from  sickness.     On  these 


RELIGION.  259 

occasions,  every  member  of  the  family,  far  and  near,  assemble  ; 
and  if  any  be  absent,  the  service  is  considered  nullified. 

This  worship  of  Nats  forms  no  part  of  Boodhism,  and  is  in  fact 
discountenanced  as  heterodox.  It  seems  to  be  a  relic  of  the  an- 
cient polytheism,  which  prevailed  in  the  country  before  its  pres- 
ent religion  was  introduced. 

The  Burman  term  applied  to  a  priest  is  Pon-gyee,  or  Bon-ghee; 
literally  "  great  exemplar,"  or,  "  great  glory."  The  Pali  term 
Rahan,  or  "  holy  man,"  is  seldom  used.  The  Siamese  name  is 
P'hra-song.  Some  authors  speak  of  the  priests  as  Telapoins  ;  but 
the  term  is  never  used  by  Burmans  or  Siamese.  It  seems  to  have 
been  given  to  the  priests  by  the  French  and  Portuguese,  perhaps 
from  the  custom  of  carrying,  over  their  shaven  heads,  the  large 
fan  made  of  Tal-apot  leaf. 

Pongyees  are  not  a  caste,  or  hereditary  race ;  nor,  as  has  been 
remarked,  is  there  any  such  thing  as  caste  in  Burmah.  Any  one 
may  become  a  priest,  and  any  priest  may  return  to  secular  life,  at 
pleasure.  Thousands  do,  in  fact,  thus  return  every  year,  without 
the  least  reproach.  The  far  greater  number  enter  with  the 
avowed  purpose  of  remaining  only  a  few  months,  or  years,  for  the 
acquisition  of  learning  and  merit.  Indeed,  the  majority  of  re- 
spectable young  men  enter  the  novitiate  for  a  season,  not  only  to 
complete  their  education,  but  because  the  doing  so  is  considered 
both  respectable  and  meritorious.  The  more  acute  and  energetic 
reenter  society,  and,  as  the  phrase  is,  "  become  men  again."  The 
dull,  the  indolent,  and  those  who  become  fond  of  religious  and 
literary  pursuits,  remain. 

When  a  youth  assumes  the  yellow  robe,  it  is  an  occasion  of 
considerable  ceremony,  of  neighborly  festivity,  and  of  emolument 
to  the  monastery.*  The  candidate,  richly  clad,  is  led  forth,  on  a 
horse  handsomely  caparisoned,  attended  by  a  train  of  friends  and 
relations,  and  passes  in  pomp  through  the  principal  streets.  Be- 
fore him  go  women  bearing  on  their  heads  his  future  robes  of 
profession,  and  the  customary  utensils  of  a  priest,  with  rice,-  fruit, 
cloth,  china  cups,  &c,  intended  as  presents  to  the  kyoung,  and 
its  superior. 

This  splendor  of  array  bears  a  striking  similarity  to  the  dis- 
play of  dress,  &c,  made  by  a  nun  when  about  to  renounce  the 
world.  Henceforth,  at  least  while  he  remains  a  priest,  the  youth 
is  no  more  to  wear  ornaments,  ride  on  horseback,  or  even  carry  an 

*  He  who  incurs  the  expense  on  this  occasion,  is  said  to  have  made  a  priest, 
and  becomes  a  Thengan-taga  or  Pon-gyee-taga.     See  page  249. 


2fi0 


umbrella.  The  candidate  is  also  made  to  pass  an  examination  as 
to  liis  belief,  motives,  &c,  and  to  take  upon  himself  certain  vows. 
Priests  are  not  only  to  observe  all  rules  binding  on  common 
people,  but  many  more.  They  are  bound  to  celibacy  and  chas- 
tity ;  and  if  married  before  their  initiation,  the  bond  is  dissolved. 
They  must  not  so  much  as  touch  a  woman,  or  even  a  female  in- 
fant, or  any  female  animal.  They  must  never  sleep  under  the 
same  roof,  or  travel  in  the  same  carriage,  or  boat,  with  a  woman, 
or  touch  any  thing  which  a  woman  has  worn.  If  a  priest's  own 
mother  fall  into  the  water,  or  into  a  pit,  he  must  not  help  her  out 
except  no  one  else  is  nigh,  and  then  he  must  only  reach  her  a 
stick  or  a  rope.  They  are  not  to  recognize  any  relations.  They 
must  not  have,  or  even  touch,  money;  nor  eat  after  tlie  noon 
of  the  day;  nor  drink  without  straining  the  water;  nor  build  a  fire 
in  any  new  place,  lest  some  insect  be  killed; 
nor  spit  in  water,  or  on  grass,  lest  some  creature 
be  defiled  by  eating.  They  must  not  dance, 
sing,  or  play  upon  musical  instruments,  nor 
stand  in  conspicuous  places,  nor  wear  their 
hair  long,  or  any  ornaments,  nor  have  a  turban, 
Umbrella,  or  shoes;  and  their  raiment  must  be 
made  of  rags  and  fragments  gathered  in  the 
streets.  As  the  burning  sun  makes  some  shel- 
ter absolutely  necessary  for  a  shorn,  unturbaned 
head,  they  are  allowed  to  carry  their  huge  fan 
for  this  purpose,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  They 
must  hold  no  secular  office,  nor  interfere  in 
the  least  with  government.  Seclusion,  pover- 
ty, contemplation,  and  indifference  to  all  worldly  good  or  evil, 
are  henceforth  to  distinguish  them. 

In  eating,  a  priest  must  inwardly  say,  "  I  eat  this  rice,  not  to 
please  my  palate,  but  to  support  life."  In  dressing  himself,  he 
must  say,  "  I  put  on  these  robes,  not  to  be  vain  of  them,  but  to  con- 
ceal my  nakedness."  And  in  taking  medicine,  he  must  say,  "  I  de- 
sire recovery  from  this  indisposition,  only  that  I  may  be  more 
diligent  in  devotion  and  virtuous  pursuits." 

All  this  strictness,  though  required  in  the  sacred  books,  is  by 
no  means  exemplified  in  the  conduct  of  the  priests.  They  wear 
sandals,  carry  umbrellas,  live  luxuriously,  and  handle  money. 
They  not  only  wear  the  finest  and  best  cotton  cloth,  but  some  of 
them  the  most  excellent  silks.  They,  however,  preserve  a  shadow 
of  obedience,  by  having  the  cloth  first  cut  into  pieces,  and  then 
neatly  sewed  together.     They  even  look  at  women  without  much 


Priest  walking  out. 


RELIGION.  261 

reserve.  The  huge  fan,  peculiar  to  priests,  is  intended  partly  to 
prevent  the  necessity  of  their  seeing  women  when  preaching, 
&c. ;  but  the  manner  in  which  they  are  represented  in  native 
pictures,  as  looking  over  them,  is  not  more  amusing  than  true. 

Their  dress  covers  much  more  of  the  person  than  that  of  the 
laity  ;  indeed,  it  vails  them  completely  from  neck  to  ankles.  It 
consists  of  two  cloths,  one  put  on  so  as  to  form  a  petticoat,  and 
fastened  with  a  girdle,  the  other  thrown  gracefully  over  the 
shoulders  and  round  the  neck.  The  rule  is  to  keep  the  head 
shaved  entirely  ;  but  some  permit  it  to  grow  an  inch  or  two.  1 
found  the  rule  in  Siam  was  to  shave  the  head  twice  a  month ; 
and  probably  the  same  prevails  in  Burmah.  Yellow  is  appro- 
priated as  the  color  for  the  dress  of  the  priesthood,  and  it  would 
be  deemed  nothing  less  than  sacrilege  in  any  one  else  to  use  it: 
so  peculiarly  sacred  is  it  held,  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  one 
of  the  people  pay  his  devotions  in  due  form  to  the  old  garment 
of  a  priest,  hung  on  a  bush  to  dry,  after  being  washed. 

Kyoungs  are  found  in  all  cities  and  villages,  and  often  in  very 
small  hamlets.  As  a  partial  compliance  to  the  law,  which  forbids 
them  to  be  erected  in  such  places,  they  are  generally  placed  at 
the  outskirts.  They  are  enclosed  within  an  ample  space,  gener- 
ally set  out  with  fruit  and  shade  trees.  The  ground  is  kept  clear 
of  grass  or  weeds,  in  proportion  to  the  strictness  of  the  superior. 
The  kyoungs  are  always  vastly  better  built  than  the  dwellings  of 
even  the  richest  among  the  laity ;  and  near  the  metropolis  many 
of  them  are  truly  grand.  With  few  exceptions  they  are  built  in 
the  same  manner  as  good  dwelling-houses,  only  decorated  with 
carved  work,  and  having  massive  steps  of  brick  and  mortar  leading 
up  to  them.  The  distinctive  mark  between  common  and  re- 
ligious or  royal  residences,  is  always  observed,  viz.  the  stages 
or  hips  in  the  roof.  The  number  of  these  breaks  depends  on  the 
beauty,  size,  and  sacredness  of  the  structure.  The  apartments 
are  all  on  one  floor,  and  often  rendered  truly  imposing  by  the 
height  and  decorations  of  the  roof.  I  have  been  in  some  monas- 
teries of  great  size,  which  were  solidly  gilded,  within  and  without, 
from  top  to  bottom. 

As  to  the  morality  of  the  priesthood,  my  information  is  too 
vague  and  contradictory  to  allow  me  to  venture  an  opinion. 
Perhaps,  however,  this  contradictoriness  arose  from  a  real  diversity 
in  the  characters  of  the  priests,  whom  my  different  informers  had 
known.  It  is  certain  that,  if  they  choose  to  transgress,  they  may 
do  B  ■  with  little  danger  of  detection,  by  assuming  the  turban  and 
robe  of  the  laity.     They  cannot  be  distinguished  by  their  shorn 


262  BURMAH. 

heads,  as  that  is  a  sign  of  humiliation  practised  by  all  who  go 
into  mourning  for  relations.  Sometimes  half  the  community 
adopt  this  sign  at  the  death  of  some  very  great  man  or  member 
of  the  royal  family. 

Such  as  their  literature  is,  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  priest- 
hood. Few  others  can  so  much  as  read,  without  hesitation,  a 
book  they  never  saw  before  ;  still  less  understand  its  contents. 
The  thousands  who  "  finish  their  education  "  in  the  monasteries, 
furnish  but  few  exceptions  to  this  remark.  The  nation  has  ac- 
quired the  character  of "  a  reading  people  "  from  the  fact  that 
nearly  all  males  do  learn  to  read  in  the  kyoung.  But  it  is  as  the 
bulk  of  the  Jews  read  Hebrew,  or  ignorant  Catholic  priests  read 
Latin,  without  understanding  any  thing  they  read. 

Their  office  may  l>e  called  a  sinecure.     Few  of  them  preach, 
and  those  but  seldom,  and  only  on  special  request ;  after  which 
donations  of  clothing,  &c.  are  always  made  to  them.     On  these 
occasions,  though   oidy   one    preaches, 
there     are    generally    several    present. 
They  sit  cross-legged,   in  a  row,  on  a 
raised  seat,  and  each  holds  up    before 
him  his  fan  to  prevent   distraction   by 
looking  on  the  audience,  and  especially 
to   avoid   gazing   at   the  women.     The 
exact  idea  may  be  gained  from  the  pic- 
ture.    In  public  worship,  as  has  already 
been  remarked,  they  have  no  services  to 
priest  preaching.  perform.     At  funerals,  they  attend  only 

when  desired,  and  after  reciting  the 
prayers  retire,  with  liberal  gifts  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  boys. 
Marriage  being  utterly  unholy,  they  have  no  services  to  render 
there.*  Part  of  them,  in  most  kyoungs,  spend  a  portion  of  every 
day  in  teaching  the  novitiates,  and  whatever  boys  may  come  to 
learn.  Deeming  it  wholly  unprofessional  to  do  any  kind  of  work, 
most  of  them  spend  their  time  in  sheer  idleness.  During  their 
season  of  lent,  as  it  has  been  called,  the  principal  priests,  especially 
some  few  of  great  reputation,  are  almost  everyday  called  to 
preach  at  some  house.  Liberal  gifts  are  always  expected  at  the 
close  of  each  service. 

It  is  the  rule  that  each  priest  perambulate  the  streets  eveiy 


*  It  was  some  time  before  the  Christian  converts  could  be  reconciled  to  Mr. 
Judson's  performing  the  marriage  ceremony,  or  being  present  in  any  way.  It 
seemed  to  them  absolutely  obscene.  Li  Siam,  priests  are  often  present  on 
these  occasions. 


RELIGION.  263 

morning,  till  he  receive  boiled  rice,  &c.  enough  for  the  day. 
From  the  dawn  of"  day  till  an  hour  after  sunrise,  they  are  seen 
passing  to  and  fro,  in  groups  and  singly,  carrying  on  their  arm 
the  Thabike,  winch  is  often  sustained  by  a  strap  passing  over  the 
shoulder.  They  walk  on  briskly,  without  looking  to  the  right  or 
left,  stopping  when  any  one  comes  out  with  a  gift,  and  passing 
on  without  the  least  tokeu  of  thanks,  or  even  looking  at  the  giver. 

The  Thabike  is  a  black  earthen  pot,  containing  about  a  peck, 
with  a  lid  of  tin  or  lackered  ware,  which  is  made  to  fit  when 
inverted,  so  as  to  hold  little  cups  of  curry,  meat,  or  fruits.  The 
more  dignified  priests  omit  the  morning  perambulation,  and  either 
depend  on  a  share  of  what  their  juniors  receive,  or  have  their 
own  servants,  and  supply  their  private  table  from  the  bazar,  and 
from  offerings  which  are  brought  them  by  the  devout.  Except 
in  times  of  scarcity,  the  daily  supply  is  superabundant,  and  the 
surplus  is  given  to  day  scholars,  poor  persons,  and  adherents, 
who  perform  various  services  round  the  monastery.  These  re- 
tainers are  very  convenient  to  the  priests  hi  many  ways.  They 
receive  money,  which  the  priests  may  not  openly  touch ;  go  to 
market  for  such  little  luxuries  as  may  be  wanted  ;  sell  the  su- 
perabundant gifts  of  clothing,  mats,  boxes,  betel-nut,  »Scc.  Some 
of  the  priests  are  known  to  have  thus  become  rich.  Father 
Sangermano,  who  spent  many  years  among  them,  declares  that 
they  make  no  scruple  of  receiving  even  large  sums,  and  that 
"  they  are  insatiable  after  riches,  and  do  little  else  than  ask  lor 
them."  *  Sometimes  enormous  swine  are  kept  under  the  mon- 
asteries ;  for  what  purpose  I  could  never  learn,  except  that  it  is 
meritorious  to  teed  dumb  animals. 

The  daily  gift  of  food  to  priests  is  supposed  to  be  entirely 
voluntary,  and  doubtless  generally  is  so.  But  I  have  often  seen 
them  make  a  full  stop  before  a  house,  and  wait  for  some  time. 
A  gift  is  generally  brought  at  length ;  but  if  not,  the  priest  moves 
on  without  remark.  This  certainly  amounts  to  a  demand.  If 
any  family  is  noticed  constantly  to  neglect  giving,  complaint  is 
lodged  with  the  ruler,  and  fines  are  sure  to  follow.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country,  the  priest,  as  he  goes  his  round,  rings  a  little 
bell,  that  all  may  know  of  his  approach,  and  be  ready.  As  the 
time  of  going  round  is  long  before  the  common  hour  of  break- 
fast, families  who  intend  to  give  to  the  priests  rise  before  day  to 
cook  the  rice.     They  give  but  about  a  coffee-cup  full  to  each,  and 

*  In  Siam,  those  who  are  reputed  for  learning  and  sanctity,  receive  a 
regular  but  small  salary  from  government. 


264  BURMAH. 

stand  before  their  door,  dealing  it  out  thus,  till  the  quantity  they 
have  prepared  is  gone.  They  commonly  add  such  fruits  as  are 
in  season  ;  with  segars,  betel,  candles,  and  particularly  curry,  or 
sauce,  in  small  saucers. 

The  company  of  priests  is  very  great,  but  I  found  few  places 
where  the  exact  number  was  known.  From  the  data  I  was  able 
to  obtain,  I  think  their  proportion  to  the  people  is  about  as  one 
to  thirty.  Li  some  places  it  is  greater,  in  others  less.  Ava,  with 
a  population  of  two  hundred  thousand,  has  twenty  thousand 
priests.  The  province  of  Amherst,  with  thirty-six  thousand  souls, 
has  one  thousand  and  ten.  Tavoy,  with  a  population  of  nine 
thousand,  has  four  hundred  and  fifty. 

Beside  the  Ponghees,  there  are,  at  Ava,  a  considerable  number 
of  Brahmins,  who  are  highly  respected.  They  hold  the  rank  of 
astrologers  and  astronomers  to  his  majesty,  in  which  they  are 
supposed  to  be  eminently  skilled,  and  have  committed  to  them 
the  regulation  of  the  calendar.  They  are  consulted  on  important 
occasions,  and  give  forth  auguries,  which  are  received  with  great 
confidence.  The  ancestors  of  these  Brahmins  appear  to  have 
come  from  Bengal,  at  no  distant  period.  Occasionally,  new  ones 
come  still. 

The  priesthood  is  arranged  into  a  regular  hierarchy.  The 
highest  functionary  is  the  Tha-thena-byng' ,  or  archbishop.  He 
resides  at  Ava,  has  jurisdiction  over  all  priests,  and  appoints 
the  president  of  every  monastery.  He  stands  high  at  court,  and 
is  considered  one  of  the  great  men  of  the  kingdom.  Next  to  him 
are  the  Ponghees,  strictly  so  called,  one  of  whom  presides  in  each 
monastery.  Next  are  the  Oo-pe-zins,  comprising  those  who 
have  passed  the  novitiate,  sustained  a  regular  examination,  and 
chosen  the  priesthood  for  life.  Of  this  class  are  the  teachers  or 
professors  in  the  monasteries.  One  of  these  is  generally  vice- 
president,  and  is  most  likely  to  succeed  to  the  headship  on  the 
demise  of  the  Pongyee.  Both  these  orders  are  sometimes  called 
Rahans,  or  Yahans.  They  are  considered  to  understand  religion 
so  well  as  to  think  for  themselves,  and  expound  the  law  out  of 
their  own  hearts,  without  being  obliged  to  follow  what  they  have 
read  in  books.  Next  are  the  Ko-yen-ga-lay,  who  have  retired 
from  the  world,  and  wear  the  yellow  cloth,  but  are  not  all  seeking 
to  pass  the  examination,  and  become  Oo-pe-zins.  They  have 
entered  for  an  education,  or  a  livelihood,  or  to  gain  a  divorce,  or 
for  various  objects ;  and  many  of  such  return  annually  to  sec- 
ular life.  Many  of  this  class  remain  for  life  without  rising  in 
grade. 


RELIGION.  265 

Those  who  remain  five  years  honorably,  are  called  Tay ;  i.  e., 
simply  priests;  and  those  who  remain  twenty,  are  Maha  Tay, 
great  or  aged  priests.  They  might  have  become  Ponghees  at  any 
stage  of  this  period,  if  their  talents  and  acquirements  had 
amounted  to  the  required  standard.  By  courtesy  all  who  wear 
the  yellow  cloth  are  called  Ponghees. 

The  death  of  a  Ponghee  or  president  of  a  kyoung  is  regarded 
as  a  great  event,  and  the  funeral  is  conducted  with  pomp  and 
ceremony.  The  body,  being  emboweled,  and  its  juices  pressed 
out,  is  filled  with  honey,  and  swathed  in  many  folds  of  varnished 
cloth.  The  whole  is  coated  with  bees-wax ;  that  which  covers 
the  face  and  feet  being  so  wrought  as  to  resemble  the  deceased. 
These  parts  are  then  gilded.  The  body  often  lies  in  state  for 
many  months,  on  a  platform  highly  ornamented  with  fringes,  col- 
ored paper,  pictures,  &c. 

During  my  stay  at  Tavoy  occurred  the  funeral  of  a  distinguished 
Ponghee.  Its  rarity,  and  the  great  preparations  which  had  been 
made  for  it,  attracted  almost  the  entire  populace.  The  body  had 
been  lying  in  state,  under  an  ornamental  canopy,  for  several 
months,  embalmed  Burman  fashion.  The  face  and  feet,  where 
the  wax  preserved  the  original  shape,  were  visible,  and  complete- 
ly gilded.  Five  cars,  on  low  wheels,  had  been  prepared,  to  which 
were  attached  long  ropes  of  ratan,  and  to  some  of  them  at  each 
end.  They  were  constructed  chiefly  of  cane,  and  not  only  were 
in  pretty  good  taste,  but  quite  costly  withal,  in  gold  leaf,  em- 
broidered muslin,  &c.  &c. 

When  the  set  day  arrived,  the  concourse  assembled,  filling  not 
only  all  the  zayats,  but  all  the  groves,  dressed  in  their  best  clothes, 
and  full  of  festivity.  Not  a  beggar,  or  ill-dressed  person,  was  to 
be  seen.  Almost  every  person,  of  both  sexes,  was  dressed  in  silk ; 
and  many,  especially  children,  had  ornaments  of  gold  or  silver 
in  their  ears  and  round  their  ankles  and  wrists.  Not  an  instance 
of  drunkenness  or  quarrelling  came  under  my  eye,  or,  that  I 
could  leam,  occurred  on  either  day.  The  body  in  its  decorated 
coffin  was  removed,  amid  an  immense  concourse,  from  its  place 
in  the  kyoung  to  one  of  the  cars,  with  an  excessive  din  of  drums, 
gongs,  cymbals,  trumpets,  and  wailing  of  women.  When  it  was 
properly  adjusted  in  its  new  location,  a  number  of  men  mounted 
the  car  at  each  end,  and  hundreds  of  people  grasped  the  ropes, 
to  draw  it  to  the  place  of  burning,  half  a  mile  distant.  But  it  had 
not  advanced  many  paces,  before  those  behind  drew  it  back. 
Then  came  a  prodigious  struggle.  The  thousands  in  front  ex- 
erted all  their  strength  to  get  it  forward,  and  those  behind  with 
vol.  i.  23 


26G  BITRMAH. 

equal  energy  held  it  back.  Now  it  would  go  ten  or  twelve 
paces  forward,  then  six  or  eight  backward ;  one  party  pretending 
their  great  zeal  to  perforin  the  last  honors  for  the  priest,  the 
other  declaring  they  could  not  part  with  the  dear  remains !  The 
air  was  rent  with  the  shouts  of  each  party  to  encourage  their 
side  to  exertion.  The  other  cars  of  the  procession  were  dragged 
back  and  forth  in  the  same  manner,  but  less  vehemently.  This 
frolic  continued  for  a  few  hours,  and  the  crowd  dispersed,  leaving 
the  cars  on  the  way.  For  several  days,  the  populace  amused 
themselves  in  the  same  manner ;  but  I  attended  no  more,  till  in- 
formed by  the  governor  that  at  three  o'clock  that  day  the  burn- 
ing would  certainly  take  pkce. 

Repairing  again  to  the  spot,  1  found  the  advancing  party  had 
of  course  succeeded.  The  empty  cars  were  in  an  open  field,  while 
that  which  bore  the  body  was  in  the  place  of  burning,  enclosed 
by  a  light  fence.  The  height  was  about  thirty  feet.  At  an  ^ele- 
vation of  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet,  it  contained  a  sort  of  sepulchral 
monument,  like  the  square  tombs  in  our  church-yards,  highly  or- 
namented with  Chinese  paper,  bits  of  various  colored  glass,  ar- 
ranged like  flowers,  and  various  mythological  figures ;  and  filled 
with  combustibles.  On  this  was  the  body  of  the  priest.  A  long 
spire,  decorated  to  the  utmost,  and  festooned  with  flowers,  comple- 
ted the  structure.  Soon  after  the  appointed  hour,  a  procession  of 
priests  approached,  and  took  their  seats  on  a  platform  within  the 
enclosure,  while  in  another  direction  came  "the  tree  of  life," 
borne  on  the  shoulders  of  men,  who  reverently  placed  it  near  the 
priests.  It  was  ingeniously  and  tastefully  constructed  of  fruits, 
rice,  boxes,  cups,  umbrellas,  staffs,  raiment,  cooking  utensils,  and, 
in  short,  an  assortment  of  all  the  articles  deemed  useful  and  con- 
venient in  Burman  house-keeping.  Women  followed,  bearing  on 
their  heads  baskets  of  fruits  and  other  articles.  All  these  offer- 
ings, I  was  told,  were  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  deceased.  But 
as  he  only  needed  their  spiritual  essence,  the  gross  and  substan- 
tial substances  remained  for  the  use  of  the  neighboring  mon- 
astery. 

The  priests,  with  a  small  audience  of  elderly  persons,  now 
mumbled  over  the  appointed  prayers,  and,  having  performed  some 
tedious  ceremonies,  retired.  Immediately  sky-rockets  and  other 
fireworks  were  let  off,  at  a  little  distance.  From  the  place  of  the 
pyrotechnics,  long  ropes  extended  to  the  funeral  cars,  to  which 
were  fastened  horizontal  rockets  bearing  various  pasteboard  fig- 
ures, as  in  the  picture.  Presently  men  with  slow  matches  touched 
off  one  of  these  ;  but  it  whizzed  forward  only  a  little  way,  and  ex- 


RELIGION. 


267 


5268  BURMAH. 

pired.  Another  failed  in  the  same  manner,  and  shouts  of  derision 
rose  from  the  crowd.  The  next  rushed  forward,  and  smashed  a 
portion  of  the  car,  which  called  forth  strong  applause.  Another 
and  another  dashed  into  the  tottering  fabric,  while  several  men 
were  seen  throwing  fagots  and  gunpowder  into  it,  till,  finally,  a 
furious  rocket  entering  the  midst  of  the  pile,  the  whole  blazed 
up,  and  the  poor  priest  was  exploded  to  heaven !  Fancy  fire- 
works concluded  the  ceremony,  and  the  vast  crowd  dispersed. 
In  the  background  of  the  picture  are  hucksters  vending  fruits, 
&c,  and  in  the  centre  some  musical  buffoons. 

The  circumstance  that  a  great  proportion  of  the  males  of  the 
country  are  for  a  time  members  of  the  priesthood,  while  it  serves 
to  confirm  and  perpetuate  the  national  faith,  tends  also  to  lower 
the  influence  of  the  clergy.  Political  influence  they  have  none, 
and  have  never  sought.  They  are  respected  while  they  continue 
to  wear  the  yellow  cloth,  but  on  relinquishing  it  retain  no  more 
consideration  on  that  ground.  Comparatively  few  remain  per- 
manently in  the  priesthood,  and  these  not  often  the  most  intel- 
lectual. Their  literary  pursuits  (so  called)  have,  of  course,  no 
tendency  to  expand  or  elevate,  being  a  tissue  of  fables  and 
extravagances;  but,  these  books  ascribing  high  merit  to  seclusion 
and  contemplation,  those  who  persist  generally  become  calm, 
quiet,  and  austere.  They  maintain  respect,  not  by  lordly  as- 
sumptions, but  by  a  character  for  humility  and  piety.  The 
higher  priests  are  seldom  intolerant,  except  when  they  consider 
their  religion  in  danger,  and  are  often  men  whom  every  one  must 
respect.  Foreigners  generally  receive  at  their  hands  kindness 
and  hospitality.  The  inferior  priests  and  novitiates  are  often  the 
reverse  of  this  in  all  things.  Proud,  empty,  and  presumptuous, 
they  claim  honors  from  foreigners,  which  they  cannot  receive, 
and  display,  in  all  their  ways,  bigotry  and  folly. 

Though  no  where  required,  or  even  authorized,  by  the  Bedagat, 
there  are  in  many  places  bands  of  priestesses  or  nuns,  called  Ma- 
thela-shen,  or  sometimes  Ma-thao-daiv.  They  are  few  in  Dumber,* 
and  regarded  with  but  little  veneration.  Like  priests,  they  may 
return  to  common  life  at  pleasure.  Most  of  them  are  aged, 
though  some  are  young.  The  latter  often  avow  their  object  to 
be  a  better  selection  for  a  husband,  through  the  conspicuity  given 
them  by  the  office.  In  most  cases  of  the  old  people,  the  profes- 
sion is  regarded  as  little  else  than  a  pretext  for  begging.  Unlike 
priests  in  this  respect,  they  are  seen  about  the  streets  all  day 

*  In  Siam,  still  fewer.    There  are  but  a  dozen  or  two  in  all  Baukok. 


RELIGION.  269 

long,  often  asking  alms  openly,  and  sometimes  clamorously. 
They  are  known  by  dressing  in  white,  which  no  other  women 
do,  and  having  their  head  shaved.  They  dwell,  apart  from  soci- 
ety, near  the  kyoungs,  into  which  they  have  free  access,  and 
where  they  perform  various  menial  services. 

Both  priests  and  nuns  are  under  the  control  of  a  civil  officer, 
called  Kyoung-serai,  or  clerk  of  the  monasteries,  who  derives  his 
appointment  from  the  Tha-thena-byng,  but  is  considered  a  crown 
officer.  He  keeps  a  register  of  all  kyoungs  and  their  lands,  in- 
quires into  all  disputes  among  the  priests,  or  between  them  and 
the  citizens,  and  in  general  watches  over  the  outward  demeanor 
of  the  clergy. 

Though  remarkably  united  in  then' religious  opinions,  Burmans 
are  not  entirely  accordant.  Sects  have  arisen,  the  chief  of  which 
is  that  of  the  Kolans,  who  are  said  to  be  numerous  and  spreading. 
Kolan  was  a  reformer,  who  lived  about  fifty  years  ago,  and 
taught  a  semi-atheism,  or  the  worship  of  Wisdom.  Homage  was 
to  be  paid  to  this,  wherever  found ;  of  course  not  a  little  was  to 
be  rendered  to  himself.  Preachers  and  teachers  of  this  sect,  al- 
ways from  among  the  laity,  frequently  rise,  and  gain  many  fol- 
lowers. Many  of  the  nobles  are  said  to  be  of  this  sentiment. 
Most  of  this  sect  are  near  Ava,  and  in  the  towns  on  the  Irra- 
waddy.  They  are  called  Paramats,  from  a  word  which  signifies 
"  the  good  law."  They  discard  the  worship  of  images,  and  have 
neither  priests  nor  sacred  books.  Kolan  took  the  Be-dam-ma,  (the 
first  part  of  the  Bedagat,)  and,  after  revising  it,  adopted  it  as  a 
good  creed;  but  it  is  not  much  copied  among  his  followers. 
Until  lately,  the  Kolans  have  been  greatly  persecuted ;  but  at 
present  little  notice  is  taken  of  them. 

It  lias  been  remarked  by  travellers  that  this  people  is  remarka- 
bly tolerant  in  religious  matters.  In  a  restricted  sense,  this  is  cer- 
tainly irue.  Foreigners  of  every  description  are  allowed  the  full- 
est exercise  of  their  religion.  They  may  build  places  of  worship 
of  any  kind,  in  any  place,  and  have  their  public  festivals  and  pro- 
cessions, without  molestation.  But  no  nation  could  be  more 
intolerant  to  their  own  people.  No  Burman  may  join  any  of 
these  religions  under  the  severest  penalties.  Despotic  as  is  the 
government,  in  nothing  does  it  more  thoroughly  display  that 
despotism,  than  in  its  measures  for  suppressing  all  religious  in- 
novation, and  supporting  the  established  system.  The  whole 
population  is  divided  into  allotments  often  families,  under  a  petty 
officer.  Over  every  ten  of  these  allotments  is  another  officer,  to 
whom  the  others  report.  These  chiefs  of  a  hundred  families  are 
23* 


270  BURMA  II. 

under  the  supervision  of  a  higher  officer,  who  takes  cognizance 
of  all  causes.  On  stated  days,  every  chief  of  ten  families  is  re- 
quired to  bring  forth  his  company  to  the  appointed  observances. 
He  does  not  indeed  notice  mere  remissness;  but  if  any  person  be 
habitually  absent,  he  must  produce  either  a  good  reason  or  a 
bribe.  The  whole  population  is  thus  held  in  chains,  as  iron-like 
as  caste  itself;  and  to  become  a  Christian  openly  is  to  hazard 
every  thing,  even  life. 

In  the  British  provinces,  the  national  faith,  being  robbed  of  the 
support  of  the  secular  arm,  seems  to  be  cherished  so  much  the 
more  by  national  feeling.  Expectancy  that  the  religion  of  the 
new  rulers  may  spread,  seems  to  awake  greater  vigilance  that 
it  may  not.  Pagodas,  kyoungs,  and  priests  are  well  supported, 
and  the  clergy  seem  anxious  to  propitiate  popular  favor,  to  stand 
them  instead  of  government  patronage.  It  is  therefore  no  easier 
to  distribute  tracts,  or  obtain  an  audience  in  Mauhnain,  than  in 
Rangoon  or  Ava,  though  schools  are  more  easily  established. 
Persecution  is  shown  in  every  form,  except  official.  Neigh- 
borly acts  are  often  refused  to  Christians,  and  in  some  cases,  were 
it  not  for  the  missionary,  the  convert  could  scarcely  escape  abso- 
lute want. 


REMARKS. 

No  false  religion,  ancient  or  modern,  is  comparable  to  this. 
its  philosophy  is,  indeed, not  exceeded  in  folly  by  any  other;  but 
its  doctrines  and  practical  piety  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to 
those  of  holy  Scripture.  There  is  scarcely  a  principle  or  precept 
in  the  Bedagat  which  is  not  found  in  the  Bible.  Did  the  people 
but  act  up  to  its  principles  of  peace  and  love,  oppression  and  in- 
jury would  be  known  no  more  within  their  borders.  Its  deeds 
of  merit  are  in  all  cases  either  really  beneficial  to  mankind,  or 
harmless.  It  has  no  mythology  of  obscene  and  ferocious  deities; 
no  sanguinary  or  impure  observances ;  no  sell-inflicted  tortures  ; 
no  tyrannizing  priesthood  ;  no  confounding  of  right  and  wrong, 
by  making  certain  iniquities  laudable  in  worship.  In  its  moral 
code,  its  descriptions  of  the  purity  and  peace  of  the  first  ages,  of 
the  shortening  of  man's  life  because  of  his  sins,  &c,  it  seems  to 
have  followed  genuine  traditions.  In  almost  every  respect,  it 
seems  to  be  the  best  religion  which  man  has  ever  invented. 


RELIGION.  271 

At  the  same  time,  we  must  regard  Boodhism  with  unmeasured 
reprobation,  if  we  compare  it,  not  with  other  false  religions,  but 
with  truth.  Its  entire  base  is  false.  It  is  built,  not  on  love  to 
God,  nor  even  love  to  man,  but  on  personal  merit.  It  is  a  system 
of  religion  without  a  God.  It  is  literally  atheism.  Instead  of  a 
Heavenly  Father,  forgiving  sin,  and  filial  service  from  a  pure  heart, 
as  the  effect  of  love,  it  presents  nothing  to  love,  for  its  Deity  is 
dead ;  nothing  as  the  ultimate  object  of  action  but  self;  and 
nothing  for  man's  highest  and  holiest  ambition  but  annihilation. 

The  system  of  merit  corrupts  and  perverts  to  evil,  the  very  pre- 
cepts whose  prototypes  are  found  in  the  Bible  ;  and  causes  an  in- 
jurious effect  on  the  heart,  from  the  very  duties  which  have  a 
salutary  effect  on  society.  Thus,  to  say  nothing  of  its  doctrines 
of  eternal  transmigration,  and  of  uncontrollable  fate,  we  may  see, 
hi  this  single  doctrine  of  merit,  the  utter  destruction  of  all  excel- 
lence., It  leaves  no  place  for  holiness ;  for  every  thing  is  done  for 
the  single  purpose  of  obtaining  advantage. 

Sympathy,  tenderness,  and  all  benevolence,  would  become  ex- 
tinct under  such  a  system,  had  not  Jehovah  planted  their  rudi- 
ments in  the  human  constitution.  If  his  neighbor's  boat  be  upset, 
or  his  house  on  fire,  why  should  the  Boodhist  assist  ?  He  sup- 
poses such  events  to  be  the  unavoidable  consequences  of  demerit 
in  a  former  existence  ;  and,  if  this  suffering  be  averted,  there  must 
be  another  of  equal  magnitude.  He  even  fears  that  by  his  inter- 
fering to  prevent  or  assuage  his  neighbor's  calamity,  he  is  resist- 
ing established  fate,  and  bringing  evil  on  his  own  head ! 

The  same  doctrine  of  merit  destroys  gratitude,  either  to  God 
or  man.  If  he  is  well  off j  it  is  because  he  deserves  to  be.  If  you 
do  him  a  kindness,  he  cannot  be  persuaded  that  you  have  any 
other  object  or  reason  than  to  get  merit;  and  feels  that  he  com- 
pensates your  generosity  by  furnishing  the  occasion.  If  the 
kindness  be  uncommon,  he  always  suspects  you  of  sinister  designs. 
In  asking  a  favor,  at  least  of  an  equal,  he  does  it  peremptorily, 
and  often  haughtily,  on  the  presumption  that  you  will  embrace 
the  opportunity  of  getting  merit ;  and,  when  his  request  is  grant- 
ed, retires  without  the  slightest  expression  of  gratitude.  In  fact, 
as  has  been  already  stated,  there  is  no  phrase  in  his  language  that 
corresponds  with  our  "  I  thank  you." 

The  doctrine  of  fate  is  maintained  with  the  obstinacy  and  de- 
votedness  of  a  Turk.  While  it  accounts  to  them  for  every  event, 
it  creates  doggedness  under  misfortune,  and  makes  forethought 
useless. 


272  BURMA  H. 

Boodhism  allows  evil  to  be  balanced  with  good,  by  a  scale 
which  reduces  sin  to  the  shadow  of  a  trifle.  To  sheeko  to  a  pa- 
goda, or  offer  a  flower  to  the  idol,  or  feed  the  priests,  or  set  a  pot 
of  cool  water  by  the  way-side,  is  supposed  to  cancel  a  multitude 
of  sins.  The  building  of  a  kyoung,  or  pagoda,  will  outweigh 
enormous  crimes,  and  secure  prosperity  for  ages  to  come.  Vice 
is  thus  robbed  of  its  terrors ;  for  it  can  be  overbalanced  by  easy 
virtues.  Instances  are  not  rare  of  robbery,  and  even  murder, 
being  committed,  to  obtain  the  means  of  buying  merit.  All  the 
terrors,  therefore,  with  which  hell  is  represented,  do  but  serve  to 
excite  to  the  observance  of  frivolous  rites.  The  making  of  an 
idol,  an  offering,  or  some  such  act,  is  substituted  for  repentance 
and  reparation,  for  all  inward  excellence,  and  every  outward 
charity. 

It  ministers  also  to  the  most  extravagant  pride.  The  Boodhist 
presumes  that  incalculable  merit,  in  previous  incarnations,  has 
been  gamed,  to  give  him  the  honor  of  now  wearing  human  na- 
ture. He  considers  his  condition  far  superior  to  that  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  other  islands  in  this  system,  and  his  chance  of 
exaltation  to  be  of  the  most  animating  character.  Conceit,  there- 
fore, betrays  itself  in  all  his  ways.  The  lowest  man  in  society 
carries  himself  like  the  "twice  born"  brahmin  of  Hindustan. 

We  need  not  multiply  these  remarks.  It  is  enough  to  move 
our  sympathy  to  know  that  this  religion,  however  superior  to  any 
other  invented  by  man,  has  no  power  to  save.  Though  we  have 
no  stirring  accounts  to  present  of  infants  destroyed,  or  widows 
binned,  or  parents  smothered  in  sacred  mud,  it  is  enough  that 
they  are  perishing  in  their  sins.  It  matters  little  whether  a  soul 
pass  into  eternity  from  beneath  the  wheels  of  Juggernaut,  or 
from  amid  a  circle  of  weeping  friends.  The  awful  scene  is  be- 
yond !  May  the  favored  ones  of  our  happy  land  be  induced  to 
discharge  their  duty  to  these  benighted  millions. 


END    OF    VOLUME    I. 


** 


TRAVELS 

IN 

SOUTH-EASTERN  ASIA, 


EMBRACING 


HINDUSTAN,    MALAYA,    SIAM,    AND    CHINA; 


WITH    NOTICES    OF 


NUMEROUS  MISSIONARY  STATIONS, 

AND    A    FULL   ACCOUNT   OF 

THE    BUB,  MAN    EMPIRE; 

WITH 

DISSERTATIONS,  TABLES, 

ETC. 

BY  HOWARD    MALCOM. 

"  Homo  sum  ;  humani  nihil  a  me  alienum  puto." Terence. 

SECOND    EDITION. 
TWO    VOLUMES    IN    ONE. 

VOL.   II. 


BOSTON: 
GOULD,  KENDALL,  AND    LINCOLN. 

SOLD     BY     BOOKSELLERS      GENERALLY     THROUGHOUT     THE 
UNITED      STATES. 

18  3  9. 


Entered  according-  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1839, 

By  Gould,  Kendall,  and  Lincoln, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


stereotyped  at  the 
boston  type  and  stereotype  foundry. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    III. 

TRAVELS     IN     HINDUSTAN,    MALAYA, 
S1AM,    AND    CHINA. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Voyage  to  Calcutta  —  Saugor  Island  —  Hoogly  River  —  Landing  — 
Houses  —  Servants  —  Streets  —  Weddings  —  Doorga  Pooja  — 
General  Assembly's  School  —  Benevolent  Institution  —  Orphan 
Refuge  —  Central  School  —  The  Martiniere  —  Leper  Hospital  — 
Operations  of  Education  Committee  —  Colleges  —  Progress  of  the 
English  Language  —  Use  of  Roman  Alphabet — Native  Periodicals 

—  Hindu  and  Mahometan  Edifices  —  Ram  Mohun  Roy  —  Bromha 
Sobha  —  Population  of  Calcutta  —  Expenses  of  Living  —  Habits  of 
Extravagance  —  Morals  —  Religion  —  Clergy  —  Places  of  Worship 

—  Missionary  Operations  —  Christian  Villages  —  Hinduism  shaken 

—  Serampore  ;  Aspect ;  Population ;  Marshman ;  College ;  Grave- 
Yard.     Operations  of  the  Mission p.  7 

CHAPTER  II. 

Madras  —  Catamarans  —  Difficulty  of  Landing  —  Black  Town  —  Es- 
planade—  Population  —  Illustrations  of  Scripture — State  of  Reli- 
gion—  Catholics  —  Teloogoos  —  Travelling  by  Palankeen  —  Pon- 
dicherry  —  Cuddalore  —  Tranquebar  —  Combaconum  —  Tanjore  — 
KohlhofT  —  Swartz  —  Trichinopoly  —  Heber  —  Seringhain  —  Sla- 
very in  Hindustan  —  Idolatry  supported  by  Government  — Brah- 
mins and  Brahminism  —  Progressive  Poverty  of  the  Country.,  p.  48 

CHAPTER  III. 

Voyage  to  Singapore  —  Coasters  —  Prices  of  Passage  in  India  — 
Straits  of  Malacca — Harbor  and  Town  of  Singapore — Climate  — 
Productions —  Commerce  —  Islamism  —  Population  —  Moral  Char- 
acter of  Population  —  Orang  Louts  —  Chinese  Wedding —  Mission- 
ary Operations  —  Malacca  —  History  of  the  Settlement  —  Extent  — 
Population — Progress  of  Christianity  —  Anglo-Chinese  College  — 


4  C0NTENT3. 

Common  Schools  —  Malay  Peninsula  —  Origin  of  Malay  Race  — 
Divisions  —  Keda  —  Perak  —  Salengore  —  Johore  —  Rumbo  —  Pa- 
hang  —  Tringano  —  Calantan  —  Patani  —  Ligore  —  Character  of 
Malays  —  Slavery  —  Language p.  81 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Take  Leave  of  British  India  —  European  Manners  —  Voyage  to  Ban- 
kok  —  River  Meinam  —  Paknam  —  Audience  with  the  Governor  — 
Situation  of  Bankok  —  Floating  Houses — General  Appearance  — 
Visit  to  the  Pra  Klang ;  Servile  Forms  of  Politeness —  Chow  Fah; 
Singular  Custom  —  Pra  Nai  Wai  —  Pra  Amramole  — Present  of  an 
Elephant;  Of  a  Cochin-Chinese  Slave  —  Population  of  Bankok  — 
Police  of  the  City  —  Climate  —  Wats  —  Houses —  Streets —  Bridges 

—  Somona  Codom  —  History  of  Siam  —  Extent  of  the  Empire  — 
Population  —  Personal  Appearance  of  Siamese  —  Dress  —  Amuse- 
ments —  Military  Force  —  Commerce  —  Prices  of  Provision  — 
Fruits  —  Currency  —  Character  —  Degree  of  Civilization  —  Slavery 

—  Language  —  Establishment  of  the  Mission  —  Mission  Premises  — 
Worship  —  Converts  —  Bankok  a  Station  for  the  Chinese  —  Dis- 
tribution of  Scriptures  —  Need  of  more  Laborers  —  Constitution  of 
a  Church  —  Harmony  of  Sects  —  Roman  Catholics p.  Ill 

CHAPTER  V. 

Voyage  to  Canton  —  China  Sea — Mouth  of  Pearl  River  —  Outside 
Pilots  —  Lintin  —  Bocca-tigris  —  Whampoa  —  Innu merable  Boats  — 
Evidences  of  dense  Population  —  Dollar-Boat  —  River  Scenery  — 
Population  of  Canton  —  Foreign  Factories  or  Hongs — Walks  in 
the  Suburbs  —  Streets  —  Shops  —  Vacant  Spaces  —  Placards  — 
Perambulatory  Trades  —  Booksellers  —  Circulating  Libraries  — 
Map  of  the  World  —  Beggars  —  Small-footed  Women — Trades  — 
Labor-saving  Machinery  —  Chinese  Piety  —  Tombs — Visit  to  a 
Hong  Merchant  —  Restrictions  on  Foreigners  —  Temples  —  Priests 
and  Nuns  —  Pagodas  —  Chinese  Sects  —  Introduction  of  Boodhism 

—  Jos  —  State  of  Morals  in  the  Foreign  Society  —  Opium  Trade  — 
Missionaries  —  Dr.  Parker's  Hospital  —  Macao  —  Appearance  from 
Harbor — In  a  State  of  Decline  —  Missionaries — Mr.  Gutzlaff  — 
Voyages  along  the  Coast  —  Interesting  School  —  How  far  China 
is  open  to  Missionaries  —  Dr.  Colledge's  Hospital p.  141 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Embark  for  Home  —  Straits  of  Gaspar  and  Sunda  —  Potty  Monsoon  — 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  —  Remarkable  Phenomenon  —  St.  Helena  — 
False  Alarm  —  Slave  Trade  —  Landing  at  Newport  —  Summary  — 
Reflections p.  167 


CONTENTS. 


PART    IV. 
DISSERTATIONS,    TABLES,    &c. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Missions  to  the  Chinese.  —  Stations  now  occupied  —  Sudiya  — 
Mogoung  —  Bamoo  —  Umerapoora  —  Zemmai  —  Pontiana  —  Sam- 
bas Banca  —  Other  Bodies  of  Chinese  —  Versions  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures  —  Proportion  of  Chinese  who  can  read  —  The  Impor- 
tance of  distributing  Tracts  and  Bibles  overrated  —  Comparison  of 
the  Modes  of  Printing  —  Difficulty  of  the  Language  —  Diction- 
aries, Grammars,  &c. — Present  Missionaries  to  the  Chinese  — 
Other  Sinologues  —  Number  of  Converts  —  Best  Authors  on 
China p.  175 

CHAPTER   II. 

The  Missionary  Field  in  and  around  Burmah.  —  Burmah  Proper 

—  Peguans  —  Tenasserim  Provinces  —  Arracanese  —  Karens  — 
Shyans  —  Toungthoos  —  Tswahs,  &c p.  191 

CHAPTER  III. 

On  the  Measure  of  Success  which  has  attended  modern  Mis- 
sions.—  Introduction.  —  I.  The  Number  of  Missionaries.  —  II.  The 
Kind  of  Labor  performed  :  Preparatory ;  Collateral ;  Additional ; 
Erroneous.  —  III.  Disadvantages  of  Modern  Missionaries:  Imper- 
fect Knowledge  of  the  Language  ;  Poverty  of  the  Languages  them- 
selves ;  Want  of  Familiarity  with  the  Religion  and  People  ;  De- 
graded State  of  the  Natives  ;  Inability  to  live  as  they  live ;  Being 
Foreigners;  The  Structure  of  Society  ;  The  prevailing  Philosophy  ; 
The  Presence  of  nominal  Christians;  Popery.  —  IV.  Efforts  which 
do  not  reach  the  Field.  —  V.  The  Amount  accomplished  ;  A  large 
Force  in  the  Field  ;  Impediments  removed  ;  Translations  made ; 
Languages   reduced   to   Writing ;     General    Literature    imparted ; 

—  Tracts  written;  Grammars,  Dictionaries,  and  other  Helps  pre- 
pared ;  Immense  Distribution  of  Bibles  and  Tracts  ;  Mechanical 
Facilities  created  ;  Schools  established,  and  Youth  already  educa- 
ted ;  Blessings  of  Christian  Morality  diffused  ;  Idolatry  in  some 
Places  shaken  ;  Effects  on  Europeans  abroad  ;  Actual  Conversions. 

—  VI.     Effects  on  the  Churches  at  Home  —  Remarks p.  217 

1   * 


6  CONTENTS — ILLUSTRATIONS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

On  the  Mode  of  conducting  modern  Missions. —  Schools — Trans- 
lations and  Tracts —  Preaching  in  English  —  Periodicals — Use  of 
the  Roman  Alphabet  —  Missionary  Physicians  —  Unnecessary  Dis- 
play and  Expense  —  Direct  Preaching  to  Natives  —  Formation  of 
Regular  Churches — Qualifications  of  Native  Assistants  —  Instruc- 
tion in  the  English  Language  —  Intermission  of  Operations  — 
Division  of  Labor  —  Concentration  —  Choice  of  Fields  —  Re- 
marks  p.  249 

Political  Relations  of  the  East  India  Company 289 

British  Territorial  Possessions ^...291 

Missionary  Stations  throughout  the  World 292 

Glossary 297 

Index 311 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Bheestie 14 

Hindu  Woman 15 

Wedding  Procession 15 

Bengal  Washerman 16 

Mode  of  Churning 47 

Hindu  Gentleman's  Carriage  .  .50 

Palankeen  Travelling 59 

A  Pecotta 62 

Seringham  Pagoda 69 

Brahmin 78 

Nutmeg .'.87 

Bankok  Floating  House 115 


Page. 

Siam  Lady  sitting 118 

Woman  and  Child 126 

Baptist      Mission      Premises 

Bankok 134 

Chinese  Junk 140 

Boat 144 

Tomb 152 

Temple 154 

Pagoda 156 

Boodh 158 

Shoe 166 

Karen  Female 195 


PART    III. 

TRAVELS    IN  HINDUSTAN,    MALAYA, 
SIAM,    AND    CHINA. 


CHAPTER  L 


Voyage  to  Calcutta —  Saugor  Island—  Hoogly  River—  Landing  — Houses 

—  Servants  —  Streets  —  Weddings  —  DoorgaPooja  —  General  Assembly's 
School  —  Benevolent  Institution  —  Orphan  Refuge  —  Central  School  — 
The  Martiniere— Leper  Hospital  —  Operations  of  Education  Committee 

—  Colleges  —  Progress  of  the  English  Language  —  Use  of  Roman  Alpha- 
bet—  Native  Periodicals  —  Hindu  and  Mahometan  Edifices  —  Ram  Mohun 
Roy  — Bromha  Sobha —  Population  of  Calcutta  —  Expenses  of  Living  — 
Habits  of  Extravagance  —  Morals  —  Religion  —  Clergy  —  Places  of  Wor- 
ship —  Missionary  Operations  —  Christian  Villages  —  Hinduism  shaken  — 
Serampore  —  Aspect  —  Population  —  Marshman  —  College  —  Grave-Yard 

—  Operations  of  the  Mission. 

A  hot  and  disagreeable  passage  of  seventeen  days  from  Ran-* 
goon,  in  a  small  schooner,  brought  me  to  Calcutta,  September  20, 
1836.  The  vessel,  being  loaded  with  timber  and  stick-lac,  had 
plenty  of  scorpions  and  centipedes.  Twice,  on  taking  a  clean 
shirt  out  of  my  trunk,  I  found  a  centipede  snugly  stowed  in  it. 
Having  several  times  caught  scorpions  on  my  mattress  at  night, 
we  undertook  a  general  search,  and  on  the  under  side  of  the 
cabin  table,  discovered  a  nest  of  t  venty  or  thirty.  I  had  written 
here  constantly  for  a  week,  with  my  knees  pressed  up  hard 
against  the  edge,  to  keep  me  steady,  and  felt  truly  thankful  to 
have  been  unmolested.  Several  of  the  females  had  white  leathery 
bags  attached  to  them,  about  the  size  of  a  grape,  full  of  young 
ones,  scarcely  bigger  than  a  pin's  head. 

The  constant  increase  of  the  sands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hoogly, 
and  the  absence  of  any  landmark,  renders  the  approach  always 


8  HINDUSTAN. 

a  matter  of  some  anxiety.  The  floating  light  is  stationed  out  of 
sight  of  laud,  and  the  tails  of  the  reefs,  even  there,  are  dangerous. 
When  the  shores  are  at  length  discerned,  then  dead  level  and 
unbroken  jungle,  without  any  sign  of  population,  and  the  great 
breadth  of  the  river,  gives  the  whole  an  aspect  excessively  dreary, 
well  suiting  to  one's  first  emotions  on  beholding  a  land  of  idolatry. 

Saugor  Island,  which  is  first  coasted,  is  famed  for  being  the 
spot  where  many  infants  and  others  are  annually  immolated. 
The  Hoogly,  called  by  the  natives  Ba-gir-a-tee,  being  considered 
the  true  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  and  the  junction  of  this  sacred 
stream  with  the  ocean  being  at  Saugor,  great  sanctity  is  attached 
to  the  place.  A  few  devotees  are  said  to  reside  on  the  island, 
who  contrive  for  a  while  to  avoid  the  tigers,  and  are  supported 
by  the  gifts  of  the  boatmen,  who  cherish  great  faith  in  the  secu- 
rity they  are  supposed  to  be  able  to  confer.  An  annual  festival  is 
held  here  in  January,  which  thousands  of  Hindus  attend,  some 
even  from  five  or  six  hundred  miles.  Missionaries  often  embrace 
this  opportunity  of  preaching  and  distributing  tracts.  As  a  sam- 
ple of  these  efforts,  the  following  extract  from  the  journal  of  the 
late  Mr.  Chamberlain*  will  be  interesting. 

"Gunga  Saugor.  —  Arrived  here  this  morning.  Astonished 
beyond  measure  at  the  sight !  Boats  crushed  together,  row  upon 
row,  for  a  vast  extent  in  length,  numberless  in  appearance,  and 
people  swarming  every  where !  Multitudes !  multitudes !  Re- 
moved from  the  boats,  they  had  pitched  on  a  large  sand-bank 
and  in  the  jungle ;  the  oars  of  the  boats  being  set  up  to  support 
the  tents,  shops,  &c.  Words  fail  to  give  a  true  description  of 
this  scene.  Here  an  immensely  populous  city  has  been  raised 
in  a  very  few  days,  full  of  streets,  lanes,  bazars,  &c,  many 
sorts  of  trade  going  on,  with  all  the  hurry  and  bustle  of  the  most 
flourishing  city.  We  soon  left  the  boats,  and  went  among  the 
people.  Here  we  saw  the  works  of  idolatry  and  blind  supersti- 
tion. Crowds  upon  crowds  of  infatuated  men,  women,  and 
children,  high  and  low,  young  and  old,  rich  and  poor,  bathing  in 
the  water,  and  worshipping  Gunga,  by  bowing  and  making  salams, 
and  spreading  their  offerings  of  rice,  flowers,  &c.  on  the  shore, 
for  the  goddess  to  take  when  the  tides  arrive.  The  mud  and 
water  of  this   place  are   esteemed  very  holy,   and  are  taken 

*  The  life  of*  this  brother,  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Yates,  of  Calcutta,  is  ever)'  way 
worthy  of  perusal,  awl  ought  to  be  reprinted  in  America.  It  is  a  large  octavo, 
and  might  be  somewhat  curtailed  ;  but  the  abridgment,  by  the  American  Sab- 
bath School  Union,  though  suitable  for  their  purpose,  is  too  meagre  for  general 
circulation. 


RIVER    HOOGLY.  M 

hundreds  of  miles  upon  the  shoulders  of  men.  They  sprinkle 
themselves  with  the  water,  and  daub  themselves  with  the  mud  ; 
and  this,  they  say,  cleanses  them  from  all  sin  :  this  is  very  great 
holiness.  In  former  years,  it  was  usual  for  many  to  give  them- 
selves to  the  sharks  and  alligators,  and  thus  to  be  destroyed. 
But  the  Company  have  now  placed  sepoys  along  the  side,  to 
prevent  this.  A  European  sergeant  and  fifty  sepoys  are  here 
now  for  that  purpose." 

The  veneration  paid  by  Hindus  to  this  river,  is  almost  incredi- 
ble. Descending  from  a  height  of  fifteen  thousand  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  running  a  course  of  fifteen  hundred  miles,  it 
receives,  in  every  part,  the  most  devoted  homage.  The  touch  of 
its  water,  nay,  the  very  sight  of  it,  say  the  Shasters,  takes  away 
all  sin.  Its  very  sediment  is  counted  a  remedy  for  all  diseases. 
If  it  tails,  they  are  not  undeceived ;  for  they  say  the  man's  time 
has  come,  and  there  is  no  remedy  for  death.  Drowning  in  it  is 
an  act  of  great  merit.  Thousands  of  sick  persons  endure  long 
journeys,  that  they  may  die  upon  its  banks.  Its  water  is  sworn 
upon,  in  courts  of  justice,  as  the  Bible  is,  in  ours.  From  50,000 
to  200,000  persons  assemble  annually  at  certain  places,  of  whom 
many  are  crushed  to  death  in  pressing  to  bathe  at  the  propitious 
moment  Still  more  die  on  the  road,  of  poverty  and  fatigue.  No 
man,  acquainted  with  the  history  of  Hindustan,  can  sail  upon 
these  bright,  unconscious  waters,  without  being  filled  with  sor- 
rowful contemplations. 

That  the  scenery  here  has  been  described  in  such  glowing 
colors,  can  only  be  accounted  for,  by  considering  that  the  writers 
had  been  for  months  immured  in  a  ship,  and  that,  having  previ- 
ously seen  no  country  but  their  own,  every  thing  foreign  became 
deeply  interesting.  The  boats  which  come  oflj  of  strange  con- 
struction ;  the  "  dandies,"  with  their  dark  bronze  skin,  fine  Roman 
features,  perfect  teeth,  and  scanty  costume ;  the  Sircars,  which 
board  the  ship  with  presents  of  fruit,  dressed  in  graceful  folds 
of  snow-white  muslin,  —  are  indeed  objects  of  interest,  and  form 
fruitful  topics  for  journals  and  letters,  to  young  travellers.  As  to 
the  river  itself,  at  least  in  the  lower  part  of  its  course,  none  could, 
be  more  dull  and  disagreeable. 

As  the  ship  ascends  the  river,  (generally  a  slow  and  difficult 
process,)  objects  of  interest  multiply.  Fishermen's  villages 
and  scattered  huts  appear  on  each  side,  imbosomed  in  stately 
palms.  Trees,  of  shapes  unknown  before,  fields  of  sugar-cane, 
wide  levels  of  paddy  ground,  and  a  universal  greenness,  keep  up 
an  interest,  till,  on  reaching  Gloucester,  European  houses  begin  to 


10  HINDUSTAN. 

be  seen,  and  the  ear  once  more  catches  the  sounds  of  machinery 
and  commerce.  The  cold  emotions  of  wonder,  and  the  pain  of 
reflecting  that  one  has  arrived  in  the  regions  of  degradation  and 
idolatry,  now  give  place  to  a  sense  of  exhilaration  and  homeness. 
On  every  side  is  evidence  of  the  presence  of  those  who  stand 
with  the  highest  among  the  civilized,  the  free,  the  scientific,  and 
the  religious  nations  of  the  earth.  Hope  portrays  the  future, 
benevolence  stands  ready  to  act,  and  discouragement  is  cheered 
by  assurance  of  cooperation. 

At  length,  in  passing  a  bend  in  the  river,  called  "Garden 
Reach,"  a  superb  array  of  country-seats  opens  on  the  eastern 
bank.  Luxury  and  refinement  seem  here  to  have  made  their 
home.  Verdant  and  quiet  lawns  appeal*  doubly  attractive  to  a 
voyager,  weary  of  ocean  and  sky.  Buildings,  coated  with  plaster, 
and  combining  Grecian  chasteness  with  Oriental  adaptation,  lift 
their  white  columns  amid  noble  trees  and  numerous  tanks. 
Steamboats,  budgerows,  and  dingeys,  ply  about  upon  the  s"mooth 
water.  The  lofty  chimneys  of  gas-works  and  factories  rise  in 
the  distance,  and  every  thing  bespeaks  your  approach  to  a 
great  city. 

We  passed  just  at  sunset.  The  multiform  vehicles,  for  which 
Calcutta  is  famous,  stood  before  the  doors,  or  rolled  away  through 
the  trees,  followed  by  turbaned  servants  in  flowing  muslin. 
Ladies  and  children,  with  nurses  and  bearers,  lounged  along  the 
smooth  paths,  and  it  was  diflicult  to  realize  that  this  beautiful 
climate  should  prove  so  insidious.  The  general  observation, 
however,  is,  that  death  owes  more  victims  to  high  living,  indo- 
lence, exposure  at  night,  fatigue  in  shooting  excursions,  &c,  than 
to  the  positive  effects  of  climate.  Indeed,  some  affirm  India  to 
be  as  salubrious  as  England,  and  the  aspect  of  some  who  have 
been  long  hi  the  country  would  seem  to  countenance  the  as- 
sertion. 

A  farther  advance  brings  an  indistinct  view  of  the  fort  and 
the  fine  buildings  of  the  Chouringy  suburb,  all  presented  in  one 
great  curve,  which  is  soon  relinquished  for  a  more  minute  and 
inquisitive  contemplation  of  "  the  course."  This  is  a  broad  road 
on  the  bank  of  the  river,  passing  round  the  esplanade  and  fort, 
to  which  the  English  residents  drive  every  evening  at  sunset. 
As  every  clerk  in  the  city  keeps  his  buggy  or  palankeen  carriage, 
the  crowd  of  vehicles  rivals  that  at  Hyde  Park.  The  sight  is 
even  more  imposing.  Most  of  the  higher  classes  use  stately 
landaus,  or  open  barouches  ;  and  the  ladies  are  without  bonnets. 
Crowds  of  gentlemen  are  on   horseback.    Indian  side-runners 


RIVER   HOOGLY.  11 

give  a  princely  air  to  the  slow  procession.  The  shipping  of 
every  nation,  the  clear  horizon,  the  noble  fort,  the  city  front,  the 
pleasure-boats,  the  beautiful  ghauts,  &c,  make  it  a  scene  which 
always  pleases  ;  and  the  citizens  repair  thither  from  day  to  day, 
and  from  year  to  year,  without  weariness  or  satiety. 

On  passing  Garden  Reach,  the  river  becomes  covered  with 
boats,  of  every  conceivable  form,  from  which  a  dozen  different 
languages  meet  the  ear.  A  multitude  of  vessels  lie  at  anchor ; 
steam-engines  pour  from  their  towering  chimneys  volumes  of 
smoke  ;  beautiful  ghauts  slope  into  the  water ;  palankeens,  ton- 
jons,  buggies,  coaches,  phaetons,  gares,  caranches,  and  hackaries, 
line  the  shore,  and  before  us  spreads  out  the  great  city,  contain- 
ing, with  its  suburbs,  almost  a  million  of  souls. 

All  who  die  in  or  beside  the  river,  and  even  those  whose  dead 
bodies  are  committed  to  it,  being  deemed  certain  of  future  bliss, 
multitudes  are  brought  to  die  upon  the  banks,  or  are  laid  at 
low  water  on  the  mud,  whence  the  return  of  the  tide  washes 
them  away.  These  and  the  half-consumed  relics  from  the  funeral 
pile,  in  every  variety  of  revolting  aspect,  are  continually  float- 
ing by.  Government  boats  ply  above  the  city  to  sink  these 
bodies ;  but  many  escape,  and  we  daily  saw  them  float  by, 
while  vultures  stood  upon  them,  contending  for  the  horrid  ban- 
quet. 

There  being  no  wharves  or  docks,  you  are  rowed  to  a  ghaut 
in  a  dingey,  and  landed  amid  Hindus  performing  their  oblutions 
and  reciting  their  prayers.  No  sooner  does  your  boat  touch  the 
shore,  than  a  host  of  bearers  contend  for  you  with  loud  jabber, 
and  those  whom  you  resist  least,  actually  bear  you  oft'  in  their 
arms  through  the  mud,  and  you  find  yourself  at  once  in  one  of 
those  strange  conveyances,  a  palankeen.  Away  you  hie,  flat  on 
your  back,  at  the  rate  of  nearly  five  miles  an  hour,  a  chatty  boy 
bearing  aloft  a  huge  palm-leaf  umbrella  to  keep  off  the  sun, 
whom  no  assurances  that  you  do  not  want  him  will  drive  away, 
but  who  expects  only  a  pice  or  two  for  his  pains.  The  bearers 
grunt  at  every  step,  like  southern  negroes  when  cleaving  wood ; 
and  though  they  do  it  as  a  sort  of  chorus,  it  keeps  your  unaccus- 
tomed feelings  discomposed. 

Arrived  at  the  house,  you  find  it  secluded  within  a  high  brick 
wall,  and  guarded  at  the  gate  by  a  durwan,  or  porter,  who  lives 
there  in  a  lodge,  less  to  prevent  ingress,  than  to  see  that  servants 
and  others  carry  nothing  away  improperly.  The  door  is  shel- 
tered by  a  porch,  called  here  a  veranda,  so  constructed  as  to 
shelter  carriages  —  a  precaution  equally  necessary  for  the  rams 


12  HINDUSTAN 

and  the  sun.  The  best  houses  are  of  two  stories,  the  upper 
being  occupied  by  the  family,  and  the  lower  used  for  dining  and 
store  rooms.  On  every  side  are  contrivances  to  mitigate  heat  and 
exclude  dust.  Venetian  blinds  enclose  the  veranda,  extending 
from  pillar  to  pillar,  as  low  as  a  man's  head.  The  remaining 
space  is  furnished  with  mats,  (tatties,)  which  reach  to  the  floor, 
when  the  sun  is  on  that  side,  but  at  other  times  are  rolled  up. 
When  these  are  kept  wet,  they  diffuse  a  most  agreeable  coolness. 

The  moment  you  sit  down,  whether  in  a  mansion,  office,  or 
shop,  a  servant  commences  pulling  the  punka,  under  which  you 
may  happen  to  be.  The  floor  is  of  brick  and  mortar,  covered 
with  mats,  the  walls  of  the  purest  white,  and  the  ceilings  of  great 
height  Both  sexes,  and  all  orders,  dress  in  white  cottons.  The 
rooms  are  kept  dark,  and  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  shut  up 
with  glass.     In  short,  every  thing  betrays  a  struggle  to  keep  cool. 

Another  great  contest  seems  to  be  against  ants.  You  perceive 
various  articles  of  furniture  placed  upon  little  dishes  of  'Water 
or  quick-lime,  without  which  precaution  every  thing  is  overrun. 
White  ants  are  most  formidable;  for  from  those  it  is  impos- 
sible wholly  to  guard.  They  attack  every  thing,  even  the  beams 
in  the  houses.  A  chest  of  clothes,  lying  on  the  floor  a  day  or 
two  only,  may  be  found  entirely  ruined.  A  mere  pinhole  appears 
in  your  precious  quarto  —  you  open  it,  and  behold  a  mass  of  dust 
and  fragments ! 

The  number  of  sei-vants,  and  their  snowy  drapery,  huge  tur- 
bans, stubby  mustachios,  bare  feet,  and  cringing  servility,  form 
another  feature  in  the  novel  scene.  Partly  from  the  influence 
of  caste,  but  more  from  indolent  habits,  low  pay,  and  the  indul- 
gence of  former  masters,  when  fortunes  were  easily  made,  they 
are  appointed  to  services  so  minutely  divided  as  to  render  a  great 
number  necessary.  The  following  list,  given  me  by  a  lady  long 
in  India,  not  only  illustrates  this  peculiarity,  but  shows  how  large 
opportunities  private  Christians  possess  of  doing  good  to  natives 
even  beneath  their  own  roof.  A  genteel  family,  not  wealthy, 
must  have  the  following  domestics :  — 

Kansuma,  —  a  head  servant,  butler,  or  steward  ;  Kit-mvi-gar 
—  table-servant;  Musalche  —  cleans  knives,  washes  plates,  and 
carries  the  lantern  ;  Bdbagee  —  cook  ;  Surdar  —  head  bearer, 
cleans  furniture,  &c. ;  Bearer  —  cleans  shoes,  and  does  com- 
mon errands,  (if  a  palankeen  is  kept,  there  must  be  at  least 
eight  of  these,)  pulls  punka;  Abdar —  cools  and  takes  care  of 
water;  Meeta  —  man  sweeper;  Metrane  —  female  sweeper; 
Ayah  —  lady's  maid,  or  nurse  ;  Durwan  —  gate-keeper ;  Molley  — 


CALCUTTA.  13 

gardener ;  Dirgey  —  tailor  ;  Dobey  —  washerman  ;  Garee-walla 
—  coachman;  Syce  —  groom,  one  to  every  horse,  who  always 
runs  with  him;  Grass-cutter  —  cuts  and  brings  grass  daily,  one 
to  each  horse  ;  Guy  walla  —  keeper  of  the  cow  or  goats ;  Hur- 
karu  —  errand  boy  or  messenger  ;  Sircar  —  accountant,  or  secre- 
tary ;  Chuprasse  —  carries  letters,  and  does  the  more  trusty  er- 
rands; Chokedar  —  watch  man  ;  Cooky  —  carries  burdens,  brings 
home  marketing,  &c. ;  Bheestie —  to  bring  water.  Of  gardeners, 
maids,  table-servants,  nurses,  &c,  there  of  course  must  often  be 
several.  It  is  generally  necessary  to  have  part  of  these  Mussul- 
mans, and  part  Hindus ;  for  one  will  not  bring  some  dishes  to 
the  table,  and  the  other  will  not  touch  a  candlestick,  &c.  If  a 
child  makes  a  litter  on  the  floor,  the  ayah  will  not  clean  it,  but 
calls  the  metrane. 

A  walk  into  the  native  town,  produces  novel  sights  on  every 
side.  The  houses,  for  the  most  part,  are  mere  hovels,  with  mud 
floors  and  mud  walls,  scarcely  high  enough  to  stand  up  in,  and 
covered  with  thatch.  The  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and 
dirty ;  and  on  every  neglected  wall,  cow  dung,  mixed  with  chaff, 
and  kneaded  into  thin  cakes,  is  stuck  up  to  dry  for  fuel.  The 
shops  are  often  but  six  or  eight  feet  square,  and  seldom  twice 
this  size,  wholly  open  in  front,  without  any  counter,  but  the  mat 
on  the  floor,  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  vender,  sitting 
cross-legged,  and  the  rest  serves  to  exhibit  his  goods.  Mechanics 
have  a  similar  arrangement. 

Barbers  sit  in  the  open  street  on  a  mat,  and  the  patient,  squat- 
ting on  his  hams,  has  not  only  his  beard,  but  part  of  his  head, 
shaved,  leaving  the  hair  to  grow  only  on  his  crown.  In  the  tanks 
and  ponds  are  dobies  slapping  then-  clothes  with  all  their  might 
upon  a  bench  or  a  stone.  Little  braminy  bulls,  with  their 
humped  shoulders,  walk  among  the  crowd,  thrusting  their  noses 
into  the  baskets  of  rice,  gram,  or  peas,  with  little  resistance, 
except  they  stay  to  repeat  the  mouthful.*  Bullocks,  loaded  with 
panniers,  pass  slowly  by.  Palankeens  come  bustling  along,  the 
bearers  shouting  at  the  people  to  clear  the  way.  Pedlers  and 
hucksters  utter  their  ceaseless  cries.  Religious  mendicants,  with 
long   hair  matted  with   cow   dung,   and  with  faces  and   arms 

*  These  are  individuals  turned  loose  when  young,  as  offerings  to  an  idol, 
which  are  thenceforth  regarded  as  sacred.  Though  no  one  looks  after  them, 
their  privileged  mode  of  life  keeps  them  in  good  order;  and,  mixing  so  much 
among  crowds,  from  which  they  meet  no  ill  treatment,  makes  them  perfectly 
gentle. 

VOL.   II.  2 


14  HINDUSTAN. 

smeared  with  Ganges  mud,  walk  about  almost  naked,  with  an 
air  of  the  utmost  impudence  and  pride,  demanding  rather  than 
begging  gifts.  Often  they  carry  a  thick  triangular  plate  of  brass, 
and,  striking  it  at  intervals  with  a  heavy  stick,  send  the  shrill 
announcement  of  their  approach  far  and  near.  Now  and  then 
comes  rushing  along  the  buggy  of  some  English  merchant,  whose 
syce,  running  before,  drives  the  pedestrians  out  of  tne  way ;  or 
some  villanous-Iooking  caranche  drags  by,  shut  up  close  with 
red  cloth,  containing  native  ladies,  who  contrive  thus  to  "  take 
the  air." 

No  Englishmen  are  seen  on  foot,  except  the  very  poorest,  as 
it  is  deemed  ungenteel ;  nor  native  women,  except  of  the  lowest 
castes.  Costumes  and  complexions,  of  every  variety,  move  about 
without  attracting  attention  —  Hindus,  Mussulmans,  Arme- 
nians, Greeks,  Persians,  Parsees,  Arabs,  Jews,  Burmans,  Chinese, 
&c.  &c. ;  bheesties,  with  leather  water-sacks,  slung  dripping  on 


their  backs,  carry  their  precious  burden  to  the  rich  man's  yard, 
or  hawk  it  along  the  street,  announcing  their  approach  by 
drumming  on  their  brass  measure.  Snake-charmers,  jugglers, 
and  blind  musicians,  gather  their  little  crowds.  Processions 
are  almost  always  abroad  in  honor  of  some  idol,  or  in  fulfil- 
ment of  some  promise  ;  making  all  possible  clamor  with  voices, 
drums,  cymbals,  and  trumpets.  Women  carry  their  children 
astride  on  their  hips.  Wretched  carriages,  drawn  by  more 
wretched  ponies,  jingle  along,  bearing  those  who  have  long 
walks  and  moderate  means.  Women  crowd  about  the  wells, 
carrying  water  on  their  hips  in  brass  jars.    Children  run  about 


CALCUTTA. 


15 


stark  naked,  or  with  a  thin  plate  of  silver  or  brass,  not  larger 
than  a  tea-cup,  hung  in  front  by  a  cord  round  the  hips.  Mud- 
holes,  neglected  tanks,  decaying  car- 
casses, and  stagnant  ditches,  unite  with 
fumes  of  garlic,  rancid  oil,  and  human 
filth,  to  load  the  air  with  villanous 
smells.  The  tout  ensemble  of  sights, 
sounds,  and  smells,  is  so  utterly  unlike 
any  thing  in  any  other  part  of  the  world, 
that  weeks  elapse  before  the  sensation 
of  strangeness  wears  away. 


My  residence    with  Mr.  Pearce   on 
the  circular  road,  which  is  a  principal 
thoroughfare,  afforded  continual  oppor- 
tunity of  observing  native  character  and 
habits.    A  spectacle  of  frequent  recur- 
rence was  the  wedding  procession  of 
young  children,  affianced  by  their  rela- 
tions.    Music  and  many  torches  dignify 
the  procession.     The  girl  is  often  carried  hi  a  palankeen,  and  the 
bridegroom  on  horseback,  held  by  a  friend.     Sometimes  the  little 
things  are  borne  in  a  highly-ornamented  litter,  as  in  the  engra- 


V.  oman  carr. 


Part  of  a  Wedding  Procession. 


ving.     It  is  always  affecting  to  think  that  if  the  poor  little  boy 
die,  his  betrothed  is  condemned  to  perpetual  widowhood.    Many 
of  these,  as  might  be  expected,  become  abandoned  characters. 
One  is  constantly  struck  with  the  excessive  cruelty  displayed 


16  HINDUSTAN. 

toward  oxen  and  horses  by  the  natives ;  so  strongly  contrasting 
with  the  tenderness  of  Barman  drivers.  The  cattle  are  small, 
lean,  and  scarred  all  over  with  the  brands  and  fanciful  figures  of 
their  owners.  Poor  hi  flesh,  and  weak,  they  are  urged  with  a 
large  stick,  and  by  twisting  the  tail,  in  the  most  violent  manner. 
The  heavy  blows  were  continually  sounding  in  my  ears,  and, 
with  the  creaking  of  the  wheels,  which  are  never  greased,  keep 
up  an  odious  din.  The  horses  of  their  miserable  caranches 
fare  no  better  —  the  driver  scarcely  ever  suffering  his  whip  to 
repose. 

I  saw  many  funerals,  but  none  in  which  any  solemnity  or  pomp 
prevailed.  The  body,  without  a  coffin,  was  carried  on  its  own 
paltry  bedstead  by  four  men,  covered  merely  with  a  sheet ;  a  few 
followers  kept  up  a  wailing  recitative,  and  beat  upon  small  native 
drums.  The  body  was  thus  conveyed  to  the  place  of  burning, 
or  thrown  into  the  Ganges. 

Close  to  my  residence  was  one  of  those  numerous  tanks  re- 
sorted to  hi  this  city,  not  only  for  drinking-water,  but  ablutions 
of  all  sorts.  Every  hour  in  the  day  some  one  was  there  bathing. 
Those  who  came  for  water,  would  generally  walk  in,  and  let- 
ting their  jar  float  awhile,  bathe,  and  perhaps  wash  their  cloth  ; 
then  filling  their  vessel,  bear  it  away  with  dripping  clothes. 
Sonue  dobeys,  or  washermen,  resorted  thither,  whose  severe 
process  fully  accounted  for  the  fringes  constantly  made  on  the 
edges  of  my  clothes.  Without  soap  or  fire,  they  depend  on  mere 
labor ;  standing  knee  deep  in  the  water,  and  gathering  the  end 


of  a  garment  in  their  hand,  they  whirl  it  over  their  head,  and 
bring  it  down  with  great  force  upon  a  stone  or  inclined  plank, 
occasionally  shaking  it  in  the  water.  They  spread  out  the  arti- 
cles on  the  hot  sand,  and  a  powerful  sun  enables  them  to  present 
clothes  of  snowy  whiteness. 


CALCUTTA.  17 

My  stay  in  the  city  included  several  annual  festivals,  of  which 
one  was  the  Door-ga  Poo-ja,  which  commenced  on  the  fifteenth 
of  October,  and  lasted  till  the  nineteenth.  The  whole  population 
unites  in  this  celebration,  and  the  government  offices  are  closed. 
It  is  in  honor  of  Bhagabatee,  wife  of  Seeb,  who  is  called  Doorga, 
from  her  having  destroyed  a  dreadful  giant  of  that  name,  who 
had  subdued  most  of  the  gods. 

The  first  day  is  spent  in  waking  up  Doorga,  and  other  gods, 
who  are  supposed  to  have  slept  since  the  festival  of  Shayan 
Ekadashee.  The  second  day,  vows  are  made,  and  offerings  of 
water,  flowers,  sweetmeats,  &c,  are  presented.  The  third  day 
is  occupied  with  ceremonies  to  bring  the  soul  of  Doorga 
into  the  image.  To  effect  this,  the  priest  repeats  prayers,  offers 
incantations,  and  touches  the  eyes,  cheeks,  nose,  breast,  &c,  of 
the  image  with  his  finger.  The  image  now  becomes  an  object 
of  worship,  and  crowds  offer  it  divine  honors,  presenting  at  the 
same  time  large  quantities  of  fruits,  clothing,  and  food ;  which, 
of  course,  are  perquisites  to  the  Brahmins.  The  fourth  day 
streams  with  the  blood  of  animal  sacrifices.  The  worshippers 
dance  before  the  idol,  smeared  with  gore ;  chums  beat ;  and 
shouts  rend  the  air.  The  heads  only  of  the  victims  are  offered, 
the  worshippers  eating  the  carcasses,  and  rioting  in  strong  drink. 
Such  Hindus  as  worship  Vishnu,  not  being  permitted  to  shed 
blood,  offer  pumpkins,  melons,  sugar-cane,  <fcc,  which  are  cut  in 
two  with  the  sacrificial  knife,  that  the  juice  may  flow  forth. 
All  these  days,  the  image  is  kept  in  the  house,  and  the  services 
performed  in  interior  courts,  so  that  the  streets  show  little  con- 
fusion or  stir.  The  evenings  are  occupied  with  songs  and 
dancing,  often  of  an  indecent  character. 

The  last  and  great  day  brings  the  goddess  abroad,  carried  in 
triumph  upon  the  shoulders  of  men,  to  be  thrown  into  the  river. 
Crowds  follow  with  shouts ;  bands  of  music  accompany  each 
group;  and  towards  sundown  the  streets  are  literally  full  of  these 
processions.  I  rode  to  the  margin  of  the  river,  at  that  time,  to 
witness  this  part  of  the  festival ;  and  during  the  stay  of  a  single 
hour,  scores  of  images  were  thrown  in  at  that  place.  Above 
and  below,  the  same  scenes  were  enacted. 

These  exhibitions  not  only  present  Doorga,  but  several  other 
images,  often  as  large  as  life,  very  handsomely  moulded,  of  wax, 
clay,  or  paper.  Under  an  ornamented  canopy  stands  the  god- 
dess, stretching  out  her  ten  arms,  each  of  which  has  an  occupa- 
tion. One  transfixes  with  a  spear  the  giant  Mahisha;  others 
hold  implements  of  war,  flowers,  sceptres,  &c.     Beneath  her 


18 


HINDUSTAN. 


feet  is  a  lion,  tearing  the  said  giant ;  and  on  each  side  are  her 
sons.  Kartik  and  Ganesh.  The  whole  is  borne  on  a  frame  or 
bier,  requiring  twenty  or  thirty  bearers.  The  group  is  gene- 
rally got  up  with  much  skill,  and  no  little  ornament,  some  of 
which  is  really  tasteful  and  costly.  Vast  sums  are  expended  at 
this  festival  by  all  ranks,  amounting,  in  some  cases,  even  to 
twenty  or  thirty  thousand  rupees!  Almost  every  respectable 
family  makes  one  of  these  objects,  and  lavishes  on  it  considerable 
expense.  The  offerings,  the  music,  the  feast,  and  still  more,  the 
gifts  to  Brahmins,  make  up  a  heavy  cost.  I  could  not  help 
observing,  that  the  men  employed  to  cast  the  fabric  into  the 
river,  no  sooner  got  a  little  way  from  the  shore,  in  the  boat,  than 
they  began  to  rifle  the  goddess  of  her  muslins,  plumes,  and  gilded 
ornaments,  so  that  often  nothing  but  a  mere  wreck  was  thrown 
overboard. 

Calcutta  being  the  focus  of  religious  intelligence  for  all  the 
East,  and  the  seat  of  numerous  missionary  operations,  I  was  not 
sorry  that  no  vessel  offered  for  my  next  port  of  destination,  for 
two  months.  It  gave  me  an  opportunity  of  visiting  the  charita- 
ble, literary,  and  religious  institutions;  attending  the  various 
churches,  and  several  anniversaries;  mingling  with  ministerial 
society,  committees,  and  conferences ;  and  gathering  no  small 
amount  of  information  from  the  best  sources.  1  shall,  however, 
only  note  here  such  as  will  interest  the  general  reader. 

One  of  my  first  visits  was  to  the  school  of  the  Scottish  General 
Assembly,  founded  by  Rev.  Mr.  Duff",  and  now  under  the  care  of 
Rev.  Messrs.  Mackay  and  Ewart.  It  occupies  a  large  brick  build- 
ing, enclosing  a  quadrangular  court,  formerly  the  residence  of  a 
wealthy  Baboo,  and  standing  in  the  midst  of  the  native  town.* 
It  has  existed  about  six  years,  and  now  numbers  about  six  hun- 
dred and  thirty-four  pupils ;  boys,  mostly  under  fourteen  years. 
They  are  all  Bengalees  and  Hindus,  generally  of  the  higher 
castes,  and  many  of  them  Brahmins.  Many  have  been  in  the 
school  from  the  commencement.  They  purchase  their  own 
school-books,  and  receive  no  support  from  the  school  ;  but  the 
tuition  is  gratis.  There  are  five  ushers,  besides  twelve  or  fifteen 
of  the  more  advanced  scholars,  who  act  as  assistant  teachers. 
The  instruction  is  wholly  in  the  English  language.  1  examined 
several  classes  in  ancient  and  modern  history,  mathematics, 
astronomy,  and  Christianity  ;  and  have  never  met  classes  show- 

*  A  new  building1,  capable  of  accommodating  1000  pupils,  has  since  been 
erected  on  Cornwallis  Square. 


CALCUTTA.  19 

ing  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  books  they  had  studied. 
Nearly  all  of  the  two  upper  classes  are  convinced  of  the  truth  of 
the  gospel,  and  went  over  the  leading  evidences  in  a  manner 
that,  I  am  sure,  few  professors  of  religion  in  our  country  can  do. 
Some  six  or  seven  pupils  have  given  evidence  of  a  work  of  grace 
in  then  heart ;  a  few  of  which  have  made  a  profession  of 
religion. 

A  few  weeks  after,  T  had  the  pleasure  of  attending  the  public 
annual  examination  of  this  school,  held  in  the  town  hall,  a  truly 
noble  building.  I  never  witnessed  a  better  examination.  The 
pupils  were  often  led  away  from  the  direct  subject,  by  gentlemen 
present,  and  in  every  case  showed  a  good  insight  into  the  subject 
they  had  studied.  Several  excellent  essays  were  read  in  Eng- 
lish, wholly  composed  by  the  scholars,  two  of  which  were  of 
special  cleverness ;  one  in  favor  of  caste,  the  other  against  it 
The  former  received  some  tokens  of  applause  from  the  Euro- 
peans, for  the  talent  it  displayed  ;  but  not  a  native  clapped.  On 
the  conclusion  of  that  against  caste,  the  whole  mass  of  pupils 
burst  out  into  thundering  applause !  This  incident  is  worthy  of 
note,  as  showing  the  waning  influence  of  Brahma. 

The  Benevolent  Institution,  instituted  thirty  years  ago  by  the 
Serampore  Missionaries,  has  continued  without  interruption; 
imparting  the  English  language  and  English  literature,  on  the 
Lancasterian  plan,  to  an  average  of  three  hundred  pupils.  Sev- 
eral times  that  number  have  left  the  school  with  more  or  less 
education,  many  of  whom  are  now  honorably  employed  as 
teachers,  writers,  and  clerks.  There  are  now  a  hundred  and 
eighty  in  the  boys',  and  thirty  in  the  girls'  department.  The  es- 
tablishment of  other  schools  has  diminished  its  number.  It 
was  intended  entirely  for  the  benefit  of  the  children  of  nominal 
Christians,  chiefly  Catholic,  who  were  growing  up  in  ignorance 
and  vice ;  but  some  pagan  youth  are  now  admitted.  The  Rev. 
Mr.  Penny  has  devoted  himself"  to  this  service  for  many  years ; 
and  recently  his  salary  has  been  paid  by  government.  The  boys 
live  with  their  parents,  and  receive  no  support  from  the  school. 

The  Boarding  and  Day  Schools  at  Chitpore,  one  of  the  north- 
ern suburbs  of  Calcutta,  were  established  by  the  Baptist  mission- 
aries, in  1829.  They  are  under  the  care  of  Rev.  J.  D.  Ellis,  and 
contained  hoys  and  girls,  till  the  latter  were  removed  to  Seebpore. 
The  boarding  school  is  for  the  children  of  native  Christians, 
and  contains  forty-five  interesting  boys,  none  under  seven  years. 
They  are  entirely  supported,  at  an  average  expense  of  about  four 
rupees  a  month  ;  including  food,  clothes,  books,  salaries  of  as- 


20  HINDUSTAN. 

sistant  teachers,  building,  medicine,  &c.  Nine  of  the  boys  have 
become  pious,  and  been  received  into  the  church,  and  three 
others  arc  to  be  baptized  soon. 

The  day  school,  on  separate  premises,  is  for  heathen  boys, 
and  contains  three  hundred  pupils,  from  eight  to  eighteen  years 
of  age.  They  study  the  English  language,  and  all  the  branches 
of  a  good  high  school.  They  provide  their  own  books  and 
stationery,  so  that  the  salaries  of  the  native  ushers,  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  seventy-five  rupees  a  month,  and  the  rent  of  the 
buildings,  constitute  all  the  expense.  This  school  is  decidedly 
the  best  I  found  in  Calcutta,  excepting,  perhaps,  that  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  just  mentioned,  to  which  it  is  not  inferior.  The 
arrangement  of  the  school-house  and  grounds,  the  general  gov- 
ernment, the  deportment  of  the  pupils,  and  the  degrees  of 
proficiency,  are  most  satisfactory.  None  have  become  open 
Christians;  but  most  of  the  senior  boys  theoretically  reject  idola- 
try, and  declare  ours  to  be  the  only  true  faith.  I  was  astonished 
at  the  readiness  with  which  they  went  over  the  evidences  of 
Christianity,  from  miracles,  prophecy,  history,  internal  structure, 
&c.  I  stalled  many  of  the  plausible  objections  of  heathen  and 
infidels,  and  found  they  had  truly  mastered  both  the  text-books 
and  the  subject. 

Bishop's  College,  founded  by  Bp.  Middleton,  stands  a  few  miles 
below  Calcutta,  on  the  River  Hoogly.  The  college  edifice  is  of 
great  size,  and  substantially  built,  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  the 
professors'  houses,  pleasure-grounds,  &c,  are  every  way  suitable. 
A  distinguished  civilian  politely  took  me  there  in  his  carriage, 
and  the  president  kindly  showed  u&  every  part.  The  fine  library, 
beautiful  chapel,  and  admirable  arrangements,  with  the  high 
character  of  the  instructors,  seem  to  invite  students  ;  but  there 
have  as  yet  been  never  more  than  ten  or  twelve  at  a  time.  This 
is  possibly  owing  in  part  to  the  exclusively  Episcopal  character 
of  the  college.  The  salary  of  the  principal  is  one  thousand 
pounds  per  annum,  and  of  the  second  teacher,  seven  hunched 
pounds. 

The  Indian  Eemale  Orphan  Refuge,  and  Central  School,  were 
founded  by  Mrs.  Wilson,  (then  Miss  Cook,)  about  twelve  years 
ago.  The  two  departments  under  the  above  names  occupied 
the  same  building,  till  the  present  season,  when  the  Refuge  was 
removed  to  new  and  more  suitable  premises,  six  miles  north  of 
the  city.  The  increased  and  improved  accommodations  will 
enable  this  excellent  lady  to  enhance  the  value  of  her  admirable 
charity.    Here  native  orphans,  and  other  destitute  or  abandoned 


CALCUTTA.  21 

children,  are  received  at  any  age,  however  young,  and  remain 
till  marriageable,  supported  in  all  respects.  A  considerable 
number  of  them  were  redeemed  from  actual  starvation,  during 
the  dreadful  desolation  of  a  hurricane  on  the  Hoogly  River, 
a  few  years  since.  All  are  taught  to  read  and  speak  English, 
beside  the  elementary  studies  and  needle-work.  They  are 
found  to  be  acute,  and  generally  learn  to  read  and  understand 
the  New  Testament  in  one  year.  Some  six  or  eight  are  Mussul- 
man children  ;  the  rest  are  Hindus,  who,  of  course,  lose  whatever 
caste  they  may  have ;  though  this  now,  in  Calcutta,  is  productive 
of  comparatively  little  inconvenience  to  the  poor.  The  present 
number  in  the  Refuge  is  one  hundred  and  eight,  and  the  whole 
cost  per  annum,  for  each  child,  is  found  to  be  about  twenty-five 
rupees.  Mrs.  Wilson  (now  a  widow)  resides  in  the  institution, 
and  devotes  herself  most  steadfastly  to  the  arduous  work.  Pos- 
sessing the  unlimited  confidence  of  the  philanthropists  of  Cal- 
cutta, she  has  been  able  to  meet  the  expenses  of  her  new  and 
extensive  buildings,  and  is  not  likely  to  want  funds  for  sustaining 
the  school. 

The  Central  School  has,  on  an  average,  two  hundred  and  fifty 
girls,  who  attend  in  the  day-time  only,  and  receive  no  support. 
The  first  impressions,  on  entering  the  vast  room  where  they  are 
taught,  are  very  touching.  Seated  on  mats,  in  groups  of  eight 
or  ten,  around  the  sides  of  the  room,  are  thirty  classes ;  each 
with  a  native  teacher  in  the  midst.  The  thin  cotton  shawls, 
covering  not  only  the  whole  person,  but  the  head,  are  lent  them 
every  morning  to  wear  in  school,  and  kept  beautifully  white.  In 
their  noses  or  ears  hang  rings  of  large  diameter  ;  and  many  of 
them  had  the  little  spot  at  the  root  of  the  nose,*  indicative  of 
the  god  they  serve,  tattooed.  Some  had  on  the  arms  or  ankles 
numerous  bracelets  or  bangles,  of  ivory,  wood,  or  silver ;  and 
many  wore  rings  on  the  toes ;  all  according  to  the  immemorial 
usage  of  Bengalee  women. 

All  were  intent  on  their  lessons ;  and  when  it  was  considered 
that  those  lessons  comprised  the  blessed  truths  of  revelation,  the 
scene  could  not  but  affect  a  Christian's  heart  with  gratitude  and 
hope.    Two  pious  ladies  devote  themselves  to  the  management 

*  This  custom  of  marking  the  forehead  illustrates,  very  forcibly,  <he  ex- 
pression  »f  Dent,  xxxii.  5.  "  Their  spot  is  not  the  spot  of  his  children."  Some 
have  one  spot  just  above  the  root  of  the  nose — yellow,  brown,  or  red,  as  the 
sect  may  be.  Some  have  two  spots,  some  a  perpendicular  line,  others  two  or 
three  lines  ;  some  a  horizontal  line,  or  two,  or  three.  Thus  every  one  carries 
on  his  front  a  profession  of  his  faith,  and  openly  announces  to  all  men  his  creed. 


22  HINDUSTAN. 

of  this  school,  and  attend  all  day.  A  native  preacher  conducts 
daily  worship,  and  preaches  once  a  week.  The  native  women, 
being  paid  one  pice  per  day  for  each  scholar,  are  thus  induced, 
though  heathen,  to  exert  themselves  to  keep  their  classes  full. 

The  two  institutions  last  named  show  what  may  be  done  by 
ladies.  What  abundant  opportunities  are  presented,  in  several 
parts  of  the  world,  for  them  to  come  forth,  and  be  co-workers  in 
the  missionary  enterprise ! 

The  Martiuiere,  founded  by  a  munificent  legacy  of  General 
Martin,  was  opened  March,  1835,  and  has  already  eighty  pupils, 
of  which  fifty  are  wholly  supported.  It  is  intended  solely  for  the 
children  of  Europeans,  and  has  a  principal  and  two  professors. 
The  building,  which  cost  200,000  rupees,  is  truly  noble,  and 
stands  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  city,  amid  extensive  grounds. 
Many  more  pupils  can  be  accommodated ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
the  number  will  soon  be  full.  The  children  are  not  required  to  be 
orphans,  or  very  poor,  but  are  admitted  from  that  class  of  society 
which,  though  respectable,  find  it  impossible  to  give  their  children 
a  good  education,  and  are  glad  to  be  relieved  from  their  support. 

The  Leper  Hospital,  founded  by  the  exertions  of  Dr.  Carey,  is 
located  on  the  road  to  Barrackpore,  a  little  north  of  the  city. 
Instead  of  a  large  building,  it  is  an  enclosed  village,  with  neat 
grounds  and  out-houses.  Any  lepers  may  resort  there,  and  re- 
ceive maintenance  in  full,  with  such  medical  treatment  as  the 
case  may  encourage.  It  generally  contains  several  hundred  ;  but 
many  prefer  to  subsist  by  begging  in  the  streets. 

Beside  these  institutions,  there  are  several  others,  such  as 
orphan  asylums,  a  floating  chapel,  &c,  of  a  character  similar  to 
those  of  our  own  country,  and  which  therefore  do  not  need  any 
description. 

In  1813,  parliament  required  the  East  India  Company  to  devote 
£10,000,  or  a  lac  of  rupees,  annually,  for  the  education  and  im- 
provement of  the  natives ;  but  nothing  was  done  for  fifteen  or 
sixteen  years.  The  funds,  with  other  appropriations,  which  had 
accumulated  to  nearly  300,000  rupees  per  annum,  were  then 
placed  under  the  control  of  a  "  Committee  of  Education,"  who 
proceeded  to  work  in  earnest.  The  Hindu,  Mahometan,  and 
Sunscrit  Colleges  in  Calcutta,  were  taken  under  the  patronage 
of  the  committee,  and  schools  and  colleges  at  Benares,  Delhi, 
Hoogly,  Agra,  Moorshedabad,  Bangui  pore,  Saugor,  Maulmain, 
and  Allahabad,  were  soon  founded.  In  1835,  a  new  impulse  and 
direction  was  given  to  these  operations,  and  there  were  estab- 
lished the  Medical  College  of  Calcutta,  and  schools  at  Pooree, 


CALCUTTA.  23 

Gowhatte,  Dacca,  Patna,  Ghazepore,  and  Merut.  Tlie  following 
are  now  in  course  of  being  established  —  Raj shahi,  Jubbul pore, 
Hoshungabad,  Furruckabad,  Bareilly,  and  Ajmere.  The  whole 
number  of  pupils  at  present  is  three  thousand  three  hundred  and 
ninety-eight,*  of  whom  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  ninety- 
one  study  English,  two  hundred  and  eighteen  Arabic,  four  hundred 
and  seventy-three  Sunscrit,  and  three  hundred  and  seventy-six 
Persian.  Most  of  the  rest  are  confined  to  the  local  vernacular. 
Of  the  students,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-one  are 
Hindus,  five  hundred  and  ninety-six  Mussulmans,  seventy-seven 
Christians,  and  the  rest  are  Burmans,  Chinese,  &c.  A  summary 
view  of  those  in  Calcutta  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  whole. 

The  Hindu  College,  (called  by  Hindus  the  Vidyalaya,)  estab- 
lished in  1816,  by  wealthy  natives,  contains  four  hundred  and 
fifty  pupils.  About  sixty  are  on  scholarships  ;  the  rest  pay  from 
five  to  seven  rupees  per  month  for  tuition.  It  has  two  depart- 
ments ;  one  for  imparting  education  in  English,  and  English 
literature,  open  to  all  classes  and  castes ;  the  other  for  the  culti- 
vation of  Sunscrit  literature,  and  open  only  to  persons  of  the 
Brahmin ical  order,  who  are  not  admitted  under  twelve  years  of 
age.  In  the  English  department,  instruction  is  given  in  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  composition,  mathematics,  history,  natural 
philosophy,  geography,  &c.  The  institute  has  a  valuable  library 
in  English,  which  serves  to  give  efficacy  and  expansion  to 
the  system  of  instruction.  The  fact  that  natives  are  willing  to 
pay  so  much  for  tuition,  and  support  themselves,  shows  the  pre- 
vailing anxiety  to  acquire  our  language.  Scholars  are  received 
into  the  English  department  as  young  as  six  years. 

The  Sunscrit  College  has  about  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
pupils ;  part  of  whom  study  English,  with  the  other  branches. 
They  are  instructed  in  Hindu  literature,  law,  and  theology.  The 
fewness  of  scholars  seeking  instruction  in  this  worthless  stuff  is 
a  good  sign.  Even  of  these,  fifty-seven  are  paid  in ..nth'y  sti- 
pends of  from  six  to  eight  rupees.  The  rest  are  not  charged  for 
tuition.  The  term  of  attendance  is  twelve  years ;  viz.  three  for 
grammar,  two  for  general  literature,  one  for  rhetoric,  one  for 
logic,  one  for  theology,  one  for  mathematics,  and  three  for  law. 
All  the  forms  and  distinctions  of  caste  are  observed  at  this 
school. 

The    Mahometan     College    (generally   called    the   Madressa) 

*  The  number  of  pupils  has  now  (January.  1839)  increased  to  nearly  7000; 
but  those  studying  Arabic,  Sunscrit,  and  Persian,  are  fewer  than  in  1836. 


34  HINDUSTAN. 

is  for  the  instruction  of  that  class  of  natives  in  their  own 
literature  and  faith.  Formerly,  the  students  were  allowed  sti- 
pends of  seven  or  eight  rupees  per  month ;  but,  as  those  who 
hold  these  fall  off,  they  are  not  renewed  to  others,  so  that  the 
number  is  annually  diminishing.  It  has  two  departments,  Orien- 
tal and  English ;  the  former  containing  ninety-one  students,  and 
the  latter  one  hunched  and  thirty.  The  studies  are  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  natural 
philosophy,  and  the  Mahometan  laws  and  religion. 

The  Hoogly  (or  Mahomet  Muhsin's)  College,  situated  about 
twenty-five  miles  above  Calcutta,  has  grown  out  of  the  Hoogly 
School,  which  flourished  several  years,  teaching  chiefly  the  Eng- 
lish language,  to  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  pupils.  Large  en- 
dowments from  the  above-named  Baboo  have  lately  become 
available,  and  yield  an  annual  revenue  of  no  less  than  a  lac  of 
rupees.  It  was  re-opened  on  an  enlarged  system  in  August, 
1836,  and  already  enrols  more  than  fifteen  hundred  students, 
who  have  entered  the  western  department ;  that  is,  to  pros- 
ecute English  and  English  literature  exclusively ;  and  three 
hundred  who  have  entered  the  Oriental  department.  About  one 
hundred  of  the  latter  study  English  in  connection  with  Eastern 
languages,  and  two  hundred  study  Arabic  and  Persian  exclu- 
sively. 

The  Medical  College  was  instituted  by  a  general  order  of  the 
supreme  government,  in  which  it  was  directed  that  the  Native 
Medical  Institution,  then  existing  under  Dr.  Tytler,  and  the  med- 
ical classes  at  the  Sunscrit  and  Mahometan  Colleges,  should  be 
abolished,  and  a  new  institution  formed.  Medical  science  is  here 
on  the  most  enlightened  principles,  and  in  the  English  language. 
Instruction  commenced  June,  1835,  with  forty-nine  students,  se- 
lected from  numerous  applicants.  All  were  required  to  be  able 
to  speak,  read,  and  write  English  with  ease  and  accuracy.  The 
institution  is  a  great  favorite  with  Britons  in  Calcutta,  and 
promises  very  important  benefits  to  Bengal,  beside  raising  up 
suitable  doctors  for  the  native  regiments.  None  but  native  stu- 
dents are  admitted;  but  these  may  be  of  any  creed  or  caste;  and 
for  fifty  of  them,  a  competent  support  is  provided.  They  are  re- 
ceived between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  twenty,  and  such  as  are 
allowed  stipends  are  required  to  remain  five  or  six  years. 

For  each  of  these  institutions  a  good  English  library  and  phil- 
osophical apparatus  have  been  ordered  from  Loudon,  toward 
which  object  a  wealthy  Baboo  has  given  twenty  thousand  rupees. 
Persons  of  all  ages,  religious  opinions,  and  castes,  are  admitted  as 


CALCUTTA.  25 

pupils  in  all  the  government  institutions  except  the  Hindu,  Ma- 
hometan, and  Sunscrit  Colleges  at  Calcutta,  and  the  Sanscrit 
College  at  Benares.  The  effect  of  these  last-named  institutions 
is  regarded  by  many  as  wholly  tending  to  support  the  national 
systems  of  religion  and  literature,  and,  therefore,  so  far  as  the 
eternal  well-being  of  the  pupils  is  concerned,  decidedly  in- 
jurious. 

The  circumstances  of  the  country  make  these  colleges,  not 
what  a  cursory  reader  would  infer  from  the  name,  but  sdwols  ; 
or,  at  the  best,  academies.  Education  has  not  long  enough  pre- 
vailed to  have  produced  a  race  of  young  men  prepared  by  ele- 
mentary studies  to  pursue  the  higher  branches.  The  pupils  of 
these  "  colleges"  are  taught  to  read,  write,  and  cipher,  as  well  as 
grammar,  geography,  logic,  mathematics,  &c,  from  the  rudi- 
ments upward. 

Until  1835,  the  policy  of  the  committee  was  to  encourage  the 
study  of  Persian,  Sunscrit,  and  Arabic  literature,  as  the  best 
means  of  elevating  the  general  intelligence  of  the  natives. 
Hence  the  endowment  of  schools  and  colleges,  expressly  for 
these  studies,  and  paying  the  students  liberal  monthly  stipends. 
A  great  number  were  thus  induced  to  study  these  dead  languages, 
who  felt  no  interest  in  them,  and  made  no  valuable  proficiency. 
While  modern  science  was  enlightening  all  Europe,  these  stu- 
dents were  learning  Ptolemy's  astronomy,  Aristotle's  philosophy, 
and  Galen's  medical  institutes,  and  reading  the  shockingly  las- 
civious stories  of  the  Mricchakata,  and  the  Nol  Damayanti. 
Bishop  Heber  examined  some  of  these  students  at  Benares,  and 
says,*  "The  astronomical  lecturer  produced  a  terrestrial  globe,  di- 
vided according  to  their  system,  and  elevated  to  the  meridian  of 
Benares.  Mount  Meru  he  identified  with  the  north  pole,  and 
under  the  south  pole  he  supposed  the  tortoise  'Chukwa'  to 
stand ;  on  which  the  earth  rests.  He  then  showed  me  how  the 
sun  went  round  the  earth  once  in  every  day,  and  how,  by  a  dif- 
ferent motion,  he  visited  the  signs  of  the  zodiac."  As  Hindu  lit- 
erature lias  been  highly  extolled  by  some,  I  will  add  a  specimen 
from  Ram  Mohun  Roy's  account  of  it.  f  " '  Khad  signifies  to  eat ; 
Khaduti,  he,  she,  or  it  eats :  query,  does  Khaduti,  as  a  whole,  con- 
vey the  meaning  he,  she,  or  it  eats,  or  are  separate  parts  of  this 
meaning  conveyed  by  distinctions  of  the  word  ?'  As  if,  in  the 
English  language,  it  were  asked,  How  much  meaning  is  there  in 


*  Travels  in  India. 

t  Letter  to  Lord  Amherst,  Governor-general  of  India. 
VOL.  II.  3 


26  HINDUSTAN. 

the  eat,  and  how  much  in  the  s  ?  And  is  the  whole  meaning 
conveyed  by  these  two  portions  of  the  word  distinctly,  or  by 
them  taken  jointly?"  "In  medicine  and  chemistry  they  are 
just  sufficiently  advanced  to  talk  of  substances  being  moist,  dry* 
hot,  &c,  in  the  third  or  fourth  degree ;  to  dissuade  from  phys- 
icking, or  letting  blood,  on  a  Tuesday,  or  under  a  particular  as- 
pect of  the  heavens  ;  and  to  be  eager  in  the  pursuit  of  the  phi- 
losopher's stone,  and  the  elixir  of  immortality."  * 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Wilson,  in  a  sermon  on  behalf  of  the  Scotch 
Missionary  Society,  and  dedicated  to  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  Robert 
Grant,  governor  of  Bombay,  preached  in  Bombay,  November? 
1835,  touches  this  matter  briefly ;  and  I  quote  some  of  his  remarks 
because  of  the  high  authority  on  which  they  come.  Speaking 
of  the  appropriation  of  the  lac  of  rupees,  he  remarks,  "  We,  the 
representatives  of  the  British  nation  in  India,  instead  of  applying 
this  grant  wholly  to  the  diffusion  of  a  knowledge  of  the  literature 
and  science  of  the  West,  as,  we  must  suppose,  was  intended 
employed  most  of  it  in  the  support  of  colleges  for  teaching  pen- 
sioned students  the  elements  of  the  Sunscrit  and  Arabic  lan- 
guages, and  inculcating  through  them  the  immoral  precepts  of 
the  Vedas  and  Purannas,  the  aphorisms  of  dreamy  and  obsolete 
legislators,  and  the  prescriptions  of  quack  doctors  and'  alche- 
mists ;  or  in  printing  Oriental  books  to  fill  the  shelves  of  the 
learned  and  cm-ions,  but  illiberal  and  unphilanthropic  confederacy, 
of  English  and  French  antiquarians." 

This  policy  of  the  committee  led  also  to  the  expenditure  of 
enormous  sums  in  procuring  translations  of  elevated  scientific 
works  into  those  languages,  and  printing  original  Arabic,  Persian, 
and  Sunscrit  works  hitherto  unknown  to  Europe.  Of  the  books 
printed  by  the  committee  up  to  1832,  there  were  of  Sunscrit  thir- 
teen thousand  volumes,  of  Arabic  five  thousand,  Persian  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred,  Hindu  two  thousand.  A  large  proportion  of 
these  are  quarto  volumes,  of  seven  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pages, 
and  printed  in  editions  of  five  hundred  copies.  Of  course,  were 
they  ever  so  valuable,  they  could  not  be  generally  diffused  over 
an  empire  of  two  millions  of  inhabitants.  Not  a  single  work  was 
printed  in  the  prevailing  and  spoken  languages  of  India!  The 
books  thus  brought  forth  as  treasures  of  Oriental  literature,  were 
indeed  such  to  some  philologists  of  Europe  ;  but  false  philosophy, 
fabulous  histories,  and  impure  romances,  could  do  no  good  to 
Hindus,  even  supposing  the  mass  of  the  people  could  have 
read  them. 

*  Heber. 


CALCUTTA.  27 

The  policy  of  the  committee,  as  at  present  constituted,  is, 
to  cultivate  Western,  rather  than  Eastern  literature,  and  to  diffuse 
modern  science  and  arts,  by  extending  a  knowledge  of  the  Eng- 
lish language,  and  by  multiplying  valuable  works  in  the  vulgar 
tongues.  In  accomplishing  this  important  change,  perhaps  no 
man  has  been  more  instrumental  than  C.  E.  Trevelyan,  Esq.,  of 
the  Bengal  civil  service,  to  whom  India  is,  in  many  other  respects, 
greatly  indebted. 

The  stipends  which  were  paid  to  pupils  in  the  Arabic,  Sun- 
scrit,  and  Persian  languages,  are  now  refused  to  new  applicants, 
and  expire  as  vacancies  occur.  This  change  not  only  adds  to 
the  available  funds  of  the  committee,  but  leaves  the  dead  lan- 
guages to  be  cultivated,  just  so  far  as  their  intrinsic  worth  shall 
induce  the  native.  In  all  the  new  institutions,  pupils  are  ad- 
mitted  without  distinction  of  caste. 

The  prospect  now  is,  that  English,  with  its  vast  stores  of 
knowledge,  in  every  department,  will  become  the  classical  lan- 
guage of  the  country.*  The  holders  of  office,  and  influential 
natives  generally,  of  the  next  generation,  will  be  enlightened 
beyond  what  could  have  ever  been  hoped  for,  under  the  old 
system.  Some  of  those  who  give  themselves  to  literary  pur- 
suits, will  no  doubt  acquire  such  a  mastery  of  certain  sciences, 
as  to  become  able  to  bring  forth  works  of  great  utility  in  their 
mother  tongue.  By  such  works,  and  not  by  translations  made 
by  foreigners,  light  may  spread  to  all  the  people,  and  this  vast 
continent  be  brought  forth  into  a  worthy  place  among  the 
nations. 

Missionaries  long  since  saw  this  subject  as  the  education  com- 
mittee now  see  it,  and  thousands  of  natives,  in  Calcutta  alone, 
have  been  taught  in  their  schools  to  read  English.  There  are 
probably  now  in  that  city  not  less  than  four  thousand  youths 
receiving  an  English  education.  In  the  Hindu  College,  estab- 
lished in  1816,  and  conducted  wholly  with  reference  to  English, 
there  are  four  hundred  and  seven   students,   of  which  three 

*  When  we  consider  the  vast  spread  of  the  British  empire  in  India,  the  dif- 
fusion of  the  English  language  over  the  whole  continent  of  North  America, 
and  many  of  the  West  India  islands,  the  establishment  of  British  laws  and 
language  in  all  South  Africa  and  Australia,  and  the  growing  colonies  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  anticipate  the  prevalence  of  our 
language,  at  no  distant  day,  among  millions  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe. 


28  HINDUSTAN. 

hundred  and  fifty-six  pay  from  five  to  seven  rupees  a  month 
for  tuition,  while  the  Sunscrit  College,  where  fifty-seven 
students  receive  a  stipend  of  from  six  to  eight  rupees  per  month, 
and  the  rest  are  taught  gratuitously,  there  are  but  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  pupils.  In  the  Arabic  College  are  two  hundred 
students,  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  of  whom  study  English, 
and  most  of  the  remainder  receive  stipends.  The  Hoogly  Col- 
lege has  grown  out  of  the  Hoogly  School,  in  which  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  always  a  primary  object.  Having  received 
endowments  from  a  native  gentleman,  yielding  annually  100,000 
rupees,  it  has  recently  been  thrown  open  to  receive  more  pupils; 
and  already  fifteen  hundred  students  have  entered  the  "  western 
department, "  that  is,  to  study  English,  and  English  literature 
exclusively.  About  three  hundred  have  entered  to  study  Eng- 
lish, in  connection  with  Oriental  literature  ;  and  two  hundred  to 
study  Arabic  and  Persian  exclusively. 

A  further  evidence  of  the  present  demand  for  English,  is  seen 
in  the  operations  of  the  Calcutta  School-book  Society.  This  in- 
stitution prints  elementary  books,  in  all  the  languages  required 
by  schools  in  the  presidency,  at  the  cheapest  possible  rate  ;  and 
from  its  depository,  most  schools  are  supplied,  in  whole  or  in 
part.  The  following  summary  of  sales  is  from-  the  last  annual 
report,  viz. :  — 

English 31,649  books. 

Anglo- Asiatic  (i.  e.  in  the  Roman  Character).  4,525  " 

Bengalee 5,754  " 

Hindui 4,171  " 

Hindustani 3,384  « 

Persian 1,454  " 

Oriya 834  " 

Arabic 36  " 

Sunscrit 16  " 

With  this  impulse  in  favor  of  the  English  language,  and 
European  literature,  has  sprung  up,  chiefly  through  the  same 
instrumentality,  another,  equally  strong,  in  favor  of  using  the 
Roman  letters  for  Indian  languages.  I  regard  this  as  scarcely 
less  important  than  the  other,  and  have  briefly  handled  the  point 
in  some  remarks  on  "The  mode  of  conducting  missions," 
in  Part  TV. 


CALCUTTA.  29 

That  the  elements  of  society  are  not  stagnant  in  Calcutta,  and 
that  light  is  breaking  in  upon  the  public  mind,  is  evinced,  among 
other  proofs,  by  the  present  state  of  the  native  newspaper  press. 
Formerly  there  was  no  such  thing  in  the  city ;  now  there  are 
seven  or  eight.  Among  them  are  "  The  Durpin,"  published  in 
Bengalee  and  English,  by  nominal  Christians,  but  somewhat  neu- 
ter ;  the  "  Chundrika,"  strongly  in  favor  of  the  entire  idolatrous 
system ;  the  "  Cowmoodee,"  temperate  and  conciliatory,  and  reject- 
ing the  grosser  Hindu  superstitions,  but  decidedly  polytheistic. 
The  "  Reformer,"  in  the  English  language  entirely,  and  the  first 
newspaper  conducted  in  English  by  natives,  advocates  the  Ve- 
dant  system,  but  is  temperate.  The  "  Inquirer,"  also  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  the  organ  of  the  education  party  among  the 
natives.  The  "  Gyananeshun,"  wholly  in  the  Bengal  language, 
resolutely  attacks  the  Brahminical  order,  and  all  the  monstrous 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hindus.  There  is  another,  pub- 
lished in  the  Persian  language,  which  is  conducted  with  consid- 
erable talent,  but  chiefly  occupied  with  matter  not  generally 
interesting  to  Hindus  or  English.  All  these  are  hi  addition  to 
the  various  newspapers,  journals,  and  other  periodicals  published 
by  Britons,  of  which  there  are  not  few,  and  several  of  them 
decidedly  pure  and  religious  in  their  character.  For  English 
readers  there  are  several  newspapers  and  magazines,  and  two 
medical  journals.  The  Asiatic  Society,  founded  in  1784,  con- 
tinues its  elevated  career,  and  annually  renders  important  contri- 
butions to  general,  as  well  as  Oriental  science  and  literature. 
The  Calcutta  Christian  Observer  is  an  admirable  monthly,  sus- 
tained by  all  persuasions,  and  replete  with  information,  not  only 
on  missionary,  but  scientific  and  literary  subjects. 

The  Hindu  and  Mussulman  religious  edifices  in  Calcutta  are 
few  and  mean ;  strongly  contrasting  with  those  in  some  other 
parts  of  the  country,  and  with  the  stupendous  pagodas  and 
splendid  zayats  of  the  Burmans.  The  mosques  resemble  Orien- 
tal mausoleums,  seldom  larger  than  a  native's  hut,  and  often  not 
bigger  than  a  dog-house.  The  dome  is  almost  always  semi- 
spherical,  and  generally  the  plaster,  which  covers  the  brick  walls, 
is  wrought  into  minute  ornaments,  of  Arabesque  tracery;  not  al- 
ways tasteful,  or  even  chaste.  Tombs,  both  for  Europeans  and 
rich  natives,  are  often  so  built,  that  natives  might  dwell  in  them 
very  comfortably,  and  remind  one  of  some  passages  in  Scripture, 
where  lunatics  and  others  are  said  to  live  in  tombs.  They  re- 
semble handsome  summer-houses,  and  afford  all  the  shelter  a 
Hindu  desires,  and  much  more  than  he  often  enjoys. 
3* 


30  HINDUSTAN. 

The  conspicuousness  of  the  late  Ram  Mohun  Roy,  and  the 
eclat  given  for  a  time  to  the  reformation,  which  he  was  supposed 
to  be  effecting,  called  me  to  his  meeting  with  feelings  of  no 
ordinary  interest.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Lacroix,  to  whom  the  language 
is  perfectly  familiar,  kindly  took  me  to  the  Bromha  Sobha,  as  the 
congregation  is  called,  and  interpreted  for  me  the  substance  of 
the  various  exercises.  We  found  the  place  to  be  a  commodious 
hall,  in  a  respectable  Hindu  dwelling-house.  There  was  no  idol, 
or  idolatrous  representation,  of  any  kind.  On  a  small  stage, 
raised  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  floor,  handsomely  car- 
peted, sat  cross-legged  two  respectable-looking  pundits.  One 
side  of  the  room  was  spread  with  clean  cloths  for  the  native 
attendants,  who  sat  after  the  manner  of  the  country ;  and  on  the 
other  were  chairs  for  the  accommodation  of  strangers.  In  the 
centre,  and  opposite  to  the  rostrum,  lay  some  native  musical 
instruments,  and  a  violin.  The  room  was  well  lighted,  and  the 
punkas  of  course  waved  overhead. 

One  of  the  pundits  opened  the  services  by  reading  Sunscrit, 
from  a  loose  palm-leaf  held  in  his  hand,  stopping  at  every  two 
or  three  words,  to  expound  and  enforce.  The  subject  was 
knowledge  —  what  it  was,  and  what  it  was  not,  &c.  Abstract 
ethical  questions  were  discussed,  not  unlike  the  fashion  of  the 
old  scholastics;  but  no  moral  deductions  were  made,  nor  any 
thing  said  to  improve  the  hearers.  The  whole  discourse  must 
have  been  unintelligible  to  most  of  them. 

The  other  then  read  a  discourse  in  Bengalee,  consisting 
chiefly  of  explanations  of  their  i-eligious  system,  and  encomiums 
on  it.  He  particularly  dwelt  on  its  liberality ;  boasting  that  they 
quarrelled  with  no  name  or  persuasion ;  and  assuring  us,  that  it 
was  of  no  consequence  whether  we  worshipped  idols,  Mahomet, 
Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Virgin  Mary ;  that  it  was  not  possible  to 
come  to  any  certain  knowledge  respecting  religious  things ;  and 
that  if  any  man  believed  his  way  to  be  right,  that  way  was  right  for 
him.  These  discourses  extended  to  about  an  hour  ;  and  the  rest 
of  the  time,  about  another  hour,  was  occupied  with  music.  At 
the  close  of  the  preaching,  professed  musicians  advanced  to  the 
instruments,  and,  seating  themselves  on  the  mats,  put  them  in 
tune,  with  the  usual  amount  of  discord.  Two  of  them  then 
sang  several  hymns,  with  instruments  accompanying  it.  The 
themes  were  the  unity  of  the  Divine  Essence,  and  the  various  attri- 
butes of  majesty  and  power.  No  one  joined  the  strain,  nor  were 
there  any  books  to  enable  them  to  do  so.  Nothing  could  be 
less  reverent  or  devotional,  than  the  manner  of  the  musicians. 


CALCUTTA.  31 

They  looked  about  them  with  all  possible  self-complacency, 
making  unmeaning  gestures,  bowing  and  blinking  to  each  other, 
and  vociferating  with  such  a  nasal  twang,  that  it  was  a  re- 
lief when  they  had  finished.  I  thought  it  was  literally 
such  music  as  the  poet  speaks  of —  intended  "  to  soothe  savage 
breasts;"  for  certainly  no  other  could  well  endure  it. 

On  their  retiring,  a  very  different  singer  took  the  place,  and 
proceeded  for  half  an  hour  with  great  power  of  execution,  and 
not  a  little  taste.  His  voice  was  uncommonly  fine.  He  accom- 
panied himself  skilfully  on  the  native  guitar.  The  violin  had 
been  well  played  from  the  beginning,  and  the  music  was  now 
truly  excellent,  furnishing,  1  was  informed,  a  fair  specimen  of  the 
best  Bengal  art.  The  singer,  as  well  as  the  violinist,  is  distin- 
guished at  the  nautch  entertainments  of  the  city.  The  subject 
was  still  the  attributes  of  God.  The  Bengalee  language  has,  for 
this  purpose,  a  noble  advantage  over  ours,  in  numerous  expres- 
sions derived  from  the  Sunscrit,  which  utter  in  a  single  word 
what  may  be  called  the  negative  attributes,  and  which  we  cannot 
express  with  brevity ;  such  as,  "  He  that  needs  no  refuge  ; "  "  He 
that  is  never  perplexed ; "  "  He  that  can  never  grow  weary ; "  &c. 
The  singer  used  these  epithets  with  great  majesty ;  using  ani- 
mated gestures,  and  with  a  countenance  finely  varying  with  the 
theme.     At  the  close  of  this  exercise,  the  assembly  broke  up. 

No  female  was  present,  nor  do  any  ever  attend.  Most  of  the 
congregation  came  in  only  in  time  to  hear  the  music,  and  stood 
near  the  staircase,  not  without  disorder.  The  number  of  the 
regular  attendants  was  not  over  twenty.  I  am  informed,  thirty 
is  the  largest  number  ever  present.  The  spectators  were  some- 
what more  numerous. 

Few  of  the  professed  adherents  are  so  confident  of  then  recti- 
tude, as  to  detach  themselves  wholly  from  the  common  religious 
customs,  though  more  negligent  in  these  matters  than  their  neigh- 
bors. The  very  pundits  officiate,  not  because  converts  to  these 
opinions,  (for  such  they  do  not  profess  to  be,)  but  because  regularly 
paid  for  their  services.  One  of  them,  in  his  discourse  this  evening, 
expressly  told  us  that  there  was  no  impropriety  in  worshipping 
idols  —  a  doctrine  which  R.  Roy  would  not  admit.  The  musi- 
cians also  are  paid,  and  perform  here  for  the  same  reasons  that 
they  do  at  a  nautch,  so  that  the  whole  concern  is  sustained  by 
the  money  of  a  few  friends,  and  descendants  of  R.  Roy. 

Such  is  the  boasted  reformation  of  Ram  Mohim  Roy !  Not 
another  congregation  of  his  followers  is  found  in  all  India !  Of 
his  labors  as  a  reformer,  this  is  the  sum:  —  Fifty  or  a  hundred 


32  HINDUSTAN. 

persons  rendered  negligent  of  the  national  religion,  or  gathered 
here  because  they  were  so  before,  without  being  a  whit  the 
better  in  their  private  life  or  public  influence ;  hi  some  cases, 
adding  the  sins  of  Europeans  to  those  of  their  countrymen; 
without  being  disentangled  from  the  horrid  system  of  the  Shas- 
ters ;  without  being  ready,  or  without  the  moral  courage,  to  re- 
store to  their  own  wives  and  daughters  the  rights  of  human 
nature.  With  all  the  superiority  to  prejudice  and  custom, 
boasted  by  Ram  Mohun  Roy,  he  did  nothing  for  the  elevation  of 
the  sex. 

A  striking  instance  of  this  occurred,  not  very  long  since,  in 
the  case  of  D.  T.,  one  of  his  most  intelligent  followers. 
This  gentleman  is  a  partner  in  a  European  house,  in  the  habit 
of  mixing  with  European  gentlemen,  and  evidently  much  more 
enlightened  than  most  of  his  countrymen.  Yet  was  he  so 
much  under  the  influence  of  Hindu  public  opinion,  as  to  marry 
his  daughter  to  a  Ku-len  Brahmin,  for  the  purpose  of  elevating 
the  family  above  the  reproach  occasioned  by  one  of  his  ances- 
tors, with  many  others,  having  been  compelled  to  eat  beef,  by  a 
Mahometan  enemy  named  Per  Ali.  The  young  lady  is  well 
educated,  reads  and  writes  English,  and  is  remarkably  intelligent. 
The  Brahmin  is  as  ignorant  as  the  rest  of  his  class,  and  will 
probably  marry  others,  as  avarice  or  caprice  may  move  him. 
Brahmins  of  this  caste  may  marry  any  number  of  wives,  but  are 
not  bound  to  live  with  them.  They  not  unfrequently  leave  a  wife 
after  a  few  weeks,  and  never  see  her  again.  She  is  thus  doomed 
to  hopeless  widowhood,  merely  to  gratify  the  ambition  of  her 
family.  Thus  completely  is  Ram  Mohun  Roy's  principal  disciple 
under  the  influence  of  a  thraldom  which  that  great  man  professed 
to  despise.  A  good  school  would  have  done  more  than  all  that 
has  been  accomplished  by  the  Bromha  Sobha.  We  should  ex- 
pect pupils  who  had  become  so  far  released  from  Hindu  preju- 
dice, to  advance  to  a  complete  emancipation.  But  this  people 
show  no  tendency  to  advance ;  they  have  long  stood  still ;  and 
every  thing  already  wears  an  aspect  of  decrepitude  and  decay. 
What  a  monument  of  the  entire  inefficacy  of  unassisted  reason,  to 
ameliorate  the  religious  condition  of  any  people !  Already  may 
the  undertaking  of  this  truly  great  man  be  pronounced  a  failure ; 
and  soon  all  traces  of  it  will  be  lost  from  earth. 

R.  Roy  established  a  weekly  newspaper,  called  the  Re- 
former, which  was  intended  chiefly  to  excite  among  those 
Hindus  who  understand  English,  a  desire  for  improvement  in 
their  civil  condition.     It  is  yet  continued,  edited  by  an  intelligent 


33 


native ;  though  incorporated  now  with  a  Calcutta  paper,  con- 
ducted by  a  European.  It  has  often  contained  well-written 
papers  against  Churruck  Pooja,  Ku-len  marriages,  and  the  other 
abominations  of  the  Hindu  system,  and  is,  doubtless,  as  at  present 
conducted,  a  valuable  journal. 

R  Roy  was  not  a  Unitarian  Christian,  but  a  Unitarian  Hindu. 
He  believed  that  there  was  such  a  person  as  Jesus  Christ,  and 
that  he  was  the  best  moral  teacher  the  world  ever  saw;  but 
regarded  his  death  as  having  no  efficacy  of  atonement  His 
capacious  mind,  and  extensive  knowledge  of  the  Shasters,  im- 
pelled him  to  abhor  the  abominations  of  the  Veda,  and  the  mon- 
strosities of  its  thirty-three  millions  of  gods.  But  he  found  in 
the  Vedanta  Sar  (an  exposition  of  the  four  Vedas)  a  sort  of  Uni- 
tarianism,  which  he  endeavored  on  all  occasions  to  disseminate. 
The  doctrine  might  as  well  be  called  pantheism ;  for  it  main- 
tains the  old  Pythagorean  doctrine,  that  God  is  the  soul  of  the 
world,  and  that  every  an  una],  plant,  or  stone,  is  therefore  part  of 
Deity.  It  makes  perfect  religion  to  consist  in  knowledge  alone, 
or  the  realizing  in  every  thing  the  Supreme  Being;  and  ex- 
cludes ceremonies  of  all  kinds. 

There  was  formerly  a  Unitarian  Christian  congregation  in 
Calcutta,  established  under  the  care  of  Rev.  W.  Adams,  (previ- 
ously a  missionary,)  who  met  for  a  short  time  at  a  private  house. 
The  first  Sunday  they  had  sixty  or  seventy  persons  present,  the 
second  fifty ;  and  soon  only  five  attended.  Mr.  Adams,  thus  dis- 
concerted, became  the  editor  of  a  paper,  and  subsequently  ac- 
cepted an  appointment  under  government,  to  visit  various  parts 
of  India,  and  to  report  on  the  state  of  education  in  the  ulterior. 
In  this  last  capacity,  he  has  acquired  honorable  distinction,  and 
increasing  usefulness.  His  reports  are  exciting  great  attention, 
and  show  not  only  unwearied  industry,  but  superior  talents. 


The  population  of  Calcutta  is  ascertained,  by  a  census  just 
taken,  to  be  229,000  within  the  ditch  ;  and  500,000  are  supposed 
to  reside  in  the  immediate  suburbs.  Within  a  circuit  of  twenty 
miles,  the  population  is  generally  set  down  at  two  millions.  Of 
the  number  within  the  city,  about  130,000  are  Hindus,  60,000 
Mussulmans,  3000  English,  and  3000  Portuguese,  or  Indo-Britons ; 
the  rest  are  French,  Chinese,  Armenians,  Jews,  Moguls,  Parsees, 
Arabs,  Mugs,  Madrasees,  &c.  The  whole  number  of  houses  is 
66,000 ;  of  which  nearly  15,000  are  brick ;  the  rest  are  of  mud  or 
mats.     Officers  stationed  at  the  principal  avenues  into  the  city, 


34  HINDUSTAN. 

found  that  about  100,000  persons  enter  daily  from  the  surround- 
ing villages  ;  chiefly  sircars,  clerks,  servants,  fruiterers,  &c. 

The  means  now  in  operation,  for  the  education  and  religious 
instruction  of  this  vast  population,  have  in  part  been  mentioned. 
That  they  are  so  great,  is  matter  of  devout  thanksgiving  and 
encouragement;  but  then  distressing  inadequacy  to  the  wants 
of  such  a  multitude  is  obvious. 

Society  in  Calcutta,  like  that  of  other  places,  where  a  large 
portion  of  the  gentry  live  on  stated  salaries,  has  a  tendency  to 
extravagance.  Most  families  live  fully  up  to  then  income,  and 
many,  especially  junior  officers,  go  deeply  in  debt.  The  ex- 
penses of  living  are,  in  their  chief  points,  as  follows  :  —  Servants' 
wages,  from  four  to  six  rupees,  without  food  or  lodging ;  rent  of 
a  small,  plain  house,  fifty  to  eighty  rupees  a  month  ;  rice,  three 
and  a  half  rupees  a  maund  ;  fowls,  two  to  three  annas  each ; 
ducks,  five  to  six  annas  apiece ;  washing,  three  rupees  per  hun- 
dred pieces ;  board  and  lodging  of  one  person,  per  month,  in  a 
plain  way,  fifty  rupees. 

A  few  years  since,  the  state  of  morals  was  generally  bad,  both 
in  the  city  and  Mofussil.  Scarcely  any  officers  or  civil  ser- 
vants were  pious,  and  the  marriage  tie  seemed  held  in  contempt. 
Gross  immoralities  are  now  more  rare,  and,  where  they  exist, 
less  shamelessly  exposed.  A  considerable  number  of  distin- 
guished individuals,  both  in  the  civil  and  military  service,  are  not 
only  avowedly,  but  earnestly  pious.  The  strong  and  constant 
resistance,  lately  made  by  the  government  of  India  to  the  spread 
of  the  gospel,  is  within  the  memory  of  every  reader.  This  re- 
sistance was  enforced  and  stimulated  by  almost  every  European 
resident,  especially  among  the  higher  classes.  They  really  be- 
lieved, that  to  permit  missionary  operations,  was  to  hazard  their 
possession  of  the  country ;  and  that  violent  commotions  on  the 
part  of  the  people,  would  follow  any  attempt  to  overturn  their 
religion.  Now,  the  missionary,  in  every  part  of  India,  meets 
kind  and  respectful  treatment  from  Europeans,  and  in  many 
places  liberal  contributions  are  made  toward  their  schools.  It 
is  found  that  the  natives  can  hear  their  religion  pronounced 
false,  and  even  hold  animated  debates  on  the  subject,  without 
dreaming  of  revolt.  No  convulsions  have  ever  resulted  from 
evangelical  labor,  nor  have  any  chiefs  taken  offence,  on  this  ac- 
count, against  the  government. 

There  is  still  room  for  great  improvement,  especially  in  regard 
to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath.     Merchants,  tradesmen,  and 


CALCUTTA.  35 

mechanics,  generally,  keep  their  people  at  work  on  that  day  as 
usual.  Buildings  go  on,  ship-yards  resound  with  the  hammer 
and  axe,  goods  are  borne  through  the  streets,  bazars  are  open, 
the  gentry  take  their  usual  drive,  and  Sunday  is  as  little  discov- 
erable by  appearances  as  in  Paris.  The  general  reason  given  is, 
that  the  religion  of  the  laborers  is  not  infringed.  But  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  commandment  is  — "  Thou  shalt  not 
do  any  work,  thou,  nor  thy  son,  nor  thy  daughter,  thy  man-ser- 
vant, nor  thy  maid-servant,  nor  thy  cattle,  nor  the  stranger  that 
is  within  thy  gates." 

The  state  of  religion,  as  we  commonly  understand  that  phrase, 
is  veiy  low.  I  attended  most  of  the  principal  Protestant  places 
of  worship,  and,  by  actual  enumeration,  found  the  largest  audi- 
ence not  to  exceed  two  hundred  and  fifty  persons.  Several  of 
them  were  not  more  than  one  third  that  number.  The  church 
in  the  fort,  being  attended  by  troops,  according  to  regulation,  is 
full.  The  monthly  concert  of  prayer  is  held  unitedly  by  all  the 
churches  except  one.  At  one  of  these  meetings  which  I  at- 
tended, only  sixty  persons  were  present,  and  in  the  other  about 
eighty.  During  the  week,  there  are  few  prayer-meetings ;  and 
those  which  I  attended  seldom  had  more  than  from  six  to  ten 
persons  present  I  could  not  hear  of  a  single  Sunday  School  in 
the  city.  The  announcement  of  the  anniversaries  of  the  Tract 
and  Bible  Societies  awakened  the  most  pleasing  expectations ; 
but  at  neither  of  them  were  there  more  than  seventy-five  persons 
present,  beside  the  ministers. 

Benevolent  institutions  are  numerous,  and  generally  supported 
with  great  liberality.  Beside  those  which  have  been  named,  are 
the  Bible  Association,  the  Committee  of  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society,  the  Church  Missionary  Association,  the  Diocesan 
Committee  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  the  Auxiliary 
Missionary  Society,  the  Bethel  Union,  the  Seaman's  Friend  So- 
ciety, the  Military  Orphan  Society,  the  Military  Widows'  Fund, 
Lord  Clive's  Fund,  the  King's  Military  Fund,  the  Marine  Pension 
Fund,  the  Civil  Fund,  the  Mariners'  and  General  Widows'  Fund, 
the  Presidency  General  Hospital,  the  Native  Hospital,  the  Hos- 
pital for  Native  Lunatics,  the  Government  Establishment  for 
Vaccination,  the  Charitable  Fund  for  the  Relief  of  Distressed 
Europeans,  the  European  Female  Orphan  Society. 

Calcutta  has  sixteen  Episcopal  clergymen,  viz.,  six  Company's 
chaplains,  two  chaplains  to  institutions,  two  professors  in  Bishop's 


36  HINDUSTAN. 

College,  and  six  Missionaries.  There  are  also  one  Scotch  Kirk 
chaplain,  one  pastor,  and  tln-ee  missionaries  of  the  Independent 
persuasion,  two  Scotch  Presbyterians,  and  six  Baptist  missionaries, 
and  several  others;  making,  in  all,  with  the  bishop,  mariners' 
minister,  &c,  about  thirty-five  Christian  ministers,  beside  those 
of  the  Armenian,  Greek,  and  Catholic  churches. 

There  are  in  the  city  eleven  Christian  places  of  worship, 
generally  large,  where  services  are  held  every  Sunday  in  English. 
Of  these,  five  are  Episcopal,  two  Baptist,  one  Scotch,  one  Inde- 
pendent, and  a  floating  chapel,  for  seamen.  There  are  also 
three  Roman  Catholic  churches,  one  Armenian,  and  one  Greek. 
At  Ilowrab,  Kidderpore,  and  other  adjacent  villages,  preaching 
in  English  is  also  regularly  maintained.  Each  of  the  Baptist 
churches  have  handsome  brick  meeting-houses.  Mr.  Yates  is 
pastor  in  Circular  Road;  Mr. Robinson  was,  till  recently,  settled 
over  Lallbazar,  and  Mr.  Pearce  over  the  Bengaleese.  A  vast  print- 
ing-office and  type  foundry,  gradually  enlarged  to  its  present  di- 
mensions at  a  cost  of  nearly  $100,000,  with  three  excellent  dwell- 
ing-houses, have  been  erected,  without  pecuniary  aid  from  Eng- 
land, and  chiefly  through  the  profits  on  the  printing-office.  This 
establishment  not  only  prints  largely  in  English  for  government 
and  individuals,  but  in  all  the  written  Oriental  languages,  and 
casts  type  in  most  of  them.  Six  presses,  on  an  average,  are  con- 
stantly employed  in  printing  the  Scriptures.  Mr.  Yates,  beside 
officiating  as  English  pastor,  has  acquired  great  celebrity  for 
skill  in  Bengalee  and  Hindustanee,  and  for  his  admirable  revision 
of  those  versions.  He  seems  raised  up  to  complete  the  labors 
of  Carey  in  these  important  translations.  Many  recollect  with 
pleasure  his  visit  to  this  country. 

Beside  the  places  of  worship  for  foreigners,  there  are,  in  and 
around  the  city,  various  preaching  bungalows  and  chapels  for 
the  natives.  Of  these,  four  are  maintained  by  Episcopalians, 
four  by  Baptists,  five  by  Independents,  and  one  by  the  Scotch 
Kirk.  Some  of  these  are  daily  occupied,  and,  in  general,  with 
encouraging  attendance. 

I  was  several  times  present  on  these  occasions,  in  different 
parts  of  the  city,  and  was  deeply  interested  with  the  decorum 
and  earnestness  of  attention  shown  by  the  auditors.  As  a  speci- 
men of  these  occasions,  I  will  describe  one  which  I  attended 
with  the  Rev.  Mr.  La  Croix,  a  German  missionary,  who  has 
acquired  such  a  command  of  the  Bengalee,  as  to  be  as  much  at 


CALCUTTA.  37 

home  in  it  as  in  his  mother  tongue.  He  devotes  himself  wholly 
to  preaching  and  other  evangelical  labors,  and  unites  great 
bodily  vigor  to  untiring  energy,  and  ardent  interest  in  his  work. 

On  arriving  at  the  place,  no  one  had  assembled ;  but  no  sooner 
were  we  seated,  than  some  passers-by  began  to  collect,  and  the 
number  gradually  increased,  during  the  services,  to  seventy  or 
eighty.  Some  sat  down,  but  the  greater  part  remained  standing, 
and  scarcely  advanced  beyond  the  door.  For  a  while,  the 
preacher  went  on  expounding  and  arguing,  without  interruption ; 
but  at  length  some  well-dressed  persons  proposed  objections, 
and  but  for  the  skill  of  the  missionary,  the  sermon  would  have 
degenerated  into  a  dispute.  The  objections  showed  not  only 
acuteness,  but  often  considerable  knowledge  of  the  Christian 
Scriptures.  Some  countenances  evinced  deep  anxiety.  Some- 
times there  was  a  general  murmur  of  applause,  when  strong 
arguments  were  advanced,  or  satisfactory  expositions  given.  At 
the  close  of  the  meeting,  many  accepted  tracts,  selecting  such  as 
they  had  not  seen  before.  One  of  the  most  venerable  hearers, 
and  a  chief  speaker,  approached  us  as  we  came  away,  and  pro- 
nounced upon  us,  in  his  own  manner,  but  very  solemnly,  a  cordial 
benediction  ;  declaring,  at  the  same  time,  that  what  we  advanced 
was  all  good ;  that,  no  doubt,  Christianity  was  the  best  religion, 
but  that  too  many  difficulties  were  yet  in  the  way,  to  permit  him 
and  his  countrymen  to  embrace  it.  I  am  sure  no  Christian  could 
be  present  on  these  occasions  without  being  satisfied  of  the  im- 
portance of  maintaining  these  efforts,  and  cheered  to  exertions 
for  their  extension. 

I  attended  worship,  on  several  occasions,  at  Rev.  W.  H. 
Pearce's  native  chapel ;  and  was  highly  gratified,  not  only  with 
the  number  present,  and  their  deportment,  but  especially  with 
the  psalmody.  All  united,  with  great  animation,  in  this  delight- 
ful part  of  Christian  worship.  Two  of  their  tunes  I  was  enabled 
to  obtain  in  writing,  and  insert  them  here,  confident  that  they 
will  possess  interest ;  only  regretting  that  I  was  not  able  to  se- 
cure, in  the  same  way,  some  of  the  equally  pleasing  airs  of  the 
Karens  at  Tavoy. 

VOL.   II.  4 


38 


HINDUSTAN. 


BENGALEE    AIR, 


S0NG    BY    NATIVE    CHRISTIANS    IN    CALCUTTA. 


Andante. 


the  author,  by  LOWELL  MASON,  E*j. 


Je    jan 


a    pan     pran  -  a       di   -    a    pa  -  pi      u 


©zt5Er=i 


%mm£$m$ 


£ 


£ 


-  dha  -  re 


O  man     bhu  -  -  a        na     tan   -   re 


ilPiliip^^iii^g 


j  .X:J.flja 


1 1 -^i 1 =-%« a* 1 1 H 1 


i — i r 


*si — 9* — i r 


Na  bho  -  li  -  o        ar    ka  -  ra        se  -  i 


Nabho 


%^^mm^^m^mm 


i  i  ^1  i  JS 


f 


mmmmmm 


li  -  o     ar    ka-  ra    se  -  i        sar        I  -  su     Bram  -  a     nam- 


JggjgfegEEfe 


~i r 


m 


CALCUTTA. 


39 


K f_( ^_^-p— j,-* -J — # p  ^_, 

^       I      I 1  III  I      ^^ 


a  tran-  er  -  a      ta  -  re  O  man    bho  -  la  na  tan  -  re 


S 


mmmt^mmm 


•mg^m$mmi 


Se      jan         a      pan      pran  -  a  di  -   a    pa    pi 


teggig^=g=Ef^f^=i 


;.£H 


-r-1 

dha  -  re 


B: 


O  man      bho  -   la 


bho  -   la       na       ta    -  re. 


IggEEgEEp 


The  above  hymn  was  written  by  Krishnu,  a  native  preacher. 
The  following  is  a 


FREE    TRANSLATION. 


1. 


He  who  yielded  once  his  breath, 
Sinful  man  to  save  from  death, 
O  my  soul,  forget  not  Him 
Forget  not  Him. 

2. 
Troubled  soul,  forget  no  more 
God's  best  gift,  thy  richest  store,  — 
Christ  the  Lord,  whose  holy  name 
Now  saves  from  shame. 


Cease  thy  fruitless  toil  and  care ; 
Christ  will  all  thy  burden  bear ; 
Grace  and  love  shall  soothe  the  breast 
That  sighs  for  rest. 

4. 
He  is  truth,  and  mercy  mild  — 
He  in  death  with  pity  smiled  — 
Shed  his  crimson  blood  abroad  — 
Leads  man  to  God. 


Faithful  Friend!  on  thee  I  call, — 
By  day,  by  night,  my  all  in  all. 
Thy  name,  sweet  Jesus,  brings  relief, 
And  stays  my  grief. 


40 


HINDUSTAN. 


ANOTHER. 


TrznES=EF^nz^^l^=J^HibiT 


6   man  stir  -  a    stir  -  a  stir  -  a  na   hai   o    a  -  stir  -  a    a-se 


:f=?= 


^ 


^mmt 


hh-n-  , 


giyj.JjCS 


f 


JJ    J 


:P- 


i 


tf+f—p- 


n     Li  T  wi 


che  prim  -  er-a     Sa-gar  -  -  -  a. 


— ^mift  ^^ft-t=ppfc= r=J=wr^IZ-^ 


Ji-sur  na-me  ha-ba    par. 

BE* 


p.. 


Cut*  •'  »  J         i     J  S I     *  i       l    . 

cm  t  ft^  ,771^^^ 

-sur  na-me  ha-ba    par.     O  man  tran-a  kar-ta    ke-ha  na-hi    ar 


O   re   man     de-kha  tran-a   kar-ta    ke-  ha   na-  hi    ar. 


LITERAL    TRANSLATION. 

O,  my  soul,  be  steady,  be  steady,  be  not  unsteady  ! 

The  sea  of  love  is  come  ! 

The  name  of  Jesus  bears  thee  over. 

O,  my  soul,  there  is  no  Savior  but  Jesus. 

Chorus.    O,  my  soul!    See! 

There  is  no  Savior  but  Jesus. 


CALCUTTA.  41 

In  some  places,  numerous  individuals  have  openly  renounced 
caste,  and  become  nominal  Christians,  but  without  indicating  or 
professing  a  change  of  heart  These  form  a  class  at  once  en- 
couraging and  troublesome  —  encouraging,  because  they  have 
broken  from  a  fatal  thraldom,  and  placed  themselves  and  their 
children  in  the  way  of  religious  instruction  —  troublesome,  be- 
cause, while  they  come,  in  some  degree,  under  the  control  of  the 
missionary,  they  are  not  reclaimed  even  to  a  strict  morality,  and 
are  naturally  regarded  by  the  heathen  as  exemplifying  our  religion. 

In  a  few  cases,  the  native  Christians  have  been  gathered  into 
villages,  together  with  others,  who,  for  various  reasons,  have  re- 
nounced idolatry.  One  of  these  is  near  Serampore,  superin- 
tended by  the  missionaries  there  ;  another  is  at  Luk-yan-ti-pore, 
thirty-five  miles  south  of  Calcutta;  another  at  Kharee,  fifteen 
miles  further  south.  The  two  latter  are  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Rev.  Geo.  Pearce,  of  Seeb-pore,  and  contain  one  hundred 
and  seventy  families.  It  is  but  eight  years  since  any  of  these 
people  professed  Christianity ;  and  the  baptized  now  amount  to 
about  fifty.  Rev.  Mr.  De  Monte,  an  East  Indian,  and  three  native 
preachers,  have  the  immediate  charge,  Mr.  P.  visiting  them  once 
a  month.  The  most  promising  children  are  taken  to  the  Seeb- 
pore  and  Ilowrah  boarding-schools,  where  about  ninety  of  both 
sexes,  who  of  course  are  all  nominal  Christians,  are  now  re- 
ceiving a  regular  course  of  mental  and  moral  culture.  Persons 
who  join  these  villages,  under  a  nominal  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity, are  received  and  treated  as  catechumens.  They  are  re- 
quired to  promise  obedience  to  certain  rules  respecting  fornica- 
tion, theft,  fighting,  attendance  on  public  worship,  abstaining 
from  heathen  rites,  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  &c.  Them- 
selves and  their  children  are  thus  brought  immediately  under 
the  eye  of  a  Christian  teacher  and  the  means  of  grace.  None 
are  baptized,  but  on  a  satisfactory  evidence  of  conversion  to 
God. 

Beside  the  stations  in  connection  with  the  Baptist  mission- 
aries, there  are  similar  villages  patronized  by  other  sects,  viz., 
Ram  Makal  Choke,  and  Gangaree,  under  Mr.  Piffard,  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society ;  Nursider  Choke,  under  Mr.  Robin- 
son ;  Jhan-jara,  under  Mr.  Jones ;  Ban-i-pore,  under  Mr.  Driberg ; 
and  Budg-Budg,  under  Mr.  Sandys  ;  the  three  latter  in  connec- 
tion with  the  church  of  England-  The  whole  number  of  con- 
verts at  these  stations  I  could  not  learn,  but  am  assured  that  it 
exceeds  two  thousand.  The  degree  of  knowledge  and  piety 
4* 


42  HINDUSTAN. 

must  be  small,  among  converts  possessing  so  lew  and  recent 
means  of  spiritual  improvement,  exposed  to  so  many  snares, 
trained  from  infancy  to  every  vice,  and  belonging,  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  lowest  classes.  Still  there  is  an  evident  superiority, 
on  the  side  of  even  the  nominal  Christians. 

Christianity  is  certainly  gaining  a  footing  among  the  natives 
of  Bengal ;  though  the  rate  of  advancement  is  slow.  There  is 
the  fullest  evidence  that  the  Hindu  system  has  received,  in  this 
presidency  at  least,  a  great  check.  Few  of  the  numerous  indi- 
viduals, who  have  received  education  in  the  missionary  and  gov- 
ernment schools,  retain  confidence  in  the  system  of  their  fathers. 
This  class  of  persons  is  now  rapidly  multiplying,  and  the  stand- 
ard of  their  education  becoming  more  elevated.  A  smattering 
of  geography  and  astronomy,  is  itself  sufficient  to  break  the 
power  of  the  prevailing  belief  on  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  The 
preaching  of  missionaries;  the  distribution  of  Bibles  aud'tracts, 
and  the  natural  inquiries  elicited  by  the  presence  of  so  many 
intelligent  foreigners  professing  Christianity,  have  tended  to  dif- 
fuse still  more  widely  the  knowledge  and  claims  of  true  religion. 
Multitudes  are  convinced  that  their  system  is  wrong,  who  are  yet 
retained  in  the  ranks  of  idolatry  or  Mahometanisrn  by  a  fear, 
lest  possibly,  the  faith  of  then  fathers  may  be  best  for  them, 
and  a  want  of  principle,  sufficient  to  encounter  opposition  and 
suffering.  But  their  stated  observances  are  coldly  rendered; 
then  children  are  not  brought  up  with  the  old  enthusiasm  for  the 
national  faith;  and  a  thousand  acts  and  expressions  apprize 
those  children  of  their  parents'  true,  sentiments.  These,  together 
with  the  numerous  youths  who  are  receiving  education  from 
Europeans,  already  form  a  considerable  body  of  the  rising  gen- 
eration. Loosed,  in  a  good  degree,  from  the  intellectual  bondage 
which  has  griped  preceding  generations,  and  prepared,  in  various 
other  ways,  to  hear  preaching  with  profit,  they  form  an  increasing 
class,  to  which  the  friends  of  truth  may  look  with  hope. 

Brahmins  are  not  venerated  as  heretofore.  Though  thousands 
still  find  a  luxurious  competency  in  the  offerings  of  the  people, 
thousands  more  are  compelled  to  pursue  callings  which  throw 
them  into  society  divested  of  their  aristocratic  exclusiveness  and 
spiritual  influence.  I  have  often  seen  the  sacred  thread  over 
the  shoulders  of  common  sepoys,  market-men,  mechanics,  and 
door-keepers.  Enjoying  many  advantages,  and  given  to  polyga- 
my, they  multiply  faster  than  the   herd,  who  are  pinched  for 


SERAMPORE.  43 

subsistence,  and  often  suffer  from  actual  famine.  Such  increase 
must,  of  itself,  tend  to  the  reduction  of  their  supposed  sacred- 
ness  of  character. 

The  name  of  Serampore  is  so  intimately  associated  with  the 
history  of  modern  missions,  especially  those  of  the  Baptist  de- 
nomination, that  I  of  course  spent  some  time  there.  A  pleasant 
ride  of  fifteen  miles  brought  me  to  Barrackpore,  a  military  sta- 
tion on  the  river  side  opposite  to  Serampore,  and  the  seat  of  the 
governor-general's  country  residence.  The  road  is  bordered 
with  fine  trees  the  whole  distance,  and  the  country,  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  is  in  high  cultivation.  Many  laborers  were 
ploughing  —  an  operation  which  stirs  up  but  a  couple  of  inches 
of  soil,  and  would  call  forth  the  surprise  and  contempt  of  a  New- 
England  farmer.  The  plough  costs  but  fifty  cents,  and  the  min- 
iature oxen  which  draw  it,  but  five  dollars  the  pair.  The  latter 
are  generally  marked  all  over  with  lines  and  circles,  burnt  upon 
their  skin.  The  view  of  Serampore  from  the  river,  is  exceed- 
ingly attractive.  The  same  architecture  which  prevails  at  Cal- 
cutta, gives  the  houses  the  appearance  of  elegant  marble  villas ; 
and  the  huge  college,  with  its  superb  columns,  confers  dignity  on 
the  whole  scene.  The  river  is  here  about  eight  hundred  or  a 
thousand  yards  wide,  placid,  and  full  of  boats. 

The  population  of  Serampore  is  fifteen  thousand.  About  one 
hundred  of  the  houses  are  designed  for  Europeans,  but  nearly 
half  of  them  are  empty.  I  was  kindly  received  by  the  venerable 
survivor  of  that  noble  triumvirate,  which  will  never  be  forgotten 
while  missions  retain  an  advocate.  Though  in  his  sixty-ninth  year, 
Dr.  Marshman'a  eye  is  not  dim,  nor  his  step  slow.  He  leads  the 
singing  at  family  worship,  with  a  clear  and  full  voice  ;  preaches 
with  energy;  walks  rapidly  several  miles  every  morning,  and 
devotes  as  many  hours  every  day  to  study,  as  at  any  former  period. 
His  school  for  boys,  and  Mrs.  M.'s  for  girls,  are  continued,  though 
less  lucrative  than  hitherto,  from  the  number  of  similar  ones 
now  established  in  the  country. 

Every  .walk  through  the  town  and  its  environs,  presents 
objects  which  awaken  tender  and  serious  thought.  There 
is  the  Ghaut,  where,  thirty-six  years  ago,  Marshman  and  his 
family  landed,  friendless  and  discouraged  by  the  opposition 
of  the  Company's  government.  There,  twenty-four  years  ago, 
landed  Harriet  Newell  and  Ann  H.  Judson,  whose  feet  now  tread 
the  starry  plain.    And  up  those  steps,  for  many  years,  mission- 


44  HINDUSTAN. 

aries  of  all  names  and  parties  have  ascended,  to  receive  a  frater- 
nal welcome  to  India. 

Close  by  are  part  of  the  foundations  of  the  houses  of  Carey 
and  Ward,  long  since  overturned  by  the  encroachments  of  the 
river.  Further  down  is  the  printing-office,  whence  so  many 
thousands  of  thousands  of  portions  of  the  word  of  God,  in  lan- 
guages spoken  by  more  than  half  the  pagan  world,  have  been 
produced.  Still  further  is  the  college,  a  superb  and  vast  edifice, 
the  principal  hall  of  which  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  India.  It 
is  a  chaste  and  noble  building,  constructed  of  the  most  durable 
materials  throughout.  The  staircases  are  of  ornamental  cast 
iron,  imported  from  England  at  great  expense.  Its  library  is 
exceedingly  valuable,  and  contains  the  immense  collection  of 
dried  botanic  specimens  by  Dr.  Carey.  Connected  with  the  in- 
stitution are  about  one  hundred  pupils,  but  for  the  most  part 
young,  and  studying  only  preparatory  branches.  At  this  time, 
there  are  but  two  regular  students  in  the  college  proper. '  The 
building  was  erected  when  there  were  no  similar  institutions  in 
India,  and  shows  the  capacious  plans  and  noble  spirit  of  its 
founders.  But  the  starting  up  of  so  many  schools  of  similar 
character,  and  other  causes,  have  prevented  the  expected  acces- 
sion of  students.  There  is  reason  to  hope  that  the  active  opera- 
tion of  the  numerous  elementary  schools  in  the  vicinity  will,  ere 
long,  create  a  race  of  scholars  prepared  to  proceed  in  the  elevated 
course  of  studies  intended  to  be  here  pursued. 

In  the  rear  of  the  college  are  two  professors'  houses,  in  one 
of  which  Carey  spent  his  last  years.  The  room  in  which  he  died 
called  up  indescribable  sensations,  and  I  trust  wrought  improve- 
ment upon  my  spirit.  Behind  is  the  extensive  botanic  garden, 
where  that  wonderful  man,  by  way  of  relaxation,  gathered  a  vast 
collection  of  trees,  flowers,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  from  every  part 
of  India,  and  from  whence  he  diffused  a  taste  for  natural  science, 
which  is  now  yielding  invaluable  results. 

A  handsome  church  was  built  in  the  town,  by  the  Danish  gov- 
ernment, many  years  ago ;  but  no  chaplain  has  ever  been  ap- 
pointed, and  the  missionaries  have  always  officiated  there.  They 
have,  beside  this,  a  commodious  chapel  of  their  own,  where  wor- 
ship is  performed  on  week  days  and  Sunday  evenings,  and  a 
considerable  church  of  natives.  A  mile  and  a  half  from  town  is 
another. 

A  little  to  the  north  of  the  town,  in  a  calm  and  retired  spot,  is 
the  mission  grave-yard,  surrounded  with  palm  groves.    It  con- 


' 


SEKAMPO.RE.  45 

tains  about  an  acre,  enclosed  with  a  good  brick  wall ;  and  along 
its  nice  gravel  walks  are  mahogany  trees,  set  at  proper  distances. 
The  monument  for  Ward  is  a  circular  pavilion,  beautiful  and 
chaste,  with  a  suitable  inscription  ou  one  side,  read  from  within. 
Carey's  is  a  plain  cenotaph,  built  many  years  ago,  for  some  of 
his  family,  and  now  bearing  additional  inscriptions  for  himself 
and  his  widow.  His  own  epitaph,  by  his  express  direction,  is 
merely  this :  — 

WILLIAM   CAREY, 

Born    17th    of    August, 1761. 

Died  9th  of  June,  1834. 

"A  wretched,  poor,  and  helpless  worm, 
On  thy  kind  arms  I  fall." 

Mrs.  Carey,  his  third  wife,  died  about  a  year  after  her  husband. 
Mr.  Ward's  widow  survived  him  ten  years.  Carey's  son  is  now 
a  missionary  in  the  upper  provinces.  AVard  left  two  daughters, 
both  of  whom  are  pious,  and  have  been  married  several  years. 

This  mission  was  commenced  in  1793.  Its  history  is  too  well 
known  to  leave  me  the  necessity  of  describing  it,  or  dwelling  on 
its  fruits.  It  was  the  commencement  of  those  grand  operations, 
which  we  trust  the  church  will  never  relinquish  till  the  earth  be 
filled  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord.  With  the  exception  of 
what  had  been  done  in  the  Tamul  and  Malayalini  languages,  the 
whole  of  India  was  then  entirely  destitute  of  the  Scriptures  in 
their  vernacular  tongues.  Few  in  number,  and  sustained  by 
their  own  resources,  the  missionaries  have  given  the  world  the 
whole  Bible  in  Sunscrit,  Chinese,  Bengalee,  Hindu,  Mahratta, 
Oriya,  Sikh,  Pushtu  or  Afghan,  Cashmere,  and  Assamee ;  and  the 
New  Testament  in  the  Gujeratee,  Kunkiui,  Multanee,  Bikaneer, 
Bhugulcund,  Maruar,  Nepaul,  Harotee,  Kanoja,  Mugudh,  Oojuy- 
i-ne,  Jumbo,  Bhutneer,  Munipore,  Bruj,  Kemaoon,  Slu-ee-nagur, 
and  Palpa ;  beside  portions  of  the  New  Testament  in  various 
other  languages.  Some  of  these  versions  have  been  repeatedly 
revised,  and  successive  editions  printed. 

There  are  now  eighteen  mission  stations,  and  twenty-two 
churches,  connected  with  Serampore  ;  at  which  are  laboring  five 
Europeans,  and  twenty-two  Indo-Britons,  with  twenty-five  native 
preachers  and  catechists.  Of  the  eleven  members  which  con- 
stituted the  first  church  in  India,  Mr.  Marshman  and  wife  alone 
remain. 

The  late  transfer  of  the  printing-office,  and  steam  paper-mill, 


46  HINDUSTAN. 

to  Mr.  John  C.  Marshman,  has  been  matter  of  much  discussion, 
and  seems  not  clearly  understood.  The  explanation  given  me  on 
the  spot  amounted  to  this :  Some  years  before  Dr.  Carey's  death, 
the  concern  was  deemed  bankrupt.  The  printing-office,  paper- 
mill,  and  other  property,  valued  at  about  12G,000  rupees,  was 
made  over,  in  fee  simple,  to  Mr.  J.  C.  M.  in  consideration  of  his 
assuming  all  the  debts.  To  whom  these  debts  are  due,  and  for 
what,  and  what  portion  has  been  paid,  were  not  mentioned,  and 
I  felt  unauthorized  to  ask.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  this 
transfer  was  not  made  public,  till  so  long  after  its  execution,  and 
till  Carey  was  no  more.  No  one  could  so  satisfactorily  have 
explained  the  matter  to  the  public.  The  controversy  is  now  use- 
less, as  a  question  of  property.  The  lots  and  buildings  are  re- 
duced to  a  value  almost  nominal.  Since  the  place  ceased  to  be 
an  asylum  for  debtors,  who  fled  hither  from  the  British  terri- 
tories, it  has  constantly  decayed.  At  this  moment  Mr.  J.  C.  M.  is 
about  to  remove  the  printing-office  to  a  new  building  of  his  own, 
not  on  the  Society's  land,  and  the  old  office  is  almost  a  ruin. 
One  dwelling-house,  now  in  good  order,  and  valuable,  is  nearly 
the  sum  of  all  the  English  Society's  acknowledged  property. 

One  thing  is  certain — that  there  have  seldom  appeared  men 
so  disinterested  as  Carey,  Marshman,  and  Ward.  Carey  received, 
for  upwards  of  thirty  years,  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  a 
month,  as  professor  in  the  College  of  Fort  William,  and  Bengalee 
translator  to  government.  Ward  earned  equally  large  sums  in  the 
printing-office,  as  did  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Marshman  by  their  school. 
Yet,  as  Dr.  M.  assured  me,  they  ate  at  a  common  table,  and  drew 
from  the  common  fund  only  the  paltry  sum  of  twelve  rupees  per 
month  each  !  The  rest  went  for  the  support  of  out-stations, 
casting  types,  and  the  translating  and  printing  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  The  expense  of  the  Chinese  version  alone,  for  pun- 
dits, types,  &c,  exceeded  a  hundred  thousand  dollars! 

The  agreement  made  at  an  early  period,  by  the  Serampore 
brethren,  one  with  another,  and  published  to  the  world,  is  worthy 
of  all  praise;  especially  the  following  extract:  "Let  us  give 
ourselves  up  unreservedly  to  this  glorious  cause.  Let  us  never 
think  that  our  time,  our  gifts,  our  strength,  our  families,  or  even 
the  clothes  we  wear,  are  our  own.  Let  us  sanctify  them  all  to 
God  and  his  cause.  O  that  he  may  sanctify  us  for  his  work ! 
Let  us  forever  shut  out  the  idea,  of  laying  up  a  cowry  for  our- 
selves or  our  children.  If  we  give  up  the  resolution  which  was 
formed  on  the  subject  of  private  trade,  when  we  first  united  at 
Serampore,  the  mission  is  from  that  hour  a  lost  cause.    A  world- 


SERAMPORE. 


47 


ly  spirit,  quarrels,  and  every  evil  work,  will  succeed,  the  moment 
it  is  admitted  that  each  brother  may  do  something  on  his  own 
account.  Woe  to  that  man  who  shall  ever  make  the  smallest 
movement  toward  such  a  measure.  Let  us  continually  watch 
against  a  worldly  spirit,  and  cultivate  a  Christian  indifference 
towards  every  indulgence.  Rather  let  us  bear  hardness  as  good 
soldiers  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  endeavor  to  learn  in  every  state  to 
be  content." 

Never  were  there  more  laborious  men  than  the  Serampore 
missionaries,  and  never  shall  we  see  stronger  temptations  to 
amass  wealth,  relinquished  for  the  cause  of  Christ.  The  arrange- 
ment for  drawing  six  dollars  a  month  for  personal  expenses 
was  discontinued  in  1817,  and  each  drew  what  he  needed ;  but 
neither  of  them  laid  up  property  for  himself.  Carey  died  with- 
out leaving  his  widow  any  thing.  Ward  left  only  about  five 
thousand  dollars,  the  proceeds  of  his  private  property,  put  to  in- 
terest on  his  first  leaving  England.  Marshman  is  known  to  be 
poor;  and  his  style  of  living,  now  at  least,  is  more  frugal  than 
that  of  almost  any  other  missionary  I  saw  in  Hindustan.  Many 
of  his  measures  are  generally  disapproved,  but  his  diligence 
and  true  greatness  must  stand  confessed.  It  cannot  be  said  the 
glory  of  Serampore  is  departed.  Though  it  has  now  become  a 
mere  unit  among  missions,  its  history  will  ever  be  one  of  the 
brightest  pages  in  the  records  of  modern  benevolence.  The 
benefits  it  has  produced  are  lasting  as  the  world.  It  has  been 
swallowed  up  in  more  diffused  endeavors,  like  the  morning  star 
giving  place  to  day,  —  swallowed  up  in  brighter  light. 


48 


CHAPTER  IL 

Madras  —  Catamarans  —  Difficulty  of  Landing  —  Black  Town  —  Esplanade  — 
Population— Illustrations  of  Scripture  —  State  of  Religion  —  Catholics  — 
Teloogoos  —  Travelling  by  Palankeen  —  Pondicherry  —  Cuddalore  — 
Tranquebar  —  Combaconum  —  Tanjore  —  Kohlhoff  —  Swartz  —  Trichi- 
nopoly  —  Heber — Seringham  —  Slavery  in  Hindustan  —  Idolatry  support- 
ed by  Government — Brahmins  and  Brahminism  —  Progressive  Poverty 
of  the  Country  —  Modern  languages  of  Hindustan. 

A  voyage  of  fourteen  days,  in  a  small  trading  vessel,  without 
a  white  face  in  it  but  my  own,  brought  me  to  anchor  in  the  roads 
of  Madras,  January  26,  1837.  It  was  a  fortnight  of  great  dis- 
comfort ;  but  I  could  not  waive  my  rule  of  going  hi  the  first 
vessel  when  my  work  at  any  place  was  done.  Generally,  if  an 
opportunity  is  allowed  to  pass  in  India,  weeks  and  even  months 
elapse  before  the  occurrence  of  another.  Our  captain,  in  this 
case,  was  a  quiet  native  of  Chittagong,  and,  though  he  had  no 
means  of  ascertaining  longitude,  made  a  short  and  safe  voyage 
by  dead  reckoning.  By  taking  such  a  vessel,  instead  of  an  Euro- 
pean, I  saved  three  fourths  of  the  customary  price  of  passage. 

There  being  no  indentation  of  the  coast,  nor  any  island  to 
break  off  the  sea,  a  heavy  swell  rolls  in  throughout  the  year. 
Vessels  anchor  in  the  open  roads ;  the  large  ones  keeping  a  mile 
or  two  from  shore.  The  swell  keeps  them  pitching  and  rolling, 
as  uncomfortably  as  when  at  sea.  The  danger  is  so  great,  during 
the  south-west  monsoon,  that  vessels  are  not  allowed  to  lay  here 
for  several  months  in  the  year,  and  the  anchorage  seems  de- 
serted. Cargoes  are  loaded  and  unloaded,  by  boats  adapted  for 
passing  through  the  surf.  Among  the  first  objects  that  struck 
me,  were  the  catamarans,  gliding  in  every  direction.  These  are 
exactly  like  a  New  England  stone-sled.  Three  flattened  tim- 
bers, eight  or  ten  feet  long,  are  tied  together  horizontally,  and 
sharpened  a  little  at  the  point.  One  or  two  men  propel  it  with 
a  paddle,  flattened  at  both  ends,  and  dip  first  on  one  side,  and 
then  on  the  other.  They  sit  on  the  calves  of  their  legs,  with  the 
toes  inward,  and  in  this  position,  which  is  the  only  one  the  case 
admits,  they  often  remain  for  hours.  The  water,  of  course, 
comes  up  between  the  timbers,  and  washes  over  the  little  raft, 
so  that  the  men  are  kept  wet  to  the  middle.     If  they  would  carry 


ftlADRAS.  49 

any  articles  dry,  which  is  seldom  attempted,  they  construct  a 
high  pile  of  bushes  in  the  centre.  When  no  boat  could  live  five 
minutes,  these  catamarans  go  about  in  perfect  safety.  The  men 
are  often  washed  off,  but  instantly  leap  on  again  without  alarm. 
A  water-proof  cap,  for  the  carriage  of  letters  to  and  from  newly- 
arrived  vessels,  is  almost  their  only  article  of  dress.  The  rest  is 
but  a  strip  of  cotton  cloth,  two  or  three  inches  wide,  fastened, 
front  and  rear,  to  a  twine  tied  round  the  hips. 

Landing  seemed  so  difficult,  though  the  weather  was  fine,  that 
it  was  hard  to  couceive  how  goods  could  be  conveyed  without 
getting  wet.  Yet  these  boatmen  do  it.  and  display  energy  and 
skill  scarcely  to  be  surpassed.  Keeping  time  to  a  rude  tune, 
they  now  take  long  pulls,  and  now  short  ones,  as  the  waves  run 
past ;  they  at  length  push  the  boat  forward  on  a  foaming  surf, 
and  she  is  thrown  upon  the  beach.  As  it  recedes,  some  jump 
out  with  the  ropes,  and,  at  every  returning  wave,  get  her  a  little 
higher,  till  she  lies  still  upon  the  sand.  The  operation  is  suffi- 
ciently disagreeable,  especially  to  the  timid.  The  passenger  is 
not  only  almost  thrown  from  his  seat,  by  the  heavy  and  repeated 
striking  of  the  bqat  upon  the  beach,  but  is  generally  well 
sprinkled  by  the  breakers  dashing  against  her  before  she  can  be 
hauled  up  sufficiently.  The  boats  are  large  and  deep,  made, 
without  ribs  or  timbers,  of  thin,  wide  planks,  warped  by  fire  to  a 
proper  shape,  and  fastened  together  by  strong  twine.  Against 
the  seams,  straw  and  mud  are  fastened  strongly,  by  the  twine 
which  ties  the  planks  together.  No  nails  are  used,  for  none 
could  keep  a  boat  together  with  such  thumping. 

The  city  presents,  from  the  sea,  nothing  to  create  large  expec- 
tations. Only  a  few  public  buildings  are  visible,  and  not  much 
of  the  town,  as  the  site  is  quite  level.  It  is,  however,  a  noble 
city,  and  has  many  fine  streets.  The  Black  town,  so  called 
from  the  color  of  the  natives,  who  reside  there,  is  well  laid  out, 
and  is  defended  by  a  substantial  brick  wall.  The  houses  are  far 
better,  on  an  average,  than  those  of  the  natives  in  Calcutta. 
Though  there  are  not  so  many  fine  residences  of  rich  Baboos,  as 
in  that  city,  there  are  some  scarcely  surpassed  in  elegance  by  any 
in  America. 

A  space  of  several  miles  in  the  rear  of  the  Black-town  is  occu- 
pied by  the  Europeans.  Their  houses  are  not  placed  in  rows, 
hui  scattered  about,  and  embosomed  in  gardens  and  shrubbery. 
Trees  are  planted  in  rows  along  the  principal  avenues,  and  lite 
number  of  pleasant  drives  surpasses  those  of  any  city  I  have  yet 
seen  in  the  East. 

vol.  II.  5 


50 


HINDUSTAN. 


The  fort  is  on  the  shore  south  of  the  Black-town,  with  a  large 
open  space  between,  reserved  as  an  esplanade.  On  the  mar- 
gin of  this  opening,  next  to  the  sea,  and  also  below  the  fort,  is 
the  fashionable  evening  drive.  Here,  weary  of  lassitude  or 
labor,  come  all  the  gentry  to  enjoy  the  freshness  and  glory 
of  sunset.  The  rushing  of  the  ceaseless  surf —  the  numerous 
vessels,  of  varied  make  —  the  cool  sea  breeze  —  the  majestic 
ocean  —  the  wide  sweep  of  western  sky  —  the  superb  equipages 
—  the  cheerful  faces  —  and  the  cordial  greetings  —  make  it 
every  way  charming.  In  going  to  "the  course,"  you  meet,  along 
the  less  pretending  roads,  merchants  on  then-  camels,  Arabs  on 
their  steeds,  Burmans  and  Moguls  on  their  ponies,  native  gentle- 


Hindu  Gentleman's  Carriage. 


men  in  their  handsome  bullock  carriages ;  while  the  sircars,  &c. 
are  drawn  by  a  single  ox,  in  an  indescribable  sort  of  wheelbarrow, 
or  are  borne  in  palankeens. 

While  in  this  city,  famous  for  snake-charmers,  I  sent  for  some 
to  show  me  their  skill.  They  brought  a  boa  constrictor,  and 
several  cobra  decapels;  the  latter  being,  as  is  known,  highly 
venomous,  :uid  generally  fatal.  They  were  in  shallow  baskets, 
coiled  up  as  close  as  possible.  The  keeper  had  a  simple  flage- 
olet ;  on  hearing  a  few  notes  of  which,  the  snake  gracefully  erected 
half  its  length,  and  spread  out  its  beautiful  head  and  neck  to 


MADRAS.  51 

a  breadth  of  several  inches.  The  keeper  sometimes  ceased  his 
music,  and  irritated  the  creature  with  his  hand;  which  it  bit 
violently,  but  without  injury,  its  langs  having  been  extracted. 

These  men  are  often  employed  to  draw  forth  from  their  holes 
snakes  which  infest  gardens  and  old  buildings.  Playing  on 
then  flageolet,  they  pass  round  the  suspected  places,  and  if 
serpents  he  there,  are  sure  to  bring  them  forth.  Without  per- 
mitting the  music  to  cease,  an  attendant  seizes  the  snake  by  the 
tail,  and  whirls  it  round  so  rapidly  that  it  cannot  bite ;  sliding  one 
hand  up  gradually,  till  he  gets  it  firmly  by  the  neck;  then,  taking 
a  little  stone  or  shell,  he  crushes  out  the  fangs,  and  puts  it  in  his 
basket  or  bosom,  and  carries  it  away.  The  transaction  forcibly 
reminds  one  of  the  passage,  Psalm  lviii.  5,  which  compares  the 
wicked,  who  persist  in  their  ways  in  spite  of  counsel  or  entreaty, 
to  serpents  that  will  not  be  charmed.  This  text,  as  well  as  Jere- 
miah viii.  17,  where  Jehovah  threatens  to  send  among  Israel 
"serpents  which  will  not  be  charmed,"  shows  that  the  trade  of 
these  men  is  of  no  recent  date. 

The  population  of  Madras,  including  all  the  villages  within 
several  miles,  is  generally  reckoned  at  420,000,  But  a  census 
made  in  1823  gave  only  27,000  houses.  This,  at  seven  inhab- 
itants to  a  house,  would  make  the  population  about  190,000. 
Large  spaces,  even  within  the  walls,  are  wholly  vacant.  Allow- 
ing for  houses  omitted  in  the  census,  the  population  is  perhaps 
200,000.  There  are  populous  villages  in  the  neighborhood, 
containing  100,000  more.  One  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities 
in  the  town  is  the  universality  with  which  males  and  females, 
old  and  young,  bear  upon  their  foreheads,  arms,  and  breasts,  the 
marks  peculiar  to  their  religion,  or  sect  of  it.*     Some  have  a  red 

*  Those  know  little  of  the  world,  who  advance  the  existence  of  sects  as  an 
objection  to  Christianity.  Over  all  Hither  India,  the  same  books  are  held 
sacred  ;  yet  the  community  is  divided  into  many  sects,  holding  their  preferences 
with  bitter  zeal  and  exclusiveness.  Brahma  has  no  followers,  because,  as  the 
supreme  God,  he  is  above  all  concern  with  mortals.  Vishnu  and  Siva  have 
each  their  sects,  and  even  these  are  far  from  harmony.  The  worshippers  of 
Vishnu  are  divided  into  twenty  sects;  those  of  Siva  into  nine.  There  are  four 
sects  who  adore  Doorga,  and  ten  devoted  to  various  other  objects,  which,  with 
some  subdivisions,  swell  the  number  of  Hindu  sects  to  nearly  seventy!  Collis- 
ions, among  these,  are  perpetual  and  rancorous.  AtHurdwar,  and  many  other 
places,  scenes  of  violence  and  bloodshed  invariably  occur  at  the  great  annual 
festivals.  The  feuds  of  similar  kind  which  prevail  among  Mussulmans,  are 
well  known,  and  the  bloody  character  of  their  conflicts.  It  was  thus  also  with 
Jews.     Even  the  followers  of  Zoroaster,  arc  stated  by  Gibbon  to  have  been 


52  HINDUSTAN. 

or  blue  spot  on  their  forehead ;  others  blue,  red,  white,  or  yellow 
perpendicular  lines  ;  others,  horizontal  lines.  Some,  in  addition 
to  these,  have  ashes  or  clay  rubbed  in  lines  on  their  arms  and 
breast.  I  could  not  help  recurring  continually  to  that  text,  (Deu- 
teronomy xxxii.  5,)  "Their  spot  is  not  the  spot  of  his  children." 
The  allusion  is  doubtless  to  a  similar  custom.  These  marks  are 
shown  in  the  picture  of  a  native  woman  carrying  water,  page  15, 
and  of  a  Brahmin,  page  78.  The  former  shows  also  the  cos- 
tume and  ornaments  of  women  in  the  lower  classes,  as  I  saw 
them  in  the  street.  The  highest  classes  wear  much  the  same, 
but  of  tar  costlier  materials. 

Men  of  distinction  have  servants  running  before  ;  and  at  least 
two  always  run  beside  the  carriage.  Even  persons  on  horse- 
back are  never  without  one  of  these  runners,  who  is  called  syce. 
It  is  astonishing  how  long  these  men,  accustomed  to  the  business 
from  childhood,  can  endure.  The  rider  never  slacks  his  pace 
on  their  account,  and  they  keep  up  during  the  whole  drive. 
For  a  long  time,  the  sight  of  these  poor  men  destroyed  the 
pleasure  of  my  rides.  They,  however,  do  nothing  else,  and  their 
labor,  on  the  whole,  is  certainly  far  less  than  that  of  a  mechanic 
with  us. 

The  incident  of  Elijah  running  before  the  chariot  of  Ahab, 
(1  Kings  xviii.  46,)  has  been  continually  brought  to  recollection 
by  this  custom,  wherever  I  have  been  in  India.  He  had  assumed 
an  attitude  of  great  grandeur,  in  mocking  the  national  faith  before 
the  king,  and  denouncing  his  sins  before  all  the  people  ;  and, 
after  so  long  a  famine,  he  had  now  been  praying  for  rain,  and 
already  the  heavy  thunder  announced  rescue  to  a  starving  nation. 
But  in  all  these  honors  was  he  proud  ?  Was  he  disposed  to  refuse 
his  lawful  king  the  proper  homage  of  a  subject  ?  He  would  let 
all  Israel  see  how  he  honored  the  ruler  of  his  people,  and  how 
far  he  was  from  vain-glory  amid  such  triumphs.  Gathering  his 
robes  about  him,  therefore,  and  mixing  with  those  who  ran 
before  the  king,  he  did  nothing  out  of  the  way,  nothing  for  effect, 
nothing  in  the  least  supernatural ;  but  testified,  in  the  happiest 
manner,  not  merely  his  own  humility,  but  that  even  a  wicked 
king  had  ceremonial  claims,  which  a  good  subject  should  not 
deny. 


divided  into  seventy  sects,  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes.  The  truth  is7  man 
will  have  diversity  of  opinions,  to  the  extent  that  opinion  is  free.  Despotism 
alone  makes  unity  in  such  matters. 


MADRAS.  53 

My  stay  in  Madras  extended  from  January  26  to  March  17th, 
1837,  including  journeys  into  the  interior.  The  weather,  during 
this  period,  was  truly  delightful.  Instead  of  remarks,  resulting 
from  my  own  experience,  I  transcribe  a  table,  showing  the  highest 
and  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer,  and  the  mean  temperature, 
for  every  month  in  the  year :  — 

January. Max.  86.  Min.  65.     Mean  height  75.5. 

February...  "  87.  "  66.  "  77.8. 

March «  90.  "  69.  "  80.7. 

April «  94.  "  75.  "  83.7. 

May "  99.  "  78.  "  86. 

June "  98.  "  79.  "  88.4 

July "  95.  "  73.  "  85. 

August "  93.  "  72.  "  84.6. 

September.  "  92.  "  72.  "  83. 

October....  "  91.  «  70.  «  82. 

November..  "  87.  "  67.  "  78. 

December..  "  84.  "  65.  "  76. 

The  state  of  religious  feeling  in  Madras,  at  this  time  at  least, 
is  little  better  than  in  Calcutta.  The  concert  of  prayer,  which  is 
held,  unitedly,  at  different  churches  in  rotation,  was  held,  while  I 
was  there,  at  the  Scotch  kirk.  One  city  minister  only,  was  pres- 
ent, and  but  thirty-five  other  persons  ;  though  the  evening  was  de- 
lightful. The  services  were  just  those  of  public  worship,  so  that 
it  could  not  with  propriety  be  called  a  prayer-meeting.  But  reli- 
gion seems  to  be  exerting  its  blessed  influence  in  the  city  more 
and  more,  and  recently  there  have  been  among  the  troops  in  the 
fort,  some  forty  or  fifty  cases  of  conversion. 

I  was  happy  to  find  several  Sunday  schools,  though  only  that 
of  the  Wesleyans  seems  flourishing. 

This  city  is  the  seat  of  several  missions,  by  various  societies  in 
England  and  America.  There  are  Episcopal,  Scotch,  Inde- 
pendent, and  Wesleyan  churches,  with  excellent  places  of  wor- 
ship, where  pastors  are  regularly  settled,  who  conduct  services  in 
the  English  language.  Beside  the  bishops  and  six  Company's 
chaplains,  there  are  fifteen  missionaries,  Episcopal,  Scotch,  Wes- 
leyan,  and  American,  beside  several  who  support  themselves, 
and  are  not  connected  with  any  board.  Of  all  the  regular  mis- 
sionaries, there  are  but  three  who  are  devoted  wholly  to  the  na- 
tives. The  rest  preach  in  English,  or  take  charge  of  schools, 
printing,  agencies,  &c.  There  are  also  in  Madras  fourteen 
5* 


54  HINDUSTAN. 

Catholic  priests,  and  congregations  of  Armenians,  Jews,  &c. 
Some  thousands  of  native  youth  are  gathered  into  schools  imder 
missionary  superintendence,  and  several  printing  establishments 
are  owned  by  the  missionary  boards.  The  language  of  the  re- 
gion is  Tamul,  and  in  this,  there  are  printed  the  whole  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  and  two  hundred  tracts,  beside  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  Ayah  and  her  Lady,  Swartz's  Dialogues,  &c.  Many 
of  these  publications,  however,  need  revision,  and  many  are 
wanted  on  other  subjects.    • 

As  regards  Christianity  among  the  natives,  Madras  is  behind 
Calcutta.  I  inquired  of  several  ministers,  and  most  of  the  mis- 
sionaries, but  no  one  knew  the  state  or  number  of  native  con- 
verts. The  nominal  Christians  are  few.  As  to  real  converts, 
one  missionary  thought  there  were  but  two  or  three  in  the  whole 
city  and  suburbs !  Another  thought  there  were  not  half  a 
dozen,  at  the  utmost.  No  one  supposed  there  were  more  than 
that  number.  Some  hundreds  have  been  baptized,  with  their 
children ;  and  many  have  grown  up  who  were  baptized  in  infancy ; 
but  the  conduct  of  this  body  is  not  always  honorable  to  the  cause. 
Of  the  Catholics,  there  are  some  thousands  ;  but  they  are  distin- 
guished from  the  heathen,  it  is  said,  not  by  better  morals  or  man- 
ners, but  only  by  not  smearing  their  bodies  and  faces  with  idola- 
trous marks. 

I  had  the  pleasure  of  attending  the  anniversary  meetings  of  the 
Wesleyan  Mission,  the  Madras  Bible  Society,  &c.  They  brought 
me  into  a  pleasing  acquaintance  with  many  missionaries  from 
distant  stations,  and  thus  enabled  me  to  enlarge  my  stock  of  of- 
ficial memoranda. 

I  was  particularly  pleased  with  the  Wesleyan  plan  of  having  a 
second  anniversary  for  the  natives,  in  which  the  services  and 
speeches  were  in  Tamul.  The  body  of  the  chapel,  cleared  of 
the  settees,  was  well  filled  with  natives,  who  sat,  after  their 
fashion,  on  the  floor.  They  behaved  with  perfect  decorum,  and 
listened  with  attention.  It  certainly  is  a  plan  happily  calculated 
to  enlighten  and  improve  the  converts,  while  it  instructs  and  in- 
forms the  heathen. 

A  case  has  recently  occurred,  which  has  excited  a  great  inter- 
est among  the  natives,  far  and  near.  Arumuga  Tambiran,  (liter- 
ally, the  six-faced  god,)  a  distinguished  devotee,  has  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  He  is  now  very  old,  having  been  for  fifty 
years  a  prominent  pilgrim  and  teacher.  Dressed  in  a  yellow 
robe,  the  sacred  beads  round  his  neck,  smeared  with  ashes 
and  clay,  and  bearing  the  various  insignia  of  his  high  station,  he 


TELOOGOOS.  55 

made  pilgrimages  to  many  and  distant  places  of  distinguished 
sanctity,  and  was  every  where  received  with  profound  venera- 
tion. Eleven  others,  who  had  begun  this  course  with  him,  had 
died.  Scarcely  any  man,  far  and  near,  stood  so  high  as  Arumu- 
ga.  His  very  appellation  —  Tambircm  —  struck  awe  to  the  bosom 
of  every  Hindu ;  for  "  Tambirans  rank  higher  than  Brahmins, 
and  inferior  only  to  the  invisible  gods."  *  His  public  baptism, 
last  August,  has  created  a  strong  sensation  through  the  entire 
peninsula.  Being  a  poet,  he  has  written  several  pieces,  which 
have  been  printed  in  large  quantities,  and  are  sought  after  with 
great  avidity  ;  this  being  the  style  of  the  sacred  books.  His 
case,  however,  is  an  additional  evidence,  that  though  the  peo- 
ple are  disposed  to  ask  if  any  of  the  great  have  believed  on 
Christ,  yet  that  such  an  event  has  little  other  visible  effect  than 
transient  wonder. 

It  was  my  intention  to  proceed  immediately  to  Chicacole,  and 
settle  with  Mr.  Day  his  future  position.  But,  on  taking  steps  for 
a  dak  to  that  place,  I  learned  that  Mr.  Day  was  daily  expected  at 
Madras.  This  report  afterwards  proved  to  be  erroneous  ;  but  the 
repose  which  it  gave  me  was  very  providential,  as  my  health, 
which  had  been  declining  continually  for  some  weeks,  now  be- 
came so  poor  that  I  should  have  been  arrested  on  the  way. 

The  ministers  and  missionaries  of  the  city  urge  Mr.  Day's  lo- 
cation here.  This  opinion,  which  had  been  previously  expressed 
by  various  brethren  in  Burmah  and  Bengal,  I  now  adopted  as 
my  own,  for  reasons  which  it  is  not  important  to  rehearse.  Mr. 
Day  had  previously  resolved  to  leave  Chicacole  ;  and  on  commu- 
nicating my  opinion,  it  met  his  cordial  approbation,  and  he  im- 
mediately prepared  to  embark  for  Madras,  with  his  family. 

Learning  that  Teloogoos  abound  in  Southern  India,  and  anxious 
not  only  to  learn  about  them,  but  to  measure  the  degree  of  the 
missionaries'  success  hi  a  region  where  Ziegenbalg,  Swartz,  and 
others  had  labored  for  more  than  a  century,  I  availed  myself  of 
the  time  which  would  intervene  before  Mr.  Day's  arrival,  to 
make  an  excursion  to  Tanjore,  and  Trichinopoly,  through  the 
districts  of  Chingleput  and  South  Arcot.  Instead  of  leaving  the 
reader  to  pick  out  detached  remarks,  scattered  through  the  jour- 
nal of  this  tour,  I  will,  while  speaking  of  Teloogoos  and  their 
new  missionary,  throw  together  such  facts  respecting  them 
as  seem  to  be  requisite  here. 

*  Dr.  Francis  Buchanan. 


56  HINDUSTAN. 

This  people,  whose  name  is  often  written  Telinga,  or  Kalinga, 
are  generally  called,  hy  European  writers,  Gentoos ;  but  this  name 
is  unknown,  I  believe,  to  any  Indian  language.  They  occupy  a 
considerable  part  of  Hindustan,  but  have  now  no  country  entirely 
to  themselves,  or  bearing  their  name.  The  region  where  theirs  is 
the  prevailing  spoken  language,  is  about  five  hundred  miles  long 
and  two  hundred  wide,  embracing  all  the  Northern  Circars,  a 
large  part  of  the  Nizam's  dominions,  the  districts  of  Cudupah 
and  Bellary,  and  all  the  northern  part  of  the  Carnatic.  The 
political  divisions  of  the  Teloogoo  country  are  Ganjam,  Vizaga- 
patani,  Rajamundry,  Masulapatam  or  Bunder,  and  Guntoor. 

Teloogoo  families  and  villages  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
of  India,  between  the  above-described  region  and  Cape  Como- 
rin,  and  are  particularly  numerous  in  the  Mysore  and  Tanjore 
countries.  The  sea-coast,  from  Pulicat  to  Ganjam,  is  chiefly 
occupied  by  Teloogoos. 

The  largest  Teloogoo  city  is  Masulapatam,  which  has  a  popula- 
tion of  eighty  thousand.  The  next  largest  are  Nellore,  Guntoor, 
Vizagapatam,  Chicacole,  Burhampore,  and  Ganjam.  The  latter 
cities  have  each  about  twelve  thousand  inhabitants. 

In  Madras,  one  sixth  of  the  population  are  reckoned  to  be 
Teloogoos.  They  are  scattered  over  all  the  city,  but  some  streets 
are  almost  wholly  inhabited  by  them,  and  in  the  suburb  Wonara- 
petta  are  about  fifteen  thousand,  settled  together.  Most  of  them, 
however,  understand  Tamul,  as  well  as  Teloogoo :  some  read  in 
Tamul,  and  not  in  their  own  language. 

The  number  of  Teloogoos  is  not  known.  There  are  probably 
about  eight  millions,  of  which  one  million  are  Mahometans. 

Of  this  nation  was  the  dynasty  which,  before  the  Mahratta 
conquest,  ruled  the  whole  region  of  Madura,  Tanjore,  and  Tri- 
chinopoly,  beside  their  peculiar  country.  In  these  districts,  many 
of  the  rich  chitty,  or  merchant  caste,  are  Teloogoos  at  this  day. 

It  is  remarkable,  that,  in  Japan  and  the  islands  of  the  China 
Sea,  the  only  name  for  India  is  Telinga,  or,  as  they  pronounce  it, 
Kalinga.  It  is  always  so  called  in  their  ancient  books,  ami  1 1  ie 
introduction  of  Hinduism  into  their  country  is  ascribed  to  the 
Kalings.  As  it  would  appear,  from  the  history  of  Java,  that  a 
considerable  emigration  from  the  Coromandel  coast  occurred  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  it  is  not  improbable,  that  at  that  period 
the  Telinga  or  Teloogoo  dynasty  was  in  its  glory.  Another,  and 
still  stronger  indication,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  Telinga  cal- 
endar, which  differs  from  that  which  prevails  in  the  Deccan,  and 
Hindustan  generally,  is  precisely  the  calendar  of  the  Javanese. 


TELOOGOOS.  57 

Their  religion  is  Brahminism,  and  the  system  of  caste  is  in 
full  force.  Their  principal  classes  are  Brahmins,  Chetries,  Vy- 
sias,  Shoodras,  and  Pariahs.  These  are  subdivided  into  dis- 
tinct castes.  Of  Brahmins,  there  are  four  castes ;  of  Chetries, 
three ;  of  Vysias,  three ;  of  Shoodras,  eighty-five  ;  and  some  even 
among  the  miserable  Pariahs.  Some  of  these  are  again  subdi- 
vided, as,  for  instance,  of  that  class  of  Shoodras  who  cultivate  the 
ground,  there  are  no  less  than  twenty  castes !  Every  separate 
trade  and  calling  is  a  caste.  The  children  of  a  barber,  must  not 
marry  the  children  of  a  washerman,  or  any  but  of  the  barber 
calling ;  so  of  smiths,  carpenters,  &c. 

All  classes  pay  the  parents  for  their  wife.  The  gift  of  a 
wealthy  Brahmin  is  about  half  a  pound  of  gold,  and  some  other 
things.  Even  a  poor  Pariah  must  give  ten  rupees.  When  a 
man  is  too  poor  to  pay  a  wife's  price,  he  goes  out  to  beg,  saying, 
"  I  want  to  marry  such  a  girl ;  give  me  some  money."  Poor 
Brahmins  do  this  most  frequently,  and  are  insolently  importu- 
nate. Polygamy  is  practised  by  nearly  all  who  can  afford  it.  It  is 
believed  that  their  religious  system  is  on  the  wane,  and,  whether 
from  poverty  or  neglect,  it  is  certain  that  no  new  temples  have 
been  built  for  many  years. 

The  first  effort,  in  India,  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
was  made  in  favor  of  the  Teloogoos ;  but  the  measure  has  not 
been  pursued  with  ardor.  In  1805,  Messrs  Cram  and  Des  Gran 
arrived  at  Vizagapatam,  but  they  both  died  soon.  In  1819, 
Messrs.  Gordon  and  Lee,  from  the  same  society,  arrived,  and 
some  time  afterward,  Messrs.  Pritchard  and  Dawson. 

After  the  death  of  Mr.  Dawson,  the  station  was  vacant  till 
early  in  1834,  when  Mr.  Gordon,  son  of  the  late  missionary  re- 
turned from  England,  whither  he  had  been  sent  for  education, 
and  assumed  the  operations.  In  November,  1834,  Rev.  Edward 
Porter  joined  the  mission,  but  has  labored  a  good  deal  of  his 
time  among  the  English. 

There  are  now  in  this  field  four  ordained  missionaries  from 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  and  Mr.  Day  from  America. 
Four  other  pious  and  active  gentlemen,  unconnected  with  any 
missionary  society,  are  acquiring  the  language,  and  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  good  of  this  people.  One  excellent  native 
convert,  Poor-shu'-them,  is  ordained,  and  labors  extensively.  Be- 
side these,  several  Tamul  missionaries  speak  Teloogoo,  and  do 
something  in  the  way  of  giving  tracts,  &c.  The  London  mis- 
sionaries have  published  an  appeal  for  aid,  in  which  they  state 
that  there  are  not  less  than  three  hundred  Teloogoo  towns,  where 


58  HINDUSTAN. 

missionaries  might  be  advantageously  settled  under  the  full  pro- 
tection of  the  British  government. 

There  are  six  schools  connected  with  the  mission  at  Vizaga- 
patam,  containing  two  hundred  and  fifty  pupils.  This  depart- 
ment of  effort  has  been  maintained  from  the  beginning,  but 
neither  this  nor  any  other  has  been  apparently  made  the 
means  of  conversion ;  and,  though  thirty  years  have  elapsed,  no 
poor  Teloogoo  has  at  this  station  been  brought  to  a  saving  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Lord  Jesus.  The  lives  of  those  brethren  who 
have  labored  here,  have,  however,  not  been  spent  in  vain  ;  they 
have  done  much  hi  preparing  translations  and  tracts,  and  have 
doubtless  sowed  seed,  from  which  others  will  reap,  that  "  both 
may  rejoice  together." 

At  Chittoor,  there  are  about  fifty  Teloogoo  families,  who  have 
become  nominal  Christians.  Two  thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Teloogoos. 

At  Cudapah,  the  London  Missionary  Society  have  another  sta- 
tion, occupied  by  Rev.  Mr.  Howell,  an  Indo-Briton.  He  has  bap- 
tized one  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  (adults  and  children,)  and 
settled  them  on  lands  owned  by  the  mission.  The  houses  cost 
eight  or  ten  rupees  each.  Each  family  is  expected  to  pay  its 
own  taxes,  and  support  itself.  He  has  three  schools ;  one  for 
Christian  children,  and  two  for  heathen.  A  few  of  the  baptized, 
probably  twenty,  Mr.  H.  hopes,  are  really  converted.  The  rules 
binding  on  nominal  Christians,  are,  to  attend  worship  every 
morning  and  evening  at  the  school-house ;  to  attend  public 
worship  on  Sunday,  and  two  evenings  in  the  week ;  to  settle  their 
disputes  before  a  committee  of  five  brethren,  and  not  go  to  law ; 
to  send  their  children  to  school,  &c. 

At  Bellary,  in  the  northern  pail  of  Mysore,  a  mission  was  be- 
gun, in  1810,  by  the  London  Missionaiy  Society.  Strictly,  this  is 
a  Canarese  mission  ;  but  Rev.  Mr.  Reed  has  acquired  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  Teloogoo  language,  and  has  translated  and 
written  in  it  to  some  extent.  He  occasionally  labors  personally 
among  the  Teloogoos,  who  form  about  a  third  of  the  citizens. 

The  whole  Bible  is  translated  into  Teloogoo ;  and  the  New 
Testament,  Genesis,  Exodus,  Psalms,  and  Isaiah  are  printed. 
The  remainder  of  the  Old  Testament  will  be  printed  at  the  Lon- 
don Missionary  Society's  press  at  Bellary,  but  how  soon,  is  uncer- 
tain. Thirty  tracts  are  printed  ;  but  some  of  them  are  very  poor. 
A  large  supply  might  be  advantageously  distributed ;  but  the  Tract 
Society  of  Madras  is  feeble,  even  with  considerable  aid  from  the 
parent  society  in  London. 


PALANKEEN    TRAVELLING. 


59 


The  language  is  confessedly  difficult  of  acquisition,  but  has 
many  beauties,  and  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Sunscrit. 
Missionaries  now  have  the  aid  of  an  excellent  grammar  and 
dictionary,  beside  translations  of  Scripture  and  tracts.  Two 
translations  have  been  made  of  the  New  Testament,  one  by  the 
Serampore  missionaries,  and  the  other  by  Mr.  Pritchard,  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society. 

The  only  mode  of  inland  travelling,  in  India,  is  by  palankeen ; 
and,  in  the  hot  season,  at  night  only.  Bungalows  are  built,  by 
government,  on  some  principal  roads,  where  travellers  may 
spend  the  day,  and  where  a  servant  is  retained,  who  gets  what 
you  require  to  eat.  They  are,  generally,  comfortable  brick 
houses,  having  several  apartments,  and  furnished  with  chairs, 
tables,  and  sometimes  bedsteads. 

In  this  part  of  India,  a  "set  of  bearers"  consists  of  twelve 
men ;  ten  to  carry  the  palankeen,  one  cooley  to  cany  the  bag- 


Palankeeu  Travelling 


gage,  and  a  musalche.  Six  bearers  carry  at  a  time,  and  four 
trot  along  to  take  their  turns,  and  relieve  the  others,  about  every 
quarter  of  a  mile.  The  cooley  carries  the  baggage  in  tin  boxes, 
made  for  the  purpose,  called  banguy  boxes,  suspended  from  a 
pole  on  the  shoulder.  The  musalche,  or  torch-bearer,  has  a  hard 
roll  of  rags,  four  or  five  feet  long,  as  thick  as  one's  wrist,  and  oil 
in  a  copper  goblet,  with  a  very  small  mouth.  When  he  trims 
his  lamp,  he  has  only  to  knock  off  the  snuff  against  a  tree,  and 
pour  on  a  little  more  oil — a  process  which  reminds  one  con- 
stantly of  the  parable  of  the  virgins.  Every  traveller  is  obliged 
to  have  his  own  palankeen,  in  which  he  takes  his  carpet-bag, 
and  some  books,  etc.,  hanging  on  the  outside  his  tea-kettle,  hat- 
box,  and  goblet  of  drinking-water.  Notwithstanding  the  loss 
of  time  incurred  by  changing  hands  so  frequently,  your  speed 


60  HINDUSTAN. 

averages  about  four  miles  an  hour ;  often  more.  In  travelling 
post,  as  I  did,  fresh  bearers  are  had  every  twelve  or  fifteen  miles. 
By  starting  when  the  sun  gets  low,  and  not  stopping  till  eight 
or  nine  o'clock  next  morning,  you  may  go  sixty  or  seventy  miles 
of  a  night.  On  roads  where  no  bearers  are  posted,  and  where 
special  expedition  is  not  wanted,  a  single  set  of  bearers  is  em- 
ployed, who  go  journeys  of  any  length,  and  average  thirty  miles 
a  day,  travelling  either  in  the  day  or  night,  as  you  prefer.  1 
chose  to  travel  by  night,  not  only  because  the  sun  was  oppres- 
sive, but  because  it  prevented  loss  of  time,  and  gave  me  the  day 
to  be  with  missionaries  at  the  different  stations. 

On  two  or  three  occasions,  I  was  obliged  to  spend  the  day  at 
bungalows,  and  greatly  enjoyed  the  cool  quietude  of  these 
i*esting-places.  The  solitude  was  delightful,  and  refreshing  to 
my  spirit,  as  well  as  advantageous  in  enabling  me  to  bring  up 
arrearages  in  memorandums. 

This  mode  of  conveyance  has  indeed  the  advantage  of  a  re- 
cumbent posture ;  but  the  motion  was  to  me  excessively  weari- 
some, and.  with  some  bearers,  even  painful.  I  liked  a  palankeen 
in  Calcutta  very  well,  where  the  bearers  are  accomplished,  and 
the  distances  short.  But  this  hasty  journey  of  five  hundred 
miles  wore  me  out,  so  that  I  could  scarcely  stand.  The  ex- 
pense with  post-bearers  is  twenty-five  cents  per  mile,  which, 
though  dear  for  the  traveller,  is  an  extremely  small  sum  to  be 
divided  among  fourteen  men,  who  have  also  to  walk  back  again ; 
making  their  pay  but  about  a  cent  per  mile  for  each,  for  very  se- 
vere labor.  To  take  one  set  of  bearers  for  a  whole  journey,  costs 
less. 

Leaving  Madras,  February  13,  1837, 1  proceeded  from  forty  to 
sixty  miles  each  night.  The  road  led  through  Villacherry,  Ca- 
liabaucum,  Trepaloor,  Allatoor,  Maubiliveram,  Sadras,  Alum- 
parva,  Canjimere,  Collacoopum,  Pondicherry,  Cuddalore,  Poon- 
diacoopum,  Chillumbrum,  Sheally,  Myaveram,  Trivellungaud, 
Combaconum,  Paupanasum,  and  numerous  smaller  towns ;  and 
across  the  rivers  Paular,  or  Palaur,  Cunnabaur,  Gaddelum,  Pet- 
tanaur,  Vellaur,  Coleroon,  Cavery,  &c.  Several  of  these  are 
mouths  of  the  Cavery. 

The  first  stage  kept  us  along  the  seaside,  every  surge  laving 
the  bearers'  feet,  and  my  old  acquaintance,  Ocean,  the  only  ob- 
ject of  my  regard.  The  rest  of  the  way  is  through  a  wild  and 
poor  country,  though  with  many  towns  and  villages.  Imme- 
diately around  Pondicherry,  and  all  the  country  from  thence 
to  Tanjore,  is  a  garden.    From  Tanjore  to  Trichinopoly,  is  a 


PONDICHERRY  —  C  UDDALORE.  61 

desert,  which  extends,  in  a  broad  stripe,  to  Cape  Comorin.  The 
distinct  of  country  through  which  this  road  carried  me,  forms  the 
central  portion  of  the  Carnatic,  and  comprehends  the  former 
dominions  of  the  nabob  of  Arcot.  It  came  under  the  British 
power  in  1801. 

A  few  hours  were  devoted  to  a  rapid  survey  of  Pondicherry ; 
reputed  to  be  much  the  handsomest  town  in  India.  No  native 
huts  disfigure  the  streets,  as  these  are  all  placed  separately  in 
the  suburbs.  There  is  but  little  business  now  done  here,  and 
but  one  foreign  vessel  lay  in  the  roadstead.  The  Jesuits  have  a 
college  and  a  church  here,  and  the  Capuchins  a  church.  Many 
of  the  natives  have  adopted  the  Catholic  faith ;  but  it  has  done 
little  for  their  improvement.  The  French  are  prohibited,  by 
treaty,  from  keeping  many  troops,  and  the  whole  city  looks  silent 
and  languishing. 

Cuddalore,  on  the  Panaur,  fifty-two  miles  from  Pondicherry, 
is  the  first  station  on  this  route  where  there  are  English.  It  is 
one  of  the  great  stations  where  soldiers  are  placed,  who,  from 
having  married  native  women,  or  other  causes,  choose  to  remain 
in  the  country  after  serving  out  their  time,  or  becoming  invalids. 
A  few  effective  troops  also  are  stationed  here.  The  Episcopal 
chaplain,  Rev.  Mr.  Hallowell,  received  me  with  great  kindness,  in 
the  absence  of  the  missionary.  The  invalids  and  pensioners  are 
obliged  to  attend  worship,  and  with  the  gentry,  form  a  large  and 
attentive  congregation.  The  missionary,  Rev.  Mr.  Jones,  devotes 
himself  to  the  natives.  This  was  a  station  of  the  Christian 
Knowledge  Society  so  early  as  1737,  but  has  not  been  con- 
stantly occupied.  Mr.  Jones  arrived  in  1834,  and  is  able  to 
preach  in  the  vernacular.  He  found  Mr.  Rosen's  church,  and 
ten  schools,  which  Mr.  Hallowell  had  superintended  for  five  years. 
He  has  baptized  some  adults,  and  many  children,  and  increased 
the  number  of  schools.  One  of  these  is  for  girls.  The  whole 
now  contain  540  children.  Mr.  Jones  has  two  Tamul  services 
oft  the  Sabbath,  and  two  in  the  week.  The  congregation  con- 
sists chiefly  of  nominal  Christians.  They  amount  to  more  than 
three  hundred,  among  whom  are  many  of  the  native  wives  of 
European  soldiers. 

Though  I  passed  within  an  hour  or  two  of  Tranquebar,  it 
seemed  of  no  use  to  visit  it,  as  there  is  now  almost  no  visible 
effect  of  missionary  labor  there.  Nor  is  there  any  missionary, 
the  last  one  having  accepted  the  office  of  chaplain  to  govern- 
ment.   A  few  of  the  schools  are  continued  by  government ;  but 

VOL.    II.  6 


62 


HINDUSTAN. 


there  are  only  three  hundred  nominal  Christians,  and  the  mission 
is  entirely  relinquished.  The  causes  of  this  total  abrogation  of  a 
long-established  mission  deserve  investigation.  Abundant  ma- 
terials exist,  as  to  the  history  of  the  men  and  measures  ;  and  the 
question  is  of  great  importance.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  of  the 
best-informed  persons  in  that  region,  that  many  of  the  missionaries 
have  been  unconverted  men.  If  such  be  the  fact,  the  wonder  ceases. 
A  more  beautiful  country  than  that  from  Cuddalore  to  Tan- 
jore  can  hardly  be  imagined.  The  dense  population  and  rich 
soil  give  their  energies  to  each  other,  and  produce  a  scene  of 
surpassing  loveliness.  But  the  taxes,  and  other  causes,  keep 
down  the  laborers  to  a  state  below  that  of  southern  slaves. 
The  labor  of  carrying  agriculture  to  perfection,  under  a  cloud- 
less sky,  wholly  by  artificial  irrigation,  is,  of  course,  immense. 
The  water  is  obtained,  either  from  the  river  by  small  canals,  or 
from  tanks  and  wells  by  pecottas. 


The  mechanism  for  the  latter  mode  is  simple  and  easy.  A 
pole,  like  that  to  New  England  wells,  is  fixed  on  an  upright 
beam,  and  worked  by  two  men,  one  of  whom  walks  a  few  steps 
backward  and  forward  on  the  pole,  and  the  other  guides  the 
bucket.  The  same  plan  is  common  in  all  parts  of  India.  The 
water  rushes  through  troughs  into  channels,  which  lead  to  every 
bed.     Another  man  passes  along  the  field  or  garden,  and,  after 


IRRIGATION COMBACONUM.  63 

suffering  a  proper  quantity  of  water  to  flow  upon  a  bed,  scrapes 
with  his  hand  a  little  soil  into  that  channel,  and  leads  the  water 
into  another  —  passing  thus  from  bed  to  bed,  till  the  Avhole  is 
watered*.  The  services  of  a  watering-pot  would  be  wholly 
inadequate,  in  a  climate  so  hot,  and  without  rain. 

Such  a  practice  is  doubtless  alluded  to,  Prov.  xxi.  1,  where  it 
is  said  of  God's  easy  control  of  human  hearts,  that  "he  turneth 
them  as  the  rivers  [rivulets]  of  water." 

As  there  is  always  power  enough,  in  a  tropical  sun,  to  produce 
vegetation,  moisture  alone  is  necessary  to  constant  cropping. 
Districts,  therefore,  furnished  as  this  is,  with  tanks  and  rivers, 
present  continually  all  the  varieties  of  seasons  in  Europe.  The 
eye  wanders  over  large  fields,  in  some  parts  of  which  men  are 
ploughing,  in  others  planting,  and  in  others  harvesting,  at  the 
same  time.  Each  field  is  divided,  as  in  our  own  rice-growing 
districts,  into  small  compartments,  separated  by  a  narrow  mound 
of  earth,  about  a  foot  high.  On  any  one  of  these  the  water  is 
turned  at  pleasure,  while  the  rest  are  dry ;  and  eveiy  stage  of 
the  process,  and  of  the  growth  of  the  grain,  is  seen  at  once. 
Most  of  the  lands  are  cropped  twice  a  year  ;  sometimes  with 
rice,  but  more  frequently  with  rice  first,  and  then  some  other 
grain  or  pulse. 

The  scene  is  beautiful ;  but  squalid  poverty  and  miserable 
mendicants  constantly  obtrude,  and  remind  one  of  Pope's 
lines  — 

"  In  vain  kind  seasons  swell  the  teeming  grain; 
Soft  showers  distil,  and  suns  grow  warm  in  vain  : 
The  swain,  with  tears,  his  frustrate  labor  yields, 
And,  famished,  dies  amidst  his  ripened  fields." 

At  Combaconum  I  found  a  London  missionary,  Mr.  Nimmo, 
successor  to  Mr.  Crisp.  The  city  contains  forty  thousand  inhab- 
itants, and  was  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Chola  dynasty,  from 
which  the  whole  coast  of  Coromandel  (corruption  of  Cholaman- 
dtl)  received  its  name.  It  is  distinguished  among  Hindus  for 
its  sanctity,  and  is  one  of  idolatry's  strongest  holds  in  Southern 
India  ;  though  missionary  labors  have  here  been  carried  forward 
by  Protestants  for  more  than  seventy  years.  Great  numbers  of 
the  inhabitants  are  of  the  Brahmin  caste.  The  pagodas,  gate- 
ways, and  tanks  are  very  fine. 

The  chief  cause  of  the  celebrity  of  this  seat  of  idolatry  is  the 
general  belief  that  one  of  its  great  tanks  is  filled,  every  twelfth 


64  HINDUSTAN. 

year,  by  the  waters  of  the  Ganges,  which  enter  by  a  subter- 
ranean passage.  Thousands  of  people,  unable  to  go  so  far  as 
Bengal,  rush  hither,  from  all  parts  of  Southern  India,  at  these 
favored  times,  and  bring  vast  profit  to  the  Brahmins.  The 
efficacy  of  the  water  is  deemed  sufficient,  at  these  times,  to  wash 
away,  from  all  who  bathe  in  it,  all  manner  of  sin  and  impurity, 
even  though  contracted  in  many  former  transmigrations.  Pa- 
pists are  numerous  in  this  region,  and  add  much  to  the  difficul- 
ties of  a  missionary. 

The  station  has  not  been  without  fruit ;  and  some  souls  have 
evidently  been  born  of  God.  The  Danish  missionaries  at  one 
time  had  a  congregation  of  five  hundred  persons.  But,  among 
other  causes,  frequent  intermissions  of  labor,  by  the  death  or 
removal  of  the  missionary,  have  been  very  pernicious.  Mr. 
Nimmo  settled  here  in  1833,  and  has  two  hundred  nominal 
Christians  (that  is,  baptized  persons)  under  his  care,  and  a 
church  of  twelve  members.  Besides  the  chapel  in  the  city,  he 
has  three  others  in  the  vicinity,  and  employs  five  readers,  mostly 
from  Tanjore.  He  has  twelve  small  schools,  eight  of  which 
are  maintained  by  friends  on  the  spot.  Only  four  of  his  teachers 
are  Christians.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Combs,  from  Tanjore,  is  about 
to  settle  in  this  city. 

At  Tanjore,  a  hearty  welcome  awaited  me  to  the  house  of  the 
venerable  Kohlhoff,  the  protege,  friend,  and  fellow-laborer  of 
Swartz.  For  more  than  fifty  years  he  has  been  a  missionary. 
I  was  charmed  with  his  purity  and  simplicity  of  character,  and 
enjoyed,  during  the  three  days  spent  under  his  hospitable  roof, 
not  only  a  valuable  opportunity  of  acquiring  authentic  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  missions  in  this  region,  but  the  deductions  of 
his  own  long  experience  and  observation,  and  many  delightful 
facts  respecting  the  private  life  of  Swartz. 

The  city  is  the  residence  of  the  rajah,  who  still  reigns  over  the 
kingdom  of  Tanjore,  paying  three  fifths  of  the  revenues  to  the 
Company.  He  is  son  of  Serfojee,  the  rajah  who  was  brought  up 
by  Swartz,  and  who  so  sincerely  loved  that  admirable  man. 
His  residence  is  within  the  fortress,  which  is  reputed  to  be  very 
strong,  and  which  contains  not  only  the  palace,  but  a  population 
of  many  thousands. 

The  district  of  Tanjore  was  never  actually  occupied  by  Mahom- 
etans ;  therefore  the  Hindu  structures  remained  uninjured,  and 
the  religious  revenues  were  not  sequestrated.  Thus  it  is,  that  iu 
no  part  of  India  does  the  Brahminical  faith  show  itself  more 


TANJORE SWARTZ.  65 

imposingly.  Almost  every  village  lias  its  brick  pagoda,  and 
lofty  gateway,  covered  with  statues  in  mortal-.  Brahmins  hold 
all  the  power,  are  the  chief  landholders,  and  fill  almost  every 
lucrative  office. 

Swaitz  lived  within  the  fort,  where  both  his  dwelling-house 
and  church  yet  stand.  The  former  is  almost  a  ruin,  but  is  used 
as  a  school-room.  It  consists  merely  of  three  small  rooms,  a 
little  raised  from  the  ground.  Similar  humility  and  moderation 
are  displayed  in  the  house  he  afterwards  built,  within  the  yard  of 
his  church.  The  church  is  well  built  and  handsome,  and,  having 
been  lately  repaired,  at  much  expense,  by  the  rajah,  is  likely  to 
last  for  ages.  It  is  of  little  service  ;  as  but  two  or  tluee  Christian 
families  live  within  the  fort.  To  these,  however,  a  catechist 
preaches  eveiy  Sabbath.  Swartz's  pulpit  remains  unaltered ; 
and  in  the  wall,  at  the  opposite  side,  is  the  marble  tablet  by  Flax- 
man,  representing  his  last  moments,  with  the  faithful  Gerike  at 
his  head,  and  the  affectionate  rajah  and  others  by  his  side.  O 
that  this  spacious  church  may  again  contain  such  audiences  as 
listened  to  its  blessed  founder ! 

In  visiting  these  interesting  spots,  we  passed  the  rajah's  palace, 
and  saw  his  tigers,  &c,  kept  for  show.  He  had  gone  to  a  distant 
part  of  the  fort,  and  we  therefore  witnessed  his  displays  of  roy- 
alty. The  cavalcade  was  resting  near  the  gate  of  the  inner 
fortress,  where  he  had  entered.  It  consisted  of  a  score  of  war 
elephants,  caparisoned,  a  troop  mounted  on  camels,  and  a  small 
park  of  artillery.  Men  and  beasts  looked  dirty  and  shabby,  and 
all  the  pomp  seemed  poverty-struck.  The  dens  of  the  wild 
beasts,  originally  elegant,  and  each  having  a  fine  tank  of  brick 
and  mortar,  where  the  animals  might  bathe  at  pleasure,  were 
dilapidated,  and  the  handsome  iron  balustrade  nearly  mouldered 
away. 

We  passed  on  to  the  huge  pagodas,  extensive  gardens,  and 
paved  yards,  devoted  to  the  national  superstition.  Here,  too, 
idolatry  has  made  one  of  its  "  high  places."  But,  though  all  is 
grand  and  large,  quietude  and  decay  seem  to  be  nearly  in  posses- 
sion. A  few  fat,  supercilious  Brahmins  stalked  along  the  deserted 
walks  ;  but,  except  at  certain  seasons,  worshippers  are  few.  The 
traces  of  recent  repair  are  few  and  partial.  Other  shrines  in  the 
city  are  more  readily  reached,  and  thither  the  crowds  repair. 

The  city  itself  seems  flourishing.  It  is  regularly  built,  and  is 
said  to  contain  a  greater  proportion  of  good  houses  than  any 
other  native  city  in  Southern  India. 

The  first  visit  of  a  Christian  teacher  to  this  important  city  and 
6* 


66  HINDUSTAN. 

province,  was  that  of  Pressier,  from  Tranquebar,  in  1728 ;  but 
he  was  not  allowed  to  preach,  except  at  his  own  residence,  and 
remained  but  a  short  time.  The  next  effort  was  made  by  Wie- 
denbrock,  in  1753.  He  accompanied  an  embassy  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Tranquebar  to  the  rajah,  and  staid  but  twelve  days. 
His  diary,  preserved  in  the  mission  library,  states  that  he  had 
some  little  opportunity  of  declaring  the  system  of  salvation  be- 
fore the  assembled  court,  in  reply  to  questions  from  the  rajah. 

The  first  regular  missionary  efforts  were  made  by  Swartz  and 
Klein,  who  began  in  1762  their  labors  at  Trichinopoly,  making 
occasional  visits  to  Tanjore.  Ten  years  afterward,  Swartz  re- 
moved hither,  and  the  mission  may  be  said  to  have  been  com- 
menced. The  blessings  which  attended  his  efforts  may  be  seen  in 
his  memoir.  O  that  his  spirit  had  descended  on  all  his  succes- 
sors !  Two  thousand  persons  embraced  a  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity under  Swartz,  many  of  whom,  no  doubt,  were  truly  pious. 
But  he  alloAved  them  to  retain  caste  ;  and  the  sad  consequences  of 
his  so  doing  are  felt  to  this  day.  Caste  is  not  even  yet  wholly 
done  away  among  the  Christians,  and  its  injurious  effects  are 
many. 

In  the  province,  mostly  collected  in  villages,  there  are  now  about 
four  thousand  Protestant  Christians.  Of  course,  among  such  a 
population,  a  missionary  enjoys  many  of  the  advantages  of  a 
pastor  in  our  own  country.  It  secures,  too,  to  those  who  may 
choose  to  abandon  idolatry,  the  means  of  subsistence.  The 
children  are  brought  up  in  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God ;  and 
various  other  benefits  accrue.  Still,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
evils  do  not  overbalance  the  advantages.  The  baptizing  of  such 
as  embrace  Christianity,  without  becoming  pious,  and  of  receiv- 
ing to  the  Lord's  supper  all  such  as  exhibit  a  due  measure  of 
outward  rectitude,  and  possess  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  stand- 
ards of  the  church,  confounds  the  church  and  the  world  in  the 
sight  of  the  heathen,  keeps  down  the  standard  of  piety,  brings 
forth  unconverted  assistants,  and  makes  church  business  a  matter 
of  civil  police.  This  mode  of  conducting  missions  has  now  been 
long  tried,  and  is  practised  by  nearly  all  the  missionaries  in  India, 
except  those  of  the  Baptist  persuasion,  and  those  from  America. 
It  deserves  the  serious  consideration  of  the  friends  at  home.  Out 
of  the  seven  hundred  and  thirty-four  communicants  belonging  to 
the  Tanjore  mission,  a  very  small  part  are  deemed  pious;  nor  can 
many,  even  of  the  native  assistants,  lay  claim  to  this  character. 
Tyerman  and  Bennett  affirm  that  "  no  vital  religion  is  found  in 
any  of  the  preachers  or  native  Christians." 


TANJORE —  TRICHINOPOLY.  67 

The  present  missionaries  at  Tanjore  are  Mr.  Kohlhoff,  (Lu- 
theran,) and  Messrs.  Calthorpe  and  Brotherton,  (Episcopal.)  All 
are  in  connection  with  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society.  The 
two  latter  are  young,  and  have  but  just  arrived.  The  mission,  as 
a  whole,  wears  an  encouraging  aspect.  Three  of  the  native 
preachers  have  received  ordination  ;  two  of  whom  are  evidently 
converted  men.  One  of  these,  Visavarnarden,  (mentioned  in  Mr. 
Hough's  reply  to  Abbe  Dubois,)  is  still  active  and  faithful,  though 
nearly  sixty.     His  labors  have  been  particularly  blessed. 

The  schools,  to  which  government  contributes  a  hundred 
pagodas  [more  than  three  hundred  dollars]  per  month,  are  in  ac- 
tive operation.  This  allowance,  with  the  avails  of  Swartz's  be- 
quests, nearly  support  the  whole  mission,  with  the  exception  of 
the  salaries  of  Messrs.  Brotherton  and  Calthorpe.  The  whole 
number  of  catechists  and  schoolmasters  is  seventy-eight.  These 
come  monthly  to  the  mission-house,  where  their  reports  are  re- 
ceived, and  where  they  are  catechized,  and  otherwise  instructed. 
The  whole  number  of  scholars  is  about  a  thousand,  of  whom 
sixty  are  boarded  in  the  mission  compound.  The  houses  for  the 
missionaries,  the  schools,  &c,  are  excellent  and  ample.  These, 
with  the  church  now  used,  are  in  a  pleasant  suburb,  composed, 
in  a  considerable  measure,  of  the  native  Christians. 

Worship  is  maintained  in  the  church,  on  Sundays,  both  in 
English  and  Tamul.  No  audience  could  behave  more  prop- 
erly than  did  the  poor  natives.  Their  knowledge  of  Christian- 
ity, however,  is  very  small.  It  will  probably  be  long  before 
heathen  churches  will  possess  the  measure  of  light,  zeal,  and  de- 
votion, which  are  often  seen  in  more  favored  lands. 

Behind  the  pulpit  is  the  grave  of  Swartz,  marked  by  a  flat 
slab,  with  an  inscription  in  English  poetry,  ascribed  to  the  rajah, 
his  friend.  The  lines  are  affecting  ;  and  the  spot  will  ever  be, 
to  the  Christian,  hallowed  ground.  Fragrant  and  blessed  will 
the  memory  of  this  holy  man  be,  while  earth  stands.  How 
glorious  is  the  society  of  heaven  becoming!  How  blessed  it 
will  be  to  meet  there  all  the  good  who  ever  lived,  and  none 
but  such ! 

There  are  about  twelve  thousand  Romanists  hi  the  province, 
and  in  the  city  about  four  hundred.  Their  priests  are  generally 
of  the  Jesuit  order,  from  Goa.  Within  a  few  years,  a  large  party 
have  come  over  to  Protestantism. 

The  country  between  Tanjore  and  Trichinopoly  is  almost  a 
desert ;  and  I  could  not  place  a  relay  of  bearers  on  the  road.     One 


68 


HINDUSTAN. 


set  of  men  bore  me  the  whole  distance,  thirty-eight  miles, 
between  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening  and  sunrise  next  morning, 
without  apparent  fatigue.     This  is  the  customary  arrangement. 

Trichinopoly,  once  the  capital  of  a  small  kingdom,  stands  on 
the  Caveiy  River,  and  is  strongly  fortified.  It  has  a  population 
of  eighty  thousand  souls.  None  of  that  importance  is  now  at- 
tached to  this  strong  hold,  which  made  it  the  theatre  of  such 
sanguinary  conflicts,  between  the  English  and  French,  from  1751 
to  1755.  The  Company  maintain  now  five  or  six  full  regiments 
of  troops  here;  but  chiefly  for  the  salubrity  of  the  spot,  and  its 
ready  intercourse  with  other  points  on  the  peninsula. 

The  mission  here  was  begun  by  Swartz,  in  1762,  and  he 
labored  in  this  field  ten  years.  Since  that  period,  it  has  not 
been  constantly  occupied,  and  previous  to  1827  there  had  been 
no  missionary  here  for  ten  years !  The  injury  of  these  repeated 
intermissions  has  been  very  great.  Rev.  Mr.  Schreivogel  how 
has  charge,  but  the  work  moves  on  languidly.  There  are 'about 
five  hundred  nominal  Christians;  some  of  them  the  descendants 
of  Swartz's  followers ;  but  very  few  give  evidence  of  piety. 
One  of  my  informants  thought  there  might  be  forty  ;  but  another, 
who  had  better  means  of  knowing,  could  not  make  out  ten. 

The  church  and  mansion-house  of  Swartz  are  within  the 
fort.  The  former  is  still  used  ;  the  latter  is  empty,  and  going  to 
ruin.  Here,  as  at  Tanjore,  it  was  sweet  to  linger  in  the  rooms 
where  he  prayed,  studied,  and  reposed ;  to  handle  his  books ;  to 
look  abroad  on  the  objects  on  which  his  eye  had  rested ;  and 
to  console  myself  with  the  thought,  that,  though  so  vastly  his 
inferior,  and  so  unworthy  of  his  society,  I  belong  to  that  company 
of  redeemed  ones,  among  whom  he  is  conspicuous.  What  a 
goodly  fellowship !  How  will  that  company  rejoice  and  shine, 
when  the  memory  and  the  works  of  the  wicked  shall  have 
perished  forever ! 

The  last  days  of  Heber  were  spent  laboriously  in  this  city ; 
and  here,  "as  a  thief  hi  the  night,"  his  hour  came.  Though  his 
published  "Travels  in  India"  contain  little  or  nothing  to  indicate 
piety,  yet  no  one  can  follow  in  his  steps,  as  I  have  done,  without 
hearing  enough  to  prove  that  he  walked  with  God.  I  stood 
over  his  grave  in  the  church,  and  surveyed  the  bath  from  whence 
his  lifeless  body  was  taken,*  with  feelings  of  sacred  brotherhood. 

*  He  had  gone  into  a  large  and  deep  cold  bath,  which  he  had  before  used  ; 
and,  remaining  longer  than  common,  his  servant  entered,  and  found  him  a 
corpse  at  the  bottom.  As  he  could  swim,  it  was  thought  he  had  fallen  in  an 
apoplexy. 


TRICHINOPOLY SERINUHAM. 


69 


Up  to  the  period  of  Bp.  Heher's  visit,  in  1826,  all  the  missionary 
operations  of  this  region  were  maintained  by  the  British  Society 
for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  Since  that  time,  this  so- 
ciety takes  charge  of  all  the  schools  ;  and  tlie  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel,  assumes  the,  support  of  the  missionaries. 

Being  within  five  miles  of  the  famous  pagoda  at  Seringham,  I 
of  course  made  an  excursion  thither.  It  is  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  renowned  seven;  and  the  expectation  of  seeing  it,  induced 
me  to  omit  any  remarks  on  those  of  Comhaconum  and  Chillum- 
brum.  Hindu  architecture  is  too  uniform  to  make  numerous 
descriptions  of  it  interesting  or  useful. 


Seririgham  Gateway. 


This  proud  monument  of  Hindu  art,  wealth,  and  superstition, 
stands  on  an  island,  made  by  theCavery  River  dividing  itself  into 


70  HINDUSTAN. 

two  branches,  and  forming  a  junction  again  a  few  miles  below. 
The  sanctum  sanctorum  of  the  numerous  structures  round,  is 
scarcely  larger  than  a  native's  hut ;  but  is  highly  adorned,  and 
in  some  parts  gilded.  It  is  enclosed  within  seven  successive 
walls,  a  hundred  and  twenty  yards  apart ;  the  outer  wall  being 
four  miles  in  circumference.  These  walls  are  of  great  strength, 
twenty-five  feet  high,  and,  beside  common  gateways,  have  twenty 
stupendous  towers  or  pagodas  over  as  many  entrances.  One  of 
these  is  here  delineated,  and  furnishes  a  fan-  specimen  not  only  of 
the  twenty  here,  but  of  similar  structures  throughout  India.  By 
comparing  it  with  the  Peguan  pagoda,  in  the  landscape  of  Tavoy} 
that  of  Ava,  on  p.  142,  vol.  i.,  and  that  of  China,  in  a  subsequent 
part  of  this  volume,  a  competent  idea  may  be  had  of  the  different 
forms  of  the  pagoda.  A  multitude  of  sacred  edifices  are  scattered 
about,  among  which  are  some  vast  halls.  The  flat  roof  of  one 
of  these  is  supported  by  a  thousand  slender  pillars  of  carved 
granite.  The  pavements,  stairs,  and  lower  parts  of  the  buildings 
generally,  are  of  red  and  gray  granite,  and  sienite.  The  rough 
slabs  had  evidently  been  split,  in  the  manner  now  practised  in 
New  England.  I  was  surprised  to  find  that  what  is  thought 
among  us  to  be  a  modern  invention,  had  been  practised  here 
for  ages. 

Griffins  and  tigers,  gods  and  men,  tolerably  sculptured, 
adorned  various  parts ;  and  the  trumpery  of  display  days,  with 
the  cars  on  which  the  idols  are  drawn  forth,  stood  in  the  by- 
places.     We  saw  no  one  performing  any  kind  of  worship. 

The  intervals  between  the  walls  are  occupied  by  streets  of 
well-built  houses,  and  present  the  common  aspect  of  a  busy  town. 
The  population  is  about  eight  thousand.  Persons  of  all  grades  and 
occupations  reside  here,  and  carry  on  their  business.  A  very 
large  proportion  are  Brahmins.  The  other  inhabitants  seemed 
chiefly  to  subsist  by  little  shops,  in  which  are  sold  the  various 
articles  connected  with  the  idolatry  of  the  place.  They  made 
no  objection  to  selling  me  unconsecrated  idols,  and  whatever 
else  I  chose. 

A  singular  aspect  is  given  to  the  place,  by  scores  if  not 
hundreds  of  huge  monkeys,  which  are  seen  at  every  glance. 
They  are  held  sacred  to  Hunimaun,  the  divine  ape,  who  conquered 
Ceylon  for  Rama.  Of  course,  they  are  not  only  unmolested,  but 
well  fed ;  and  multiply  without  restriction.  They  looked  on  us 
from  every  wall,  and  frolicked  on  the  trees,  the  images,  and  carved 
sides  of  the  towers,  often  coming  within  a  yard  of  us,  without 
the  semblance  of  fear.     They  are  by  no  means  peculiar  to  this 


SLAVERY   IN    THE    CARNATIC.  71 

temple,  but  abound  in  most  Hindu  sacred  places,  and  for  the 
same  reason. 

Pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Tndia  resort  to  this  place  for  ab- 
solution from  their  sins ;  and  as  none  come  without  an  offering, 
the  Brahmins  live  in  voluptuous  ease.  The  establishment  re- 
ceives, also,  from  the  Compairy,  an  annual  stipend,  stated  by 
Hamilton  to  be  15,600  pagodas,  ($27,300.)  Still,  their  rapacity- 
is  insatiate.  A  half  dozen  of  them,  pretending  to  act  as  guides, 
followed  us  every  where,  begging  with  insolent  pertinacity. 
With  idolaters,  as  with  Papists,  clerical  mendicity  is  regarded 
as  a  virtue,  rather  than  a  fault. 

The  number  of  slaves  in  the  Carnatic,  Mysore,  and  Malabar,  is 
said  to  be  greater  than  in  most  other  parts  of  India ;  and  embraces 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Punchum  Bundam  caste.  The  whole 
number  in  British  India  has  never  been  ascertained,  but  is  sup- 
posed, by  the  best  informed  persons  I  was  able  to  consult,  to  be, 
on  an  average,  at  least  one  in  eight,  that  is,  about  ten  millions. 
Many  consider  them  twice  as  numerous.  The  number  is  kept 
up  not  only  by  propagation,  but  the  sale  of  children  by  their 
parents.  Manumissions,  however,  are  frequent  among  the  opu- 
lent in  the  northern  provinces.  Forbes  says,*  "I  believe  most 
of  the  tribes  of  Pooleahs  and  Pariars  in  Malabar,  are  considered 
as  slaves.  The  number  of  poor  people  who  come  down  to  An- 
jengo,  and  the  other  seaports,  from  the  inland  countries,  during 
a  famine,  either  to  sell  themselves,  or  dispose  of  their  children 
as  slaves,  is  astonishing.  During  the  rainy  season,  even  when 
there  is  no  uncommon  scarcity,  many  are  weekly  brought  down 
from  the  mountains,  to  be  sold  on  the  coasts.  They  do  not  ap- 
pear to  think  it  so  great  a  hardship  as  we  imagine." 

It  is  strange  that  the  British  public  should  be  so  slow  to  open 
their  eyes  to  this  great  subject.  For  twenty  years,  appeals  and 
pamphlets  have  frequently  appeared.  In  1828,  a  volume  of  1000 
pages  of  parliamentary  documents,  on  East  India  slavery,  was 
printed ;  and  within  four  or  five  years,  some  strenuous  efforts 
have  been  made  to  call  attention  to  this  enormity ;  but  as  yet, 
nothing  has  been  done  to  purpose.  Surely  the  zeal  which  has 
achieved  the  freedom  of  a  few  hundred  thousand  slaves  in  the 
West  Indies,  will  now  be  exerted  in  behalf  of  twenty-Jive  times 
the  number  in  the  East. 

*  Oriental  Memoirs. 


72  HINDUSTAN. 

The  countenance  and  support  given  by  government  to  the 
prevailing  forms  of  religion,  is  a  weighty  subject,  and  calls  for 
the  solemn  consideration  of  British  Christians.  1  cannot  but 
sympathize  deeply  with  the  missionaries,  in  the  trials  and  ob- 
structions they  meet  on  this  account.  They  have  little  doubt 
but  that  the  pernicious  influence  of  the  Brahmins  would  wither, 
and  their  system  lose  its  power,  if  government  did  not  render 
its  aid,  both  by  open  countenance  and  direct  taxation. 

An  extreme  fear  of  creating  political  disturbances,  if  eflbrts 
were  made  to  convert  the  natives  to  Christianity,  seems  to  have 
possessed  the  Company's  government  from  the  beginning.  Hence 
the  refusal,  at  first,  to  allow  missionary  effort.  Hence  Chamber- 
lain, though  in  the  service  of  her  royal  highness,  the  Begaum, 
was  deemed  pestilent  for  preaching  at  a  fair,  and  her  majesty 
was  reluctantly  obliged  to  send  him  down  to  Calcutta.  Happily, 
the  little  band  that  found  a  refuge  under  the  Danish  flag  at  Ser- 
ampore,  lived  to  prove,  practically,  that  such  fears  are  groundless. 

But,  though  the  government  now  permits  and  protects  mis- 
sionary effort,  it  has  not  wholly  lost  its  early  fears ;  and  these, 
together  with  a  desire  to  be  strictly  neutral,  lead  to  measures 
directly  favorable  to  idolatry.  It  levies  and  collects  the  revenues 
for  supporting  brahmins  and  temples,  as  the  former  rulers  did ; 
thus  virtually  making  idolatry  and  Mahometanism  the  established 
religions  of  the  country !  The  annual  allowance  from  the  public 
treasury,  for  the  support  of  the  temple  of  Juggernaut,  is  56,000 
rupees,  (about  $26,000,)  and  many  other  temples  have  allowances 
equally  liberal.  C.  Buller,  in  his  letter  to  the  Court  of  Directors, 
on  this  subject,  says,  "Large  pensions,  in  land  and  money,  are 
allowed  by  our  government,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  for  keep- 
ing up  the  religious  institutions  both  of  Hindus  and  Mahomet- 
ans." Lord  Wm.  Bentick,  governor-general  of  India,  under 
date  of  August,  1835,  speaking  of  the  tax  laid  on  pilgrims,  which 
yields  the  Company  a  handsome  revenue,  says,  "  As  long  as  we 
maintain,  most  properly,  in  my  opinion,  the  different  establish- 
ments belonging  to  the  Mahometan  and  Hindu  religions,  we 
need  not  much  scruple  about  the  tax  in  question." 

hi  the  district  of  Tinnevelly,  an  examination  on  this  subject 
was  made  by  Mr.  T.,  who  found  2783  temples,  and  9799  petty 
kovils,  of  male  and  female  deities,  and  some  inferior  religious 
stations  ;  making  a  total  of  14,851  places  of  idolatrous  worship. 
The  total  charge  of  these  on  the  government  amounts  to  30,000 
pounds  sterling,  (about  $145,000,)  per  annum  ! 

Beside  this  regular  support,  there  are  numerous  other  modes, 


SUPPORT    OF    IDOLATRY    BY    GOVERNMENT.  73 

in  which  the  national  systems  are  countenanced.  Mr.  Rhenius 
has  stated,  that,  in  3831,  government  contributed  forty  thousand 
rupees  toward  the  performance  of  a  certain  ceremony  in  the 
temple  at  Tinnevelly,  and  to  repair  the  idol's  car !  At  the  prin- 
cipal festivals,  guns  are  fired  by  national  ships,  and  by  the 
Company's  troops,  and  the  military  bands  of  music  are  loaned 
to  grace  the  occasions.  Thus  Christian  soldiers  are  compelled 
to  do  honor  to  the  false  prophet  and  to  dumb  idols !  A  letter  of 
the  Rev.  William  Fyvie,  dated  Surat,  September  1,  1836,  pub- 
lished in  an  English  periodical,  mentions  one  of  these  cases, 
which  are  constantly  occurring  in  every  part  of  India.  It  was 
the  annual  coco-nut  day — a  festival  in  which  coco-nuts  are  thrown 
into  the  river  as  offerings.  "  This  Hindu  festival  was  ushered  in 
by  a  salute  of  guns  from  the  honorable  Company's  ship,  lying  in 
the  river  opposite  to  Surat  The  castle  guns  fired  a  salute  at 
the  same  tune.  About  four  P.  M.,  after  the  brahmin  had  conse- 
crated the  coco-nut  with  prayers,  the  European  magistrate 
presented  the  offering  to  the  river,  amidst  the  poojas  (worship, 
of  the  brahmins  and  other  Hindus  present.  While  this  vain  and 
idle  ceremony  was  going  forward,  the  ship,  before  alluded  to, 
first  moved  down  and  then  up  the  river,  displaying  her  colors, 
and  firing  salutes.  The  British  flag  was  waving  on  Surat  Castle 
all  the  day,  in  honor  of  the  festival.  In  this  way  our  rulers  and 
then  agents  directly  and  publicly  countenance  idolatry  and  su- 
perstition in  this  place.  The  new  moon,  excepting  twice  in  the 
year,  when  the  Mussulmans  are  mourning,  is  regularly  saluted 
by  five  guns,  to  please  the  Mahometans.  Two  thousand  rupees 
are  annually  given  to  the  same  people  by  government,  to  assist 
them  in  the  celebration  of  their  Eeds,  (festivals.)  When  shall 
these  practices  be  brought  to  a  perpetual  end  ?  " 

Various  idolatrous  temples  and  gateways  have  been  built 
or  repaired  by  government.  Vast  sums  have  been  spent  on 
colleges  and  schools,  for  the  inculcation  of  heathen  and  Mahom- 
etan doctrines  and  customs.  By  these  same  laws  and  customs, 
British  judges  and  magistrates  regulate  their  decisions,  instead 
of  the  pure  and  equitable  laws  of  then  own  land,  and  of  the 
Christian  Scriptures !  When  the  cars  of  certain  gods  are  to  be 
drawn  in  public  procession,  there  has  been,  for  some  years 
back,  in  various  places,  a  deficiency  of  people.  In  such  cases, 
the  officers  of  government  send  out  magistrates,  and  constables, 
or  peons,  who,  with  whips  and  ratans,  beat  the  wretched  people, 
and  force  them  to  quit  their  work  and  drag  at  the  ropes  !  Mr. 
Pegg,  formerly  a  Baptist  missionary  at  Cuttack,  has  fully  shown, 

VOL.  II.  7 


74  HINDUSTAN. 

in  a  pamphlet,  published  in  England  in  1835,  the  pilgrim  tax 
system,  that  the  temple  of  Juggernaut,  of  which  we  hear  so 
much,  is  wholly  supported  by  the  British  government;  and  that  a 
large  premium  is  paid  by  the  government  to  "pilgrim  hunters," 
who  pass  throughout  the  land,  enticing  persons  to  make  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  idol,  and  receive  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  tax  laid 
upon  them  !  In  regard  to  these  agents,  "The  Friend  of  India" 
very  forcibly  observes,  "  We  have  a  body  of  idol  missionaries, 
far  exceeding  in  number  all  the  Christian  missionaries,  perhaps, 
in  the  world,  going  forth,  from  year  to  year,  to  propagate  delu- 
sion, and  proclaim  (what,  perhaps,  not  one  of  them  believes) 
the  transcendent  efficacy  of  beholding  a  log  of  wood ;  and  all 
this  through  a  perversion  of  British  humanity,  and  good  faith, 
paid  from  year  to  year,  by  the  officers  of  a  Christian  and  a  British 
government." 

Until  lately,  the  appointment  of  native  Christians  to  any  office, 
however  low,  was  wholly  prohibited.  That  prohibition  is  now 
removed ;  but,  as  the  local  officers  are  not  bound  to  employ 
them,  and  the  general  feeling  is  against  it,  they  are  still  excluded. 
How  impressively  does  this  say  to  the  natives,  that  their  rulers 
do  not  want  them  to  become  Christians !  I  have  heard  several 
officers  declare,  that  a  man  who  would  change  his  religion,  is 
not  worthy  of  confidence !  After  many  inquiries,  I  could  never 
find  any  one  who  knew  of  a  Christian  sepoy  being  ever  raised 
above  the  ranks. 

Corporal  punishment  has  been  abolished  in  all  the  native 
regiments.  Recently  a  native  drummer  committed  an  offence 
which  formerly  was  punished  with  flogging.  The  question  was 
started,  whether  this  man,  being  a  Christian,  came  under  the 
new  law.  The  decision  was,  that  he  was  not  a  native,  in  the 
eye  of  the  law ;  and  he  was  made  to  undergo  the  lash !  I  take 
this  fact  from  the  Calcutta  newspapers  of  the  day. 

Public  offices  are  closed  entirely  on  various  native  festivals ; 
but  on  the  Christian  Sabbath,  native  officers  and  servants,  and 
many  Europeans,  are  employed  as  usual.  I  have  been  in  no 
part  of  the  Company's  territories  where  public  works,  carried  on 
by  native  laborers,  are  not  continued  on  the  Lord's  day. 

By  Mahometan  and  Hindu  laws  of  inheritance,  the  son  who 
changes  his  religion  loses  patrimony.  British  judges,  therefore, 
deciding  by  these  laws,  are  compelled  to  turn  the  convert  from  his 
home,  a  beggar.  The  very  records  of  these  courts  are  inscribed  to 
Shree,  to  Ganesha,  and  other  false  gods.  Brahmins  and  others  have 
been  appointed  and  employed  by  government  to  make  inter- 


SUPPORT    OF    IDOLATRY    BY    GOVERNMENT.  75 

cessions  and  invocations  to  pagan  gods  for  rain,  and  for  fair 
weather !  It  is  so  customary  for  British  officers  to  subscribe  to 
one  Hindu  and  one  Mahometan  festival  annually,  that  some  who 
recently  declined,  from  conscientious  scruples,  gave  great  offence 
to  then-  superiors. 

I  speak  in  no  spirit  of  bitterness  in  narrating  these  facts.  The 
government  has,  in  the  main,  good  intentions,  I  have  no  doubt; 
and,  next  to  the  profit  of  the  Company,  and  the  preservation  of 
these  countries  to  Britain,  desires  the  well-being  of  the  people. 

Two  incidents  have  just  occurred,  which  will  be  likely  to  at- 
tract attention.  Mr.  Casamajor,  a  distinguished  civilian,  has  re- 
signed his  appointment,  rather  than  collect  revenues  for  the 
support  of  idolatry.  Of  course,  those  who  hold  similar  appoint- 
ments are  anxious  to  quiet  their  consciences  and  sustain  their 
reputation ;  and  a  thousand  arguments  are  brought  forward 
against  Mr.  Casamajor's  course.  The  present  commander-in- 
chief  on  the  Madras  presidency,  principled  against  countenan- 
cing idolatry,  yet  not  able  to  forbid  the  attendance  of  troops  on 
festive  occasions,  which  is  a  government  regulation,  issued  a 
circular,  forbidding  the  music  to  accompany  them.  This  order 
has  created  him  much  trouble.  Sir  F.  Adam,  the  governor,  re- 
peatedly and  positively  required  him  to  issue  a  countermanding 
order.  This  Sir  P.  Maitland  would  not  do,  choosing  rather  that 
the  governor  in  council,  who  has  the  power,  should  himself 
countermand  the  order.  After  some  days  of  sharp  contest,  the 
governor's  time  to  embark  for  England  arrived ;  and  nothing 
was  done. 

Facts  on  the  subject  have  for  many  years  been  constantly  laid 
before  parliament,  and  the  court  of  directors  of  the  East  India 
Company  and  the  British  public  been  widely  appealed  to  by 
powerful  pens.  We  may  therefore  cherish  the  hopes  expressed 
by  the  editor  of  the  Bombay  Oriental  Spectator.* 

"  We  trust  that  the  time  is  now  at  hand  when  our  rulers  will 
cease  to  be  the  bankers  and  factors  of  the  idols  and  their  pro- 
totypes, the  abortions  of  those  who  became  '  vain  in  their 
imaginations,  and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened;'  when 
they  will  no  longer  grace  heathen  and  Mahometan  revelries  by 
attendance,  and  participation  in  their  unholy  rites  and  ceremonies, 
nor  rend  the  heavens  and  provoke  the  thunders  of  Omnipotence 
by  firing  salutes  in  their  honor ;  when  they  will  suffer  no  doc- 
ument dedicated  to  'the  lord  of  devils,' f  or  profaning  the  name 


*  VoL  vii.  No.  11.  f  Ganesh. 


76  HINDUSTAN. 

of  Jehovah,*  to  leave  the  public  offices ;  when  they  will  cease  to 
appeal  to  the  'vanities  of  the  heathen'  for  rain  and  fruitful 
seasons ;  when  they  will  neither  in  respect  '  make  mention  of 
the  name  of  heathen  gods,  nor  cause  to  swear  by  them,'  f  nor 
regulate  the  affairs  of  their  worship,  nor  settle  the  rank  of  their 
deluded  votaries;  and  when  they  will  no  longer  bewilder  the 
minds  of  the  '  twice-born '  youth  by  the  exploded  and  absurd 
science  of  the  Vedas  and  Puranas,  taught  in  Sunscrit  colleges, 
and  qualify  them  for  dexterously  poisoning  the  souls  of  the 
people  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land,  by  com- 
positions prepared  under  the  auspices  of  the  great  Destroyer. 
We  hope,  we  say,  that  this,  the  most  happy  day  which  India  has 
seen,  and  the  prelude  of  one  still  more  glorious,  will  speedily 
arrive ;  and  we  invoke  the  blessing  of  God  on  all,  in  India  and 
Britain,  who,  by  remonstrance  with  man,  and  prayer  to  God,  may 
seek  to  hasten  it."  / 

My  personal  knowledge  of  Hindustan  and  the  Hindus,  though 
too  limited  to  authorize  me  to  pronounce  new  opinions,  is  abun- 
dantly sufficient  to  satisfy  me  of  the  truth  of  portraits  drawn  by 
others.  I  read  much  on  both  sides,  and  constantly  marked 
whatever  tended  to  show  up  the  native  character,  and  the  ten- 
dency of  Brahminism,  and  at  every  step  was  more  and  more 
confirmed  in  the  opinion  of  Lord  Teiumouth,  whose  personal 
knowledge  of  India  was  so  extensive,  that  "  the  Gentoos  are  as 
degenerate,  crafty,  superstitious,  litigious,  and  wretched  a  people, 
as  any  in  the  known  world,  and,  especially,  the  common  run 
of  Brahmins;"  and  of  Claudius  Buchanan,  who  pronounced  the 
Hindus  to  be  "destitute  of  honesty,  truth,  and  justice  ;"  and  of 
Sir  James  Mcintosh,  (quoting  Sir  Wm.  Jones's  opinion  as  his 
own,)  who,  among  the  evidences  of  their  depravity,  speaks  of  "the 
general  prevalence  of  perjury,  which  is,  perhaps,  a  more  certain 
sign  of  the  general  dissolution  of  moral  principle,  than  other 
daring  and  ferocious  crimes,  and  much  more  horrible  to  the  imag- 
ination." Of  the  same  mind  with  these  distinguished  men,  ia 
Forbes,  Author  of  the  "  Oriental  Memoirs,"  already  several 
times  quoted.  He  says,  "I  cannot  praise  a  religion  which 
encourages  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  of  idle  vagabonds, 
who  practise  no  virtue ;  but,  under  the  mask  of  piety,  with  a 
sort  of  stoical  apathy  and  pharisaical  zeal,  undergo  needless 
austerities  and  penances  near  their  celebrated  temples,  or  per- 

*  Or  Hit.  t  Josh,  xxiii.  7. 


BRAHMINS    AND    BRAHMINISM.  77 

vade  the  provinces  of  Hindustan,  singly,  and  in  large  bodies,  to 
make  depredation  on  the  hard-earned  property  of  the  poor  villa- 
gers, and  violate  the  chastity  of  their  wives  and  daughters,  under 
a  cloak  of  sanctity  and  religious  perfection." 

I  will  only  add  the  very  temperate  remarks  of  the  celebrated 
Wilkes.*  "  The  Hindoo  character,  like  all  others,  is  of  a  mixed 
nature  ;  but  it  is  composed  of  strange  and  contradictory  ele- 
ments. The  man  who  may  be  safely  trusted  for  uniformly  un- 
folding the  whole  truth  to  an  European  in  whom  he  reposes 
confidence,  may  be  expected  to  equivocate,  and  even  to  contra- 
dict every  word  he  has  said,  if  called  on  to  repeat  it  in  the 
presence  of  a  third  person,  whom  he  either  fears  or  suspects ; 
and  in  one  of  these  descriptions  he  usually  includes  all  strangers. 
The  same  individual,  who,  from  pique,  and  often  without  any 
intelligible  motive,  will  perjure  himself  without  shame  or  com- 
punction at  a  public  trial,  is  faithful,  kind,  and  respectable,  in 
the  intercourse  of  society." 

Were  all  such  testimony  rejected,  as  partial  or  vindictive,  the 
fine  rhapsodies  on  Hindu  innocence  and  happiness  would  be 
exploded  by  the  slightest  inspection  of  their  declared  religion. 
The  utter  contrariety  of  the  whole  system  to  all  mildness,  purity, 
benevolence,  and  peace,  may  be  seen  on  opening  any  of  their 
sacred  books. 

"  The  abode  of  the  chandalas  must  be  out  of  the  town  ;  they 
must  not  have  the  use  of  entire  vessels ;  their  sole  wealth,  must 
be  dogs  and  asses ;  their  clothes  must  be  mantles  of  the  de- 
ceased ;  their  dishes  for  food,  broken  pots ;  their  ornaments, 
rusty  iron  ;  and  continually  must  they  roam  from  place  to  place. 
Let  food  be  given  to  them  in  potsherds,  but  not  by  the  hands  of 
the  giver ;  and  let  them  not  walk  by  night  in  cities  or  towns." 

In  the  code  of  Menu,  it  is  declared,  that  if  one  of  the  Shoodra 
caste  reads  the  Vedas,  or  listens  to  them,  heated  oil,  wax,  or  tin, 
shall  be  poured  into  his  ears,  and  the  orifice  stopped  up.  And, 
if  a  Shoodra  gets  by  heart  any  of  the  Vedas,  though  he  may  not 
have  seen  the  book,  he  shall  be  put  to  death.  The  same  code 
affirms,  that  the  only  things  in  which  Shoodras,  and  other  low 
castes,  need  be  instructed,  is  the  superiority  of  brahmins ; 
and  that  the  great  means  of  obtaining  favor  from  the  gods,  is 
giving  them  charity. 

The  following  turgid  and  shocking  account  of  the  brahmins 
is  quoted  from  their  own  Ramayana :  — 

*  History  of  Mysore. 


78 


HINDUSTAN. 


"Even  he  who  cannot  be  slain  by  the  ponderous  arms  of 
Indra,  nor  by  those  of  Kali,  nor  by  the  terrible  Chackra  of  Vishnu, 
shall  be  destroyed  if  a  brahmin  curse  him,  as  if  he  were  con- 
sumed by  fire."  In  other  parts,  brahminical  potency  (almost, 
it  may  be  said,  ominipotency)  is  strongly  enforced. 

"  Let  not  a  king,  although  in  greatest  distress  for  money, 
provoke  brahmins  to  anger,  by  taking  their  property ;  for,  once 
enraged,  they  could  immediately,  by  sacrifices  and  imprecations, 
destroy  him,  with  his  troops,  elephants,  horses,  and  cars." 

"  Who,  without  perishing,  could  provoke  these  holy  men,  by 
whose  ancestors,  under  Brahma,  the  all-devouring  fire  was 
created ;  the  sea,  with  waters  not  drinkable  ;  and  the  moon,  with 
its  wane  and  increase  ?  "  "  What  prince  could  gain  wealth  by 
oppressing  those,  who,  if  angry,  could  frame  other  worlds,  and 
legions  of  worlds  —  could  give  being  to  new  gods  and  mor- 
tals ?  When  a  brahmin  springs  to  iight? 
he  is  born  above  the  world ;  the  chief 
of  all  creatures ;  assigned  to  guard  the 
treasury  of  duties,  religious  and  civil." 

"  He  who,  through  ignorance  of  the  law? 
sheds  blood  from  the  body  of  a  brahmin,  not 
engaged  in  battle,  as  many  particles  of 
dust  as  the  blood  shall  roll  up  from  the 
ground,  so  many  years  shall  the  shedder 
of  that  blood  be  mangled  by  other  animals, 
in  his  next  birth ;  or  so  many  thousand 
years  shall  the  shedder  of  that  blood  be 
tormented  in  hell." 

The  accompanying  picture  of  a  brah- 
min shows  the  marks  of  clay,  &c,  on  his 
forehead  and  breast,  as  described  page  52. 
In  his  hand  he  holds  a  native  book. 


All  the  writers  I  have  been  able  to  consult,  and  most  of 
my  friends  in  various  parts  of  Hindustan,  declare  India  to  be  in  a 
state  of  progressive  poverty  and  depression.  The  following  ob- 
servation of  Hamilton  imbodies  the  general  idea.  After  stating 
many  facts,  and  adducing  public  records  to  prove  his  assertion, 
and  remarking  that  the  nature  of  the  connection  which  binds 
the  country  to  Britain  will  sufficiently  account  for  this  ten- 
dency to  deterioration,  without  resorting  to  local  mismanagement, 
he  says,  —  "All  the  offices  of  emolument,  civil  and  military,  and 
the  highest  lines  of  commerce,  are  in  the  hands  of  strangers, 


POVERTY  OF  THE  COUNTRY.  79 

who,  after  a  temporary  residence,  depart,  with  the  capital  they 
have  accumulated.  Under  native  rulers,  even  the  extortions  of 
rapacity,  and  the  drains  of  tribute,  returned  into  circulation,  and 
promoted,  in  some  form,  territorial  industry.  Under  its  present 
constitution,  the  remittance,  or  rather  tribute  to  Britain,  car- 
ries off  every  year  a  large  share  of  the  produce,  for  which  noth- 
ing is  returned."  * 

It  may  be  interesting  to  some,  and  seems  necessary  in  order 
to  give  a  general  idea  of  British  operations  in  India,  to  state  the 
salaries  of  a  few  of  the  government  officers.  From  these  the 
general  scale  of  salaries  may  be  deduced. 

Rupees  per  annum. 

The  Governor-General  receives 250.000 

"    Members  of  Council  (each) 100.000 

"    Judge  of  Native  Supreme  Court 50.000 

"    Members  of  head  Board  of  Revenue 50.000 

"    Secretaries  to  Government  of  India  (each) 50.000 

"    Salt  Agents from  50.000  to  56.000 

"    Commissioner  of  Revenue 36.000 

"    Secretaries  to  Government  of  Bengal  (each) 36.000 

«    Judge  of  a  Zillah  or  City 30.000 

While  such  salaries  are  paid  to  the  civil  servants  of  the  Com- 
pany, they  are  by  no  means  niggardly  to  their  military  officers ; 
and  when  it  is  recollected  that  they  maintain  constantly  a  stand- 
ing army  of  200,000  men  ;  that  the  military  pensions  are  already 
enormous ;  that  the  recruiting  and  bringing  to  India  of  each 
British  soldier  costs  the  Company,  on  an  average,  five  hundred 
dollars ;  that  all  the  clothing  and  equipments  of  the  army,  and 
most  of  the  luxuries  of  the  officers  and  gentry,  are  manufactured 
in  England,  and  that  every  expense  of  the  Company,  to  say 
nothing  of  profits,  must  be  drawn  from  the  natives,  —  we  can 
scarcely  wonder  that  the  country  should  be  gradually  sinking 
into  desperate  poverty.  Tennent,  author  of  "Thoughts  on 
British  Influence  in  India,"  estimates  the  annual  savings  of  the 
Company's  servants,  sent  home  to  England,  at  ten  millions 
of  dollars. 

From  time  immemorial,  the  land  has  constituted  the  chief 
source  of  revenue  in  India ;  and  for  plain  and  obvious  reasons. 
The  habits  of  the  great  body  of  the  people  are  simple  and  uni- 

*  Walter  Hamilton's  Gazetteer  of  India. 


80  HINDUSTAN. 

form  ;  their  diet  is  spare,  and  confined  generally  to  a  few  articles 
of  the  first  necessity ;  their  clothing  is  scanty  and  mean ;  their 
habitations  poor  and  unfurnished ;  what  we  term  luxuries,  are 
confined  to  the  opulent  few.  In  all  this  the  keen  eye  of  the 
financier  sees  nothing  to  touch ;  and  he  is  compelled  to  have 
recourse  to  the  expedient  of  taxing  produce  in  the  aggregate. 

The  government  share  of  rice  crops  is,  on  an  average,  about 
fifty  per  cent. !  But  the  mode  of  collection  causes  the  cultivator 
to  pay  about  three  fourths  of  his  crop.  The  public  treasury  is 
replenished  by  monopolies ;  duties  on  exports  and  imports,  for 
the  most  part  heavy;  licenses  for  the  sale  of  arrack  and  toddy; 
stamps;  fees  on  judicial  proceedings;  &c.  The  entire  revenue 
of  the  Company  is  probably  about  a  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 

But  the  taxes  on  India  are  nothing  compared  with  the  oppres- 
sions and  miseries  inflicted  by  her  religion.  No  statistics  can 
measure  these  —  no  eloquence  describe  them.  They  must  be 
seen,  to  be  understood.  In  vain  poets  describe  her  citron 
breezes  and  palmy  woods,  her  consecrated  rivers,  balsamic 
gums,  fragrant  spices,  and  trickling  manna.  One  wide-spread 
shade  rests  on  the  scene.  It  is  the  kingdom  of  the  god  of  this 
world  —  an  empire  where  darkness  reigns,  and  the  shadow  of 
death.  At  every  glance,  one  is  reminded  of  the  prophet's  forci- 
ble description  of  a  people  who  have  forsaken  God  —  "  They 
hunt  every  man  his  brother  with  a  net ;  that  they  may  do  evil  with 
both  hands,  earnestly ;  the  prince  asketh,  and  the  judge  asketh  a 
reward ;  and  the  great  man  uttereth  his  mischievous  desire  ;  so 
they  wrap  it  up.  The  best  of  them  is  as  a  brier;  the  most 
upright  is  sharper  than  a  thorn  hedge."     Micah  vii.  3,  4. 

The  following  are  the  modern  or  living  languages  of  Hindus- 
tan : —  Hindustanee,  Bengalese,  Cashmerian,  Dogura,  Ooch,  Sin- 
dy,  Cutch,  Gujeratty,  Concan,  Punjaub,  Bicanere,  Marwar, 
Jeypore,  Odeypore,  Harowty,  Malwa,  Bruj,  Bundlecund,  Mah- 
ratta,  Magadha,  Koshala,  Maithila,  Nepaul,  Orissa,  Teloogoo, 
Carnata,  and  Tamid.  Except  the  Hindustanee,  which  is  the 
universal  language  of  intercourse,  all  these  are  local. 


81 


CHAPTER  m. 

Voyage  to  Singapore  —  Coasters  —  Prices  of  Passage  in  India  —  Straits  of 
Malacca  —  Harbor  and  Town  of  Singapore  —  Climate  —  Productions  — 
Commerce  —  Islamism  —  Population  —  Moral  Character  of  Population  — 
Orang  Louts  —  Chinese  Wedding  —  Missionary  Operations  —  Malacca 
—  History  of  the  Settlement  —  Extent  —  Population  —  Progress  of 
Christianity  —  Anglo-Chinese  College  —  Common  Schools  —  Malay 
Peninsula  —  Origin  of  Malay  Race  —  Divisions  —  Keda  —  Perak  — 
Salengore  —  Johore  —  Rumbo  —  Pahang  —  Tringano  —  Calantan  Pa- 
tani  —  Ligore  —  Character  of  Malays  —  Slavery  —  Language. 

March  18th,  1837.  Again  at  sea.  The  lapse  of  ten  days, 
since  Mr.  Day's  arrival,  enabled  me  to  arrange  with  him  various 
plans  of  action,  and  to  feel,  on  leaving  Madras,  that  my  work 
there  was  done.  I  had  already  procured  him  a  house,  and  some 
furniture,  in  the  midst  of  Teloogoo  people,  and  near  to  the  resi- 
dence of  George  Vansoinerin,  Esq.,  than  whom  he  could  not 
have  a  warmer  friend ;  so  that  he  entered  at  once  on  house- 
keeping ;  and  his  knowledge  of  the  language  will  enable  him  at 
once  to  commence  some  parts  of  his  work.  Few  are  the  missions 
blessed  with  so  devoted  a  missionary,  and  few  are  the  missiona- 
ries blessed  with  so  devoted  a  wile. 

The  "  Thames,"  in  which  I  this  day  embarked  for  Singapore, 
is  one  of  the  huge  vessels,  lately  belonging  to  the  East  India 
Company,  and  has  now  a  cargo  of  seventeen  hundred  tons. 
The  ample  decks,  the  cleanliness,  the  little  motion  given  by  the 
sea,  the  size  of  my  cabin,  the  excellent  table,  and  all  other  cir- 
cumstances, form  an  agreeable  contrast  to  the  small  coasters,  in 
which  all  my  voyages  in  these  seas  have,  with  one  exception, 
been  made.  I  feel  truly  thankful  for  this  relief  Continued  in- 
convenience, and  exposure  for  so  many  months,  and  especially 
my  inland  journey  to  Trichinopoly,  had  seriously  impaired  the 
small  stock  of  health  with  which  I  left  home,  and  made  me 
doubtful  of  living  to  return.  The  truly  paternal  hospitalities 
of  Mr.  V.  and  family  in  Madras  have  set  me  up,  and  my  pres- 
ent voyage  is  carrying  on  the  improvement.  As  the  rest  of  my 
tour  will  be  performed  in  large  vessels,  I  now  set  forward,  not 
only  with  a  fair  prospect  of  finishing  the  work  assigned  me,  but 
of  regaining  established  health. 


82  INDIAN    COASTERS. 

In  taking  my  leave,  as  I  hope,  of  "  country  vessels,"  as  the 
coasters  are  called,  I  will  just  "show  up  "  a  fair  average  of  their 
comforts,  drawn  Ironi  my  experience  in  seven  such  voyages.  By 
this  plan,  I  shall  not  hurt  the  feelings  of  any  of  those  captain3 
whose  eye  may  meet  these  pages,  and  at  the  same  time  avoid 
telling  the  same  story  "  with  valuations  "  seven  times  over. 

You  find,  on  getting  aboard,  a  cabin  five  or  six  feet  square, 
and  are  fortunate  if  in  it  you  can  stand  erect,  and  still  more  so 
if  it  have  a  port-hole,  or  any  ventilation,  except  through  the 
scuttle,  by  which  you  enter.  Here  you  eat  with  the  captain,  or 
perhaps  off"  of  a  stinking  hen-coop  on  deck.  There  can  be  no 
awning  on  deck,  because  it  would  be  in  the  way  of  the  boom  ; 
so  that  you  stay  below,  while  the  sun  blazes  on  the  plank  over 
your  head,  and  keeps  the  thermometer  in  the  cabin  about  blood 
heat.  Your  mattress  is  laid  on  a  locker  at  night,  and  rolled  up 
in  the  day.  Perhaps  you  may  be  able  to  swing  it.  The  seams 
on  deck,  neglected  and  parched  up,  during  a  six  months'  dry 
season,  let  the  salt  water  on  you  in  rapid  drops,  when  the  decks 
are  washed.  If  it  be  rainy  season,  your  confinement  below  is 
scarcely  less  unpleasant.  Trunks  and  small  stores  must  occupy 
the  margin  of  the  cabin,  or  be  stowed  where  you  cannot  come 
at  them.  If  you  attempt  to  write,  three  times  a  day  you  must 
huddle  together  your  papers,  that  the  trunk  or  table  may  be 
spread  for  meals ;  or  if  you  eat  on  deck^  and  so  have  uninter- 
rupted use  of  the  table,  the  heat  and  motion  make  study  diffi- 
cult. Your  cooking  is  by  no  means  scientific.  The  fowls, 
sometimes  without  the  privilege  of  a  coop,  and  lying  on  the 
deck  tied  by  the  legs,  "  get  no  better  very  fast."  The  smallness 
of  the  vessel  makes  her  toss  about  most  uncomfortably,  when  a 
larger  vessel  would  be  quite  still ;  so  that,  if  you  take  any  thing 
out  of  its  place,  it  must  be  "  chocked  "  again  with  care,  or  it  will 
"  fetch  way."  As  to  walking  the  deck,  there  is  hardly  room  to 
turn ;  and  if  there  be,  you  must  have  either  the  sun  or  dew  upon 
you.  But  your  worst  time  is  at  night.  Several  must  sleep  in 
the  tiny  cabin  ;  and  the  heavy,  damp  air,  coming  down  the  gang- 
way, gives  you  rheumatism,  without  producing  ventilation.  You 
perspire  at  every  pore,  till  nature  is  exhausted,  and  you  sleep, 
from  very  inanity. 

There  are  other  disagreeables,  which,  though  worse ,  are  hap- 
pily not  quite  so  common.  Some  of  the  captains  have  no  means 
of  ascertaining  latitude,  and  still  fewer  their  longitude.  Some- 
times there  is  no  chart  on  board.  The  cables,  anchors,  and 
general  inventory,  are  apt  to  be  poor.     Vessels  in  the  habit  of 


STRAIT    OF    MALACCA.  83 

carrying  rice,  timber,  stick-lac,  &c,  have  always  mice,  cockroaches, 
centipedes,  scorpions,  and  ants,  in  great  abundance.  In  one  of 
my  voyages,  I  killed  nearly  thirty  scorpions  in  the  cabin,  and  in 
another,  eight  or  ten  centipedes.  Thrice,  on  taking  out  of  my 
trunk  a  clean  shirt,  1  found  a  centipede  *  in  its  folds.  Large, 
winged  cockroaches  infest  all  Indian  vessels  ;  but  in  some  they 
creep  about  in  every  direction,  day  and  night.  I  had  one  full 
specimen  of  this.  Such  crowds  lighted  upon  the  dinner-table, 
that  we  could  hardly  tell  meat  from  potatoes.  To  drive  them 
away  and  eat  at  the  same  time  was  impossible,  for  they  would 
keep  off  of  a  dish  no  longer  than  it  was  agitated.  The  captain 
and  I  just  dined  patiently,  each  contenting  himself  with  being 
able  to  keep  them  out  of  his  own  plate.  At  night,  they  swarmed 
in  thousands  on  the  boards  and  on  the  bed,  eating  our  fingers 
and  toes  to  the  quick.  A  hundred  oranges,  tied  up  in  a  bag,  had 
not  been  on  board  thirty-six  hours,  before  it  was  found  that 
these  cormorants  had  left  nothing  but  the  skin.  It  was  a  bag 
full  of  hollow  globes !  Uncomfortable  and  confined  as  were  the 
voyages  up  and  down  rivers,  in  Burman  canoes,  they  were  every 
way  more  pleasant  than  these  little  voyages  at  sea. 

These  things  ought  not,  perhaps,  in  strictness,  to  be  called  hard- 
ships, but  they  are  inconveniences,  which  I  found  tended  rapid- 
ly to  make  me  old,  and  convince  me  that  voyages  of  this  sort 
cannot  be  a  wise  resort  for  invalid  missionaries.  I  might  in- 
deed have  gone  more  comfortably,  had  I  chartered  for  myself 
some  proper  craft,  or  waited  for  larger  vessels ;  but  I  could  not 
think  of  so  greatly  increasing  the  expense,  or  prolonging  my 
absence.  Those  who  pass  only  between  great  seaports,  may 
generally,  with  some  delay,  obtain  good  vessels,  and  the  usual 
marine  comforts. 

The  prices  paid  for  passages  in  India  are  startling  to  an  Amer- 
ican, accustomed  to  cheap  locomotion.  In  general,  they  are  two 
or  three  times  dearer  in  proportion  to  distance,  than  those  of  our 
splendid  New  York  and  Liverpool  packet-ships.  Freights  are 
charged  at  rates  equally  exorbitant.  Even  at  these  prices,  the 
accommodations  between  unfrequented  ports  are  generally  much 
worse  than  our  little  coasting  packets. 

The  passage  through  the  Strait  of  Malacca  furnishes  much 
to  interest  the  lover  of  wild  scenery.     Lofty  islands,  covered 

*  These  are  generally  about  two  inches  long,  and  the  thickness  of  a  pipe- 
stem.    The  bite  is  never  fatal,  but  more  venomous  than  our  spiders. 


84  SINGAPORE. 

with  forests  perpetually  verdant,  are  continually  in  sight.  Equa- 
torial temperature  spreads  its  delightful  uniformity,  and  a 
smooth  sea  imparts  feelings  of  safety.  Heavy  squalls,  however, 
often  occur  from  the  west,  which  the  people  here  call  Suvudras. 
One  is  constantly  reminded  of  being  in  the  region  of  the 
Malays,  by  the  recurrence  of*  the  name  Pulo,  which  is  their 
name  for  "  island." 

The  whole  strait  has  long  been  notorious  for  piracy ;  and 
shocking  instances  of  it,  are  even  now  often  committed  on  small 
•vessels.  Malays  are  far  from  considering  piracy  dishonorable ; 
and  many  of  their  princes  openly  engage  in  it.  Their  old  ro- 
mances and  traditions  constantly  refer  to  such  cruises,  and  invest 
them  with  all  the  glories  of  a  crusade.  According  to  their 
Mahometan  notions,  no  doom  is  too  bad  for  "  infidel  dogs,"  so 
that  Christians  and  pagans  are  robbed,  murdered,  or  enslaved, 
without  compunction.  Whatever  else  of  the  Koran  their  Sheiks 
may  conceal,  they  take  abundant  pains  to  proclaim  the  decrees 
of  merit  for  the  foe  of  infidels. 

Singapore,  where  we  arrived  April  19,  1837,  lies  in  latitude 
1°  17',  longitude  103°  51'.  The  harbor  can  scarcely  be  surpassed 
for  extent,  safety,  and  beauty.  Lofty  islands  keep  the  water 
perpetually  smooth,  and  seem  to  lock  it  in  on  every  side.  The 
town  has  not  an  imposing  appearance  from  the  anchorage,  but 
the  line  hill  in  the  rear,  covered  with  vigorous  grass,  is  a  charm- 
ing object  to  one  coming  from  other  parts  of  India  at  the  close 
of  the  warm  season,  and  who  has  scarcely  seen  grass  for  six 
months. 

Numerous  vessels,  of  various  uncouth  shapes,  lie  at  anchor ; 
while  more  numerous  boats  ply  in  every  direction  over  the  still 
surface.  The  aspect  along  shore  is  busy,  and  the  few  European 
houses,  handsome  and  oriental.  The  settlement  was  made  here 
at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  in  1819.  The  next 
year,  it  was  declared  a  free  port,  and  in  1825  its  sovereignty  was 
confirmed  to  Britain  by  the  Dutch  government,  which  held 
claims  upon  it,  and  by  the  sultan  of  Johore,  within  whose  ter- 
ritory it  is  embraced.  The  latter  had  a  pension  of  about  24,000 
Spanish  dollars  per  annum  settled  upon  him.  Captain  Alexander 
Hamilton  says  that,  at  his  visit  in  1703,  the  then  sultan  "  made 
me  a  present  of  the  Island  of  Sincapure  ;  but  I  told  him  it 
could  be  of  no  use  to  a  private  person."  A  miserable  village  of 
fishermen  and  pirates  was,  at  that  time,  the  only  remains  of*  what 
was,  some  centuries  before,  a  flourishing  Malay  city,  engrossing 
the  commerce  of  these  seas. 


APPEARANCE  OF  THE  TOWN CLIMATE.  85 

The  lapse  of  more  than  a  month,  in  daily  expectation  of  a  vessel 
for  Siam,  my  next  point  of  destination,  gave  me  leisure  to  he- 
come  acquainted  with  the  place,  and  to  learn,  from  the  hest 
sources,  what  is  known  of  the  tribes  occupying  the  peninsula 
and  adjacent  archipelago. 

Singapore  is  divided  from  the  southern  point  of  the  Malay 
peninsula  by  a  strait,  in  some  places  not  over  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
wide,  but  formerly  the  highway  of  ships  passing  to  and  from  the 
China  seas.  The  island  is  of  unequal  breadth,  twenty-seven  miles 
long,  and  containing  about  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  square 
miles.  A  very  considerable  part  has  not  yet  been  explored  by 
the  English,  and  is  probably  uninhabited.  Some  twenty  or  thirty 
other  small  islands  adjacent,  belong  to  Singapore,  but  they  are 
mostly  uninhabited.  The  town  is  on  the  south  side  of  the  island; 
and  the  direct  track  of  vessels  to  and  from  the  China  seas,  is 
within  the  roads  of  the  harbor.  It  is  surrounded  by  abrupt 
red  sandstone  hills,  enclosing  small,  sterile,  marshy  valleys.  The 
highest  of  these  hills  is  computed  to  be  three  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  high.  On  some  of  them  are  gentlemen's  residences,  but  the 
rest  are  rugged  and  dreary.  The  plain  on  the  southern  side  is  a 
low  sandy  marsh,  presenting  those  successive  ridges,  which  indi- 
cate that  the  sea,  at  no  very  distant  period,  has  dammed  itself 
out  Though  without  rivers,  the  island  is  well  watered,  and  has 
some  boatable  brooks  and  small  millas,  extending  a  few  miles 
into  the  interior.  One  of  these,  navigable  for  a  mile  or  two  by 
large  boats,  passes  through  the  heart  of  the  town,  and  greatly 
contributes  to  the  convenience  of  commerce. 

The  town  is  more  attractive  than  it  seems  to  be  from  the  har- 
bor, and  some  parts  are  really  beautiful ;  but  Martin,  in  his 
"  British  Colonies,"  has  drawn  upon  imagination  in  making  his 
picture.  Instead  of  the  houses  being  "  generally  of  stone,"  with 
"  superb  granite  stairs,"  neither  one  nor  the  other  can  be  found 
in  the  city  !  The  best  houses  are  of  brick,  and  will  not  compare 
with  many  in  Calcutta  and  Madras. 

Lying  almost  under  the  equator,  the  variation  of  seasons  is 
scarcely  perceptible.  The  heat  is  the  same,  night  and  day,  all 
the  year  round ;  seldom  greater  than  eighty-nine  degrees,  or  less 
than  seventy-five.  A  fresh  breeze  is  always  felt,  though  there  is 
no  very  regular  monsoon.  There  is  no  rainy  season,  but  a  cloudy 
atmosphere  prevails  a  good  deal,  and  a  fine  shower  falls  almost 
(  very  day  in  the  year.  Such  causes  give  an  energy  to  both 
animal  and  vegetable  life,  scarcely  found  in  other  latitudes. 
Plants  of  innumerable  varieties  crowd  the  forest,  rendering 
vol.  ii.  8 


Ob  SINGAPORE. 

human  entrance  impossible ;  and  myriads  of  insects  and  reptiles 
people  both  land  and  water.  Corals,  madrepores,  and  mollusca, 
charm  by  their  novelty,  beauty,  and  simplicity,  and  excite  admira- 
tion of  Him  who  causes  the  earth  to  teem  with  happy  existence} 
and  with  evidences  of  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness.  One  of 
these  curious  productions,  a  species  of  alcyonum,  called  "  Nep- 
tune's cup,"  is  said  to  be  found  no  where  else.  It  is  a  beautiful} 
tough,  hard,  sponge-like  goblet,  capable  often  of  holding  from 
one  to  two  bushels. 

A  more  delightful  climate  there  is  not  probably  on  earth. 
Storms  and  hurricanes  are  rare,  though  showers  occur  almost 
daily. 

The  following  table  is  constructed  from  precise  meteorological 
observations  for  the  year  1835  :  — 

6  A.M.        3  P.M.        8  P.M.  Fall  of  Rain.  > 

January 78 86 83 18  inches  8  tenths. 

February 79 85 82 1  «  5  " 

March 78 84 80 10  "  8  « 

April 80 84 82 3  "  2  « 

May 80 84 82 5  "  0  « 

June ....81 84 82 6  "  5  « 

July 80 87 82 4  "  6  « 

August  79 82 81| 6  "  9  " 

September....  82 84 81 3  "  6  « 

October 80 83 82 10  "  8  " 

November  ...  .79 82 80 7  «  4  " 

December 77 80 79 20  "  7  « 

The  reader  will  do  well  to  examine  this  table  closely,  and 
mark  how  little  is  the  variation  of  temperature,  either  between 
day  and  night  or  the  different  months.  I  have  omitted  the 
maximum  and  minimum,  and  will  only  remark,  the  greatest  cold 
known  in  the  year,  is  about  seventy-three  degrees ;  and  the 
greatest  heat  eighty-eight!  The  total  fall  of  rain  in  a  year, 
averages  about  one  hundred  inches ;  which,  though  much  greater 
than  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  is  but  half  that  of  Rangoon. 

Every  species  of  tropical  production  would  probably  thrive 
here ;  but  the  English  have  occupied  it  too  short  a  time  to  make 
fruits  abundant.  For  mangoes,  durians,  and  all  the  finer  fruits, 
they  depend  on  Malacca.  Experiments  are  now  in  progress  for 
raising  the  sugar-cane  and  nutmeg,  on  an  extensive  scale ;  but 
the  latter,  at  least,  will  require  eight  or  ten  years,  before  the  result 


PRODUCTS  COMMERCE.  87 

is  decided.     I  visited  some  of  the  nutmeg  plantations,  and,  as 

the  tree  is  little  known,  give  a  picture  of  the  fruit; 

but  would  refer  the  reader,  for  an  account  of 

the  mode  of  culture,  &c,  to  "  Crawfurd's  Indian 

Archipelago."     The  tree  is  of  moderate  size,  and 

the  fruit  very  like  the  peach.     Outside  is  pulp,  a 

third  of  an  inch  thick,  then  the  mace,  spread 

over  a  thin  round  shell,  and  inside  that  shell,  the 

nutmeg.    When  ripe,  the  pulp  opens,  as  in  the  cut. 

Almost  the  only  products  for  export  are  gambi- 
er,  sago,  and  agar-agar.  Gambier,  or  catechu,  (formerly  called  terra 
japonica,  from  its  being  supposed  to  be  an  earth,  and  coming 
from  Japan,)  is  produced  by  boiling  the  leaves  of  a  species  of 
uncaria,  and  inspissating  the  decoction.  It  is  used  for  chewing, 
with  hetel-nut,  over  all  the  East ;  and  exported  largely  to  England, 
for  tanning  leather.  Sago  is  brought  in  a  crude  state,  resembling 
sour  arrow-root,  from  many  islands,  and  is  here  refined  and 
granulated  for  the  foreign  market.  There  are  eight  or  ten  sago 
refineries  at  Singapore,  some  of  which  I  visited.  The  price  of 
the  prepared  article  here,  is  generally  about  two  cents  a  pound. 
Most  of  the  powder,  or  crude  sago,  is  brought  from  Borneo,  and 
the  islands  round  Sumatra.  It  is  the  pith  of  a  species  of  palm- 
tree.  A  good  tree  is  said  to  yield  about  two  thousand  pounds. 
Agar-agar  [focus  saccharinus)  is  a  sea-weed  abundant  along  the 
shores  of  the  islands,  chiefly  exported  in  a  dry  state  to  China, 
where  it  is  converted  into  a  rich  jelly  for  the  table,  and  sizing 
for  cotton  goods  and  paper. 

The  commerce  of  Singapore  consists  in  buying  and  selling 
the  commodities  of  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  imports 
for  consumption  are  very  trifling,  and,  as  has  been  stated,  little  is 
produced  for  exportation ;  but  almost  every  article  of  Indian, 
Chinese,  and  European  industry,  passes  through  the  hands  of 
the  merchants.  Native  vessels,  from  every  part  of  the  archipel- 
ago, find  here  a  market,  and  obtain  their  supplies.  A  large 
part  of  these  are  manned  by  Bugis,  who  are  the  maritime  men 
of  the  islands.  They  come  in  prows  carrying  from  ten  to  one 
hundred  tons,  and  carry  from  twenty  to  sixty  men.  They  begin 
to  arrive  in  September,  and  to  depart  in  December.  The  whole 
number  in  a  year,  is  about  two  hundred ;  having  in  them,  men 
and  women,  at  least  twenty  thousand  persons.  The  name  Bugis 
properly  belongs  to  one  tribe,  on  the  Island  of  Celebes,  but  is 
generally  applied  to  the  traders  from  every  part  of  Celebes,  from 


88  SINGAPORE. 

the  coasts  of  Borneo,  and  from  Booton,  Bali,  Lombok,  and 
Sumbawe. 

The  commerce  of  the  countries  in  and  around  the  China  Sea, 
would  form  an  important  and  interesting  theme  for  the  political 
economist  From  the  elegant  and  civilized  Chinese  to  the 
wildest  tribes  which  roam  the  interior  of  the  most  unknown 
islands,  all  are  animated  and  benefited  by  an  honorable  com- 
merce, which  existed  for  ages  before  the  European  found  his 
way  into  these  seas.  The  savage  Batta  collects  camphor ;  the 
Daya  and  Harafoora  gather  diamonds  and  gold  ;  the  Sulu  dives 
for  pearl ;  the  Malay  explores  his  lonely  shores  for  edible  birds' 
nests,  or  gathers  the  nutmeg  and  the  clove,  or  sweeps  the  shore 
for  tripang  and  agar-agar ;  the  Bugis  acts  both  merchant  and  mar- 
iner, bearing  these  gatherings  from  port  to  port ;  the  Sumatran 
furnishes  pepper  for  all  the  world ;  the  more  civilized  Japanese 
smelts  ores,  and  constructs  articles  of  elegant  utility ;  the  still 
more  refined  Chinese  gives  impulse  to  the  whole  by  his  luxury 
and  his  capital;  while  the  Western  world  shares  the  precious 
commodities,  and  returns  the  thousand  productions  of  more 
perfect  sciences  and  arts.  This  vast,  populous,  and  favored 
portion  of  the  earth,  is  that  which  the  ancients,  even  so  late  as 
the  time  of  Constantine,  regarded  as  untenable  by  man  ;  in- 
habited only  by  satyrs,  centaurs,  headless  monsters,  and  human 
pygmies.* 

The  extensive  prevalence  of  Islamism  among  the  islanders  is 
another  subject  yet  untouched  by  the  historian,  and  well  worthy 
of  investigation.  We  are  accustomed  to  ascribe  the  triumphs  of 
the  false  prophet  almost  wholly  to  his  arms.  But  here,  the  sword 
has  not  made  way  for  his  doctrine.  At  this  very  day,  while 
Christianity  waits  to  send  forth  her  teachers,  the  Mussulman, 
without  support  and  without  delay,  insinuates  his  faith,  and 
idolaters  turn  in  tribes.  While  in  Singapore,  I  saw  not  less  than 
two  hundred  of  these  islanders,  then  on  their  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca. 

The  present  population  of  Singapore  amounts  to  30,000 ;  of 
which  there  are  only  7229  females.  Of  Europeans,  there  are 
105  males  and  36  females ;  Malays,  5122  males,  4510  females ; 
Chinese,  12,870  males,  879  females ;   Klings,  2246  males,  102 

*  See  Pliny  and  Strabo  ;  Homer's  Iliad,  book  iii. ;  and  a  learned  note 
in  Robertson's  America,  vol.  i. 


POPULATION.  »y 

females.  The  rest  are  Bugis,  Balinese,  Bengalese,  Negroes, 
Javanese,  Arabs,  &c. ;  with  a  few  Iiido-Brittons,  Armenians,  &c. 
I  saw  one  or  two  of  the  Papua,  or  Negro  race  of  the  Indian 
islands.  They  resemble  the  African  Negro  in  every  particular, 
but  are  smaller.  To  account  for  the  existence  of  two  races,  so 
perfectly  distinct,  as  the  black  and  brown  population  of  these 
islands,  has  not  been  successfully  attempted. 

The  growth  of  the  place  has  not  been  equal  to  the  expecta- 
tions originally  cherished  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  its  founder. 
Within  the  first  two  years  of  its  settlement  by  the  English,  no 
less  than  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-nine  vessels 
entered  and  cleared  from  the  port ;  of  which  three  hundred  and 
eighty-three  were  owned  and  commanded  by  Europeans.  Their 
united  tonnage  was  161,000  tons  !  During  the  same  period,  the 
value  of  merchandise,  arrived  and  cleared  in  native  craft,  was 
about  five  millions  of  dollars,  and  in  ships  about  three  millions 
more,  making  about  eight  millions  as  the  capital  turned.  It  has 
not  grown  for  some  years  at  a  similar  rate,  if  at  all ;  and  it  is 
quite  uncertain  whether  the  place  can  become  of  much  greater 
importance,  till  the  various  tribes  in  these  seas  become  more 
civilized  and  numerous,  and  consume  foreign  products  more 
largely. 

As  in  every  other  part  of  India,  each  class  of  community  pre- 
serves the  costume,  manners,  and  religion  of  its  ancestry.  This 
has  long  ceased  to  look  odd  to  me.  It  requires  but  a  short  resi- 
dence in  the  country  to  get  accustomed  to  every  sort  of  fashion  in 
dress,  and  cast  of  countenance. 

The  striking  disproportion  of  females,  who  are  but  about  one 
fourth  of  the  population,  is  owing  partly  to  the  laws  of  China, 
which  forbid  the  emigration  of  women,  and  partly  to  those  cir- 
cumstances which  make  the  male  sex  preponderate  in  all  new 
colonies,  and  purely  commercial  places. 

In  going  through  one  part  of  the  town,  during  business  hours, 
one  feels  himself  to  be  in  a  Chinese  city.  Almost  eveiy  respect- 
able native  he  sees  is  Chinese ;  almost  every  shop,  ware-room, 
and  trade,  is  carried  on  by  the  Chinese ;  the  hucksters,  coolies, 
travelling  cooks,  and  cries  common  in  a  great  city,  are  Chinese. 
In  fact,  we  may  almost  call  Singapore  itself  a  Chinese  city ;  in- 
asmuch as  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Chinese,  and  nearly 
all  the  wealth  and  influence,  next  to  the  British,  is  in  their  hands. 
A  large  part  of  the  Klings  and  Bengalese  are  ostlers,  servants, 
washermen,  &c,  to  Europeans;  and  the  Malays  and  Bugis 
occupy  portions  of  the  city  by  themselves. 


90  SINGAPORE. 

As  to  the  moral  character  of  this  mixed  population,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  accordant  testimony.  Some  gentlemen  in  Singa- 
pore considered  the  morals  of  the  people  at  large,  quite  equal  to 
those  of  similar  sized  towns  in  Europe.  Others  regarded  them 
as  far  worse.  Certainly  opium-smoking,  gambling,  and  un- 
cleanness,  are  quite  prevalent. 

Among  the  population  of  Singapore,  is  a  very  large  number 
of  those  wretched  Malays  called  Orang  Lout,  or  "  men  of  the 
water ; "  and  sometimes  Orang  Salat,  or  "  men  of  the  straits." 
Without  any  home  on  shore,  they  are  born  and  die  on  miserable 
boats,  scarcely  large  enough  for  a  man  to  lie  down  in,  at  his 
ease.  Roaming  about  for  fish  and  coarse  fruits,  they  pick  up 
shells  and  coral  for  sale,  and  sometimes  are  sufficiently  success- 
ful in  fishing,  to  barter  with  landsmen  for  sago,  clothes,  or  a 
little  rice.  They  procure  sago  at  about  half  a  cent  a  pound,  or 
less,  so  that  the  whole  expenses  of  a  common  family  of  Orang 
Louts  do  not  exceed  two  dollars  a  month.  The  agricultural 
Malays  of  the  straits  are  a  grade  higher  in  civilization,  but 
deeply  degraded.  They  contrive  to  live  by  the  soil,  or  by 
bringing  in  wood ;  but  scarcely  one  acquires  the  least  skill  in 
any  sort  of  trade.  The  average  height  of  Malay  men  is  five  feet, 
three  and  a  half  inches. 

A  Chinese  population  of  so  many  thousands,  gave  me  many 
opportunities  of  observing  the  manners  of  this  singular  people. 
One  of  these  was  a  wedding,  to  which  I  had  the  pleasure  of 
being  invited,  through  the  kind  offices  of  Mr.  Ballistier.  our  Amer- 
ican consul,  to  whom  I  was  much  indebted  in  other  respects. 
As  I  had  no  hope  of  such  an  opportunity  in  China,  I  gladly 
availed  myself  of  this.  The  family  of  the  bride  being  wealthy, 
the  room  containing  the  family  altar  was  decorated  both  with 
costliness  and  taste.  The  "Jos"  was  delineated  in  a  large 
picture  surrounded  by  ornamental  paper-hangings.  Huge  wax 
candles,  delicate  tapers,  and  suspended  lamps,  of  elegantly 
painted  glass,  shed  round  their  formal  light,  though  it  was  broad 
day.  On  the  altar,  or  table,  before  the  idol,  were  trays  of  silver 
and  rich  porcelain,  filled  with  offerings  of  sweetmeats  and  flow- 
ers, while  burning  sandal-wood  and  agillocha,  diffused  a  pleasing 
fragrance. 

After  the  elders  had  performed  their  devotions,  the  bride  came 
slowly  in,  supported  by  attendants,  and  went  through  tedious 
gestures,  and  genuflections  before  the  idol,  without  raising  her 
eyes  from  the  ground,  or  speaking.     Her  robe  was  both  gorgeous 


CHINESE    WEDDING. 


91 


and  graceful,  covering  her,  in  loose  folds,  so  completely  that 
neither  her  feet  nor  hands  could  be  seen.  Beside  the  numerous 
ornaments  and  jewels,  which  bound  up  her  profuse  hair,  she 
wore  several  heavy  necklaces  of  sparkling  jewels,  apparently 
artificial.  When  she  had  finished,  an  elder  placed  on  her  head 
a  thick  veil,  and  she  returned  to  her  apartment.  We  now  waited 
for  the  bridegroom,  who  "tarried"  a  little,  and  the  interval  was 
enlivened  by  tea,  sweetmeats,  betel-nut,  &c.  Three  bands  of 
music,  European,  Malay,  and  Javanese,  sent  sounds  of  gladness 
through  the  halls  and  corridors ;  the  friends  passed  about  with 
smiles  and  greetings ;  the  children,  in  their  gay  apparel,  danced 
joyously,  they  knew  not  why;  —  all  was  natural  and  pleasing, 
but  the  slow  and  extravagant  movemeuts  of  a  Javanese  dancing- 
girl,  who,  in  a  corner  of  the  porch,  earned  her  pay,  little  regarded. 
At  length  it  was  heralded,  "  the  bridegroom  cometh,"  and  im- 
mediately many  "went  forth  to  meet  him."  He  came  with 
friends  and  a  priest,  preceded  by  another  band  of  music.  His 
devotions  before  the  Jos,  were  much  sooner  and  more  slightly 
done  than  those  of  the  lady ;  and  he  sat  down  with  the  priest, 
and  a  friend  or  two,  in  front  of  the  altar,  where  had  been  placed 
chairs,  covered  for  the  occasion  with  loose  drapery  of  embroi- 
dered velvet.  Refreshments  were  handed,  till  a  movement  from 
within  announced  the  approach  of  the  bride  ;  and  all  eyes  were 
turned  to  meet  her.  She  advanced  very  slowly  to  the  centre, 
veiled,  as  when  she  retired,  and,  after  a  few  gestures  by  each 
toward  the  other,  the  happy  pair  sat  down  together,  her  face  still 
invisible.  Refreshments  again  entered,  and  each  partook,  but 
with  evident  agitation  and  constraint.  Presently,  she  retired  to 
her  chamber,  followed  by  the  bridegroom ;  and  most  of  the  guests 
dispersed;  but  we  were  permitted,  with  some  particular  friends, 
to  enter  with  them.  It  was  doubtless  a  handsome  room  in 
Chinese  estimation,  but  its  decorations  would  scarcely  please  a 
Western  eye.  The  bedstead  resembled  a  latticed  arbor ;  and  from 
the  roof  within  was  suspended  a  beautiful  lamp  of  chased 
silver,  burning  with  a  feeble  light.  Standing  in  the  middle  of 
the  room,  they  renewed  their  bowing,  and  passing  from  side  to 
side,  with  a  gravity  and  tediousness  almost  ludicrous,  till  he  fin- 
ished the  ceremony  by  approaching  and  lifting  the  veil  from 
her  head.  We  were  told  that  till  then  he  had  never  seen  her ! 
She  blushed,  and  sat  without  raising  her  eyes  ;  but,  alas  for  the 
romance  of  the  thing  —  she  was  ugly!  A  leisurely  repast  fol- 
lowed, shared  by  themselves  alone ;  and  probably  forming  the 
ratifying  feature  of  the  solemnity,  as  in  Burmah.     Fifty  dishes  or 


92  SINGAPORE. 

more  were  before  them,  a  few  of  which  they  tasted  with  silver 
forks ;  but  of  course  the  occasion  was  too  ethereal  to  be  sub- 
stantiated by  veritable  eating  and  drinking.  When  they  rose 
from  the  table,  the  bridegroom,  aided  by  bis  servant,  removed 
his  outer  robe,  which  had  been  worn  as  a  dress  of  ceremony,  and 
threw  it  on  the  bed,  as  if  marking  it  for  his  own.  Then,  ad- 
vancing respectfully  to  the  bride,  her  attendant  raised  tbe  folds 
of  her  dress,  and  he  unclasped  the  cincture  of  the  garment 
beneath.  This  act,  so  gentle,  delicate,  and  significant,  closed  the 
ceremonial.  He  then  returned  to  his  own  house  till  evening, 
and  every  guest  retired  —  a  capital  system,  allowing  the  bride 
some  repose,  after  the  trying  and  tiresome  ceremonies  she  had 
performed.  This  was  about  four  o'clock.  In  the  evening,  a 
sumptuous  entertainment  was  given  to  the  friends  of  both  par- 
ties ;  after  which  the  bridegroom  remained,  as  a  son  at  home. 

More  refined  deportment  cannot  be,  than  was  exhibited  by  all 
parties  on  this  occasion.  The  guests  were  not  all  at  one  table, 
nor  even  in  one  room ;  but  many  tables  were  spread,  each  ac- 
commodating five  or  six  persons,  and  all  diverse  in  their  viands. 
Servants  were  numerous,  the  silver  and  porcelain  handsome,  the 
deportment  of  the  guests  unexceptionable,  and  sobriety  universal. 
Every  thing  testified  the  high  claim  of  the  Chinese  to  the  char- 
acter of  a  civilized  people. 

I  readily  accepted  an  invitation,  a  few  evenings  afterward,  to 
an  entertainment  at  the  same  house.  Order,  delicacy,  abun- 
dance, and  elegance,  reigned  throughout.  Of  course  many  of 
the  dishes  were  new  to  me,  but  there  were  many  also,  in  exact 
English  style.  Among  the  novelties,  I  tried  sharks'  fins,  birds' 
nests,  fish-maws,  and  Biche-de-mer.  I  think  an  unprejudiced 
taste  would  pronounce  them  good  ;  but  only  that  of  a  Chinese 
would  consider  them  delicacies. 

From  the  first  settlement  of  Singapore  by  the  British,  opera- 
tions for  the  moral  and  religious  improvement  of  the  natives 
have  been  carried  on.  Translations  into  Malay,  and  the  printing 
and  distribution  of  tracts  and  Scriptures,  engrossed  most  of  the 
time  of  early  missionaries.  In  this  department,  a  good  deal  has 
been  done  ;  but,  so  far  as  can  now  be  seen,  with  very  little  suc- 
cess. Great  efforts  have  been  made  also  in  the  way  of  schools ; 
not  only  by  the  missionaries,  but  by  the  British  residents,  and 
the  government.  The  latter  has  allowed,  from  the  public  treasu- 
ry, one  hundred  dollars  per  month.  Several  Chinese  schools, 
and  still  more  Malay  ones,  have   been  constantly  maintained. 


SCHOOLS  —  CATHOLICS.  93 

The  principal  authorities  have,  at  times,  exerted  their  influence 
to  induce  the  people  to  send  their  children ;  and  even  gone  from 
house  to  house  to  procure  scholars.  A  multitude  of  children 
have  been  in  the  schools,  first  and  last ;  and  some  hundreds  have 
received  more  or  less  instruction.  But  it  has  been  found  im- 
possible to  secure  the  attendance  of  scholars  for  more  than  a 
few  months  ;  and  almost  none  have  learned  to  read.  What  is 
more  lamentable,  no  case  of  conversion  has  occurred  among 
the  pupils. 

No  place  in  the  East  offers  greater  facilities  for  tract-distribu- 
tion, or  a  greater  variety  of  nations  and  languages  accessible  ; 
and  perhaps  at  no  point  has  this  species  of  labor  been  carried  to 
greater  extent.  Thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  tracts  and 
portions  of  Scripture,  have  been  given  away.  Not  only  have  the 
Malay  inhabitants  been  fully  supplied,  but  thousands  of  Bugis, 
Javanese,  Sumatrans,  Chinese,  Mussulmans,  Arabs,  Kelingas, 
Balinese,  &c.  So  early  as  1830,  the  Singapore  Christian  Union 
reported  that  "  in  Singapore  and  neighborhood,  our  friends  have 
gone  round,  half  a  dozen  times,  passing  from  house  to  house, 
and  scattering  tracts  abundantly."  Ever  since,  it  has  been  vigor- 
ously continued. 

Not  a  single  Malay  in  Singapore  has  made  even  a  nominal 
profession  of  Christianity ;  nor  are  there  any  hopeful  catechumens. 
For  a  long  time  past,  no  one  competent  in  the  language  has 
resided  here  ;  so  that  the  only  missionary  efforts  are  the  distribu- 
tion of  tracts,  and  some  unpromising  schools.  Indeed,  this  has 
been  very  much  the  case  from  the  beginning,  as  previous  mis- 
sionaries were  chiefly  devoted  to  these  labors  and  to  authorship ; 
and  very  little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  direct  preaching. 
The  history  of  this  mission,  now  twenty  years  old,  is  an  item  of 
consequence,  in  our  reasoning  upon  the  modes  of  missionary 
labor. 

The  Catholics  have  two  churches  here  —  a  French  and  a 
Portuguese ;  with  several  priests.  They  not  only  take  charge  of 
those  of  their  faith  who  reside  here,  but  have  brought  over  a 
number  of  Malays,  Chinese,  and  others,  and  have  full  audiences 
on  Sundays.  Popish  missionaries  through  India,  so  far  as  I 
could  learn,  are  men  of  good  morals.  They  live  far  more  hum- 
bly than  any  other  missionaries,  and  mix  much  with  their  people. 
Their  stipend,  in  all  cases  which  came  to  my  knowledge,  is  one 
hundred  dollars  per  annum.  Their  converts  are  taught,  from 
the  first,  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  religion,  and  their  teach- 
ers, being  unmarried,  have  few  wants  which  these  cannot  supply. 


94  SINGAPORE. 

The  Singapore  Institution,  founded  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles, 
in  1823,  has  maintained  a  feeble  existence,  but  is  now  likely  to 
be  put  on  a  footing  of  vigor  and  expansiveness.  A  new  building, 
large  and  commodious,  has  been  prepared  for  it,  to  which  it  will 
soon  be  removed,  after  which  its  course  of  study  will  be  more 
collegiate,  and  its  number  of  pupils  increased. 

Singapore  has,  from  the  first,  been  a  station  of  the  London 
Missionary  Society.  It  became  a  station  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  in  1834,  and  is  now  occupied  by  Messrs. 
Tracey,  Dickinson,  Hope,  Travelli,  and  North,  from  that  society, 
—  the  three  former  giving  themselves  to  Chinese,  and  the  others 
to  Malay.  Mr.  N.  is  a  practical  printer,  and  has  charge  of  a 
well-built,  and  amply-furnished  printing-office.  These  missiona- 
ries have  all  been  here  so  very  short  a  time,  that  their  chief  oc- 
cupation has  been  the  acquisition  of  language.  They  have, 
however,  a  Malay  and  a  Chinese  school,  and  superintend  the 
labors  of  a  large  number  of  Chinese  printers,  who  have  been 
constantly  employed  on  the  revised  Chinese  New  Testament, 
and  various  tracts,  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  and  others. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  have  recently  made  this  a 
station  for  the  Chinese,  and  the  American  Baptist  Board  are  about 
to  do  the  same.  Rev.  Mr.  Squier,  from  the  former  society,  has 
been  here  a  few  months.  While  China  remains  inaccessible, 
missionaries  for  that  country  must  prepare  themselves  in  other 
places.  Great  commercial  emporiums  must  be  considered  com- 
mon ground  to  all  persuasions  of  Christians,  hi  their  operations 
for  the  heathen  ;  and  in  several  instances,  such  as  Calcutta,  Ban- 
kok,  Smyrna,  &c,  the  missionaries  of  various  sects  live  together 
in  harmony  and  good  understanding.  In  such  places,  property  is 
safe,  the  press  free,  workmen  plenty,  and  exchanges  easy,  while 
uncertainties,  and  delays  in  procuring  paper,  and  transmitting 
books,  are  avoided. 

A  little  country  brig,  of  thirty  or  forty  tons,  carried  me  to 
Malacca  in  four  days,  and  back  to  Singapore  in  six,  allowing  me 
a  stay  of  one  week.  The  steam-boat  demanded  a  hundred  dol- 
lars, while  this  vessel  would  take  me  for  fifteen  ;  and  I  could  not 
forbear,  by  the  choosing  the  latter  both  ways,  to  save  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  dollars.  But  sorrow  to  the  man  who  goes 
often  in  country  brigs !  We  were  crowded  with  Chinamen 
and  Klings :  and  though  the  accommodations  did  very  well,  for 
their  habits,  they  illy  accorded  with  mine.  Noise,  stench,  and 
heat,  ruled  by  day,  and  confinement,  dampness,  and  vermin,  by 


MALACCA.  95 

night.  My  camp  chair  was  the  only  seat ;  and,  as  there  was  no 
table,  I  ate  from  a  board  on  my  knees.  But  eating  was  a  brief 
business ;  for  boiled  rice,  and  dried  fish-roes,  all  day  and  every 
day,  furnished  no  temptation  to  gastronomic  excess.  There 
were  indeed  lots  of  stews  for  the  Chinamen,  to  which  I  was 
quite  welcome  ;  but,  either  their  smell,  or  their  looks,  satisfied 
me  to  keep  to  the  salt  fish-roes,  for  in  them  there  could  be 
"  no  mistake." 

Through  the  prompt  and  abundant  hospitalities  of  the  British 
resident  and  his  lady,  whose  house,  carriages,  and  attentions,  were 
put  at  my  fullest  service,  and  the  kind  communicativeness  of  the 
missionaries,  I  was  able,  during  the  week,  to  see  and  hear  all  that 
concerned  my  official  objects. 

The  city  of  Malacca,  formerly  embraced  within  the  kingdom 
of  Johore,  was  taken  possession  of  by  Portugal  in  1511 ;  but  her 
authority  was  never  well  established  in  the  interior,  and  the 
possession  neither  benefited  her  commerce  nor  enhanced  her 
dignity.  It  was  held  by  the  Portuguese  till  1641,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Dutch.  It  was,  after  two  years,  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish, in  1660  reverted  again  to  the  Dutch,  and  finally  passed 
over  to  the  English  in  1825,  and  so  remains.  Why  this  location  of 
the  settlement  was  chosen,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine,  unless  be- 
cause it  was  previously  the  chief  town  of  the  sovereignty  of 
Johore.  The  harbor  is  very  bad,  being  on  the  outside  a  mere 
roadstead,  and  all  within  so  shallow,  that  ships  cannot  approach 
the  town,  nearer  than  three  or  four  miles.  At  low  water,  the  sands 
are  bare,  a  mile  from  shore.  The  trifling  river,  on  which  the 
town  stands,  keeps  open  a  narrow,  boatable  channel  to  the  town, 
when  the  tide  is  out.  The  location  is  eminently  salubrious ;  but 
the  commerce,  which  once  made  this  place  so  conspicuous,  has 
passed  to  Penang  and  Singapore.  I  found  only  a  small  cutter, 
like  our  own,  lying  at  anchor,  and  was  told  there  was  seldom 
more  at  one  time. 

The  view  of  the  town  from  the  water,  is  picturesque  and  at- 
tractive. An  old  fort  and  church,  in  ruins,  occupy  the  prominent 
elevation,  while  handsome  houses,  fronted  by  great  trees,  extend 
along  the  shore.  The  roads  are  finely  Macadamized  with  a  fer- 
ruginous clay,  soft  when  first  dug  out,  but  very  hard  after  ex- 
posure to  the  air. 

The  district  of  Malacca  extends  about  forty  miles  along  the 
coast,  from  Salengore  to  Moar,  and  inland  to  Rumbo,  about 
thirty  miles.  The  population  within  these  limits  amounts  to 
twenty-two  thousand,  of  which  much  the  larger  part  reside  in 


96  MALACCA. 

the  town  and  suburbs.  The  Chinese  form  about  one  fourth  of 
the  whole ;  the  rest  are  Malays,  Klings,  Arabs,  &c.  About 
five  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  tin,  and  the  same  quantity 
of  pepper,  are  annually  produced  and  exported ;  beside  some 
gold,  preserved  fruits,  and  smaller  articles.  Rice  is  not  raised 
in  sufficient  quantity  for  consumption. 

The  city  continues,  fallen  as  are  its  fortunes,  to  be  head-quar- 
ters to  the  military  force  in  the  straits.  The  officers  of  six  com- 
panies of  native  troops,  and  the  usual  civilians,  make  a  pleasant 
circle  of  English  society ;  which  brings  with  it,  as  usual,  all  the 
artisans  and  shops  necessary  for  a  missionary's  convenience, 
Living  is  remarkably  cheap  ;  and  as  to  fruits,  no  place  on  earth, 
perhaps,  transcends  it  in  number  or  excellence.  A  gentleman, 
not  long  ago,  disposed  to  see  how  many  varieties  were  in 
season  at  once,  ordered  his  Kansuma  to  procure  all  that  might 
be  in  the  bazar ;  and  the  result  was  a  desert  comprising  seventy- 
two  different  fruits.  Few  places  in  India  have  such  a  variety 
of  agreeable  drives,  and,  perhaps,  none  a  more  salubrious  and 
pleasant  climate.  It,  however,  is  fast  fading  away.  The  stillness 
of  death  reigns  through  the  streets ;  and  even  the  laborious 
Chinese,  seem  here  to  catch  the  general  spirit  of  quiescence.  If 
the  military  head-quarters  should  be  removed  to  Singapore,  as 
is  not  improbable,  it  will  scarcely  hold  a  place  among  English 
settlements. 

The  reproach  which  attaches  to  the  European  colonial  system 
in  India  lies  strongly  on  this  city.  For  three  centuries,  Chris- 
tians have  ruled  here  ;  yet  we  look  in  vain  for  evidences  of  an 
amelioration  in  the  general  condition  of  the  people.  Their 
troops  have  maintained  rule,  and  their  tax-gatherers  have  scraped 
revenues,  but  our  holy  faith  is  not  yet  established ;  nay,  scarce- 
ly can  even  a  nominal  Christian  be  found  among  the  Malay 
inhabitants. 

The  class  called  Portuguese  *  amounts  to  two  thousand  souls, 
and  are,  for  the  most  part,  very  ignorant  and  degraded.  One 
tenth  of  these  are  professed  Protestants,  probably  the  fruit  of 
intermarriages  with  the  Dutch  in  former  times.  The  want  of 
any  minister  to  baptize,  many,  visit,  and  instruct  this  class  of 


*  This  cognomen  is  assumed  by  every  man  in  India,  black,  brown,  or  red, 
native  or  mixed,  who  aims  at  superiority  over  the  general  mass,  and  can  con- 
trive to  wear  a  hat  and  trousers.  As  to  any  descent  from  Portuguese  parents, 
it  is,  in  thousands  of  cases,  utterly  out  of  the  question. 


MISSIONARIES.  97 

persons,  and  the  ignorance  and  poverty  of  most  of  them,  has 
caused  a  continual  falling  away,  for  a  series  of  years,  to  the 
Romish  church.  They  certainly  deserve  a  larger  share  of  at- 
tention than  they  seem  to  receive.  A  regular  service  is  held  for 
them  on  Sabbath  afternoons,  and  schools  are  open  for  their  chil- 
dren ;  but  a  pastor  of  their  own  caste,  and  daily  ministerial  ser- 
vices, are  indispensably  wanted. 

The  late  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  who  took  the  deepest  interest 
in  the  welfare  of  these  regions,  at  that  time  under  his  control, 
remarks  —  "  In  our  present  settlement  of  Malacca,  the  impossibility 
of  procuring  servants  for  wages,  compels  almost  every  person  to 
have  recourse  to  slaves,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  these 
are  pagans,  being  chiefly  Battas  from  the  centre  of  Sumatra, 
Balis  from,  Bali,  Dayaks  from  Borneo,  besides  natives  of  Timor, 
and  the  more  easterly  islands.  Of  all  these  that  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  English,  there  is  perhaps  not  a  single  one  that 
becomes  a  Christian ;  but  the  whole  of  them  become  Moslems, 
and  despise  and  hate  their  masters  as  infidels !  Such  is  the 
woful  effect  of  our  supineness  and  indifference,  which,  if  they 
should  extend  to  the  East,  would  certainly  not  tend  to  the  prog- 
ress of  general  improvement  among  the  Malays." 

I  was  glad  to  spend  as  much  of  my  time  as  possible  with  Rev. 
Mr.  Dyer,  lately  removed  here  from  Penang.  He  is  far  advanced 
in  the  Chinese  language,  and  preaches  fluently,  but  has  devoted 
most  of  his  time,  for  some  years,  to  the  preparation  of  a  font  of 
Chinese  metallic  type.  Wholly  untaught,  he  has  devised  his 
own  way,  with  great  labor  and  patience,  and  has  now,  nearly 
completed,  punches  and  matrices  for  a  beautiful  font,  which  is 
to  embrace  three  thousand  characters.  Each  punch  costs  about 
fifty  cents.  The  size  is  three  times  larger  than  that  of  Marsh- 
man's  Bible,*  and  will  be  useful  chiefly  in  the  text  of  commen- 
taries and  sheet  tracts. 

The  mission  to  Malacca  was  commenced  in  1815,  by  Milne, 
who  immediately  established  a  Chinese  school,  took  charge 
of  the  Reformed  Dutch  church,  and  commenced  the  "  Chinese 
Magazine."  Mr.  M.  brought  with  him  from  Canton  a  Chinese 
teacher  and  printers  ;  and  next  year  Leang  Afa,  the  teacher,  pro- 
fessed the  Christian  faith.  He  was  then  thirty-three  years  old, 
and  has  ever  since  maintained  a  holy  and  diligent  career.  I  saw 
much  of  him  at  Singapore,  and  derived  from  him  many  valuable 

*  This  Bible  is  partly  printed  with  metallic  type,  invented  by  Lawson,  of 
Serampore,  about  twenty  years  ago,  and  used  from  that  time  successfully. 
VOL.    II.  9 


98  MALACCA. 

facts.  In  1817,  Messrs.  Medhurst  and  Slater  arrived,  and  an 
English  periodical,  called  the  "  Indo-Chinese  Gleaner,"  was  es- 
tablished. Mr.  Slater,  after  a  year,  went  to  devote  himself  to 
the  Chinese  in  Batavia.  In  1818,  Messrs.  Ince  and  Milton  came, 
and  assumed  so  much  care  of  the  schools,  as  to  leave  Milne 
more  at  liberty  to  pursue  the  translation  of  certain  parts  of 
Scripture,  agreed  on  between  him  and  Morrison.  In  1818,  Dr. 
Morrison  founded  the  "Anglo-Chinese  College;"  giving  from 
his  own  purse  about  six  thousand  dollars,  and  obtaining  large 
assistance  from  various  quarters.  In  1820,  Messrs.  Fleming  and 
Huttman  arrived,  and,  the  year  following,  Mr.  Humphreys ;  and 
in  the  next  year  Collie  was  added,  and  Milne  died.  The  sub- 
sequent history  of  the  mission  is  known  to  the  readers  of  mis- 
sionary magazines. 

During  the  above  period,  several  other  brethren  settled  in 
Malacca,  to  devote  themselves  to  the  Malays ;  by  whom  Jarge 
schools  were  established.  At  the  period  of  Messrs.  Tyerman 
and  Bennett's  visit,  in  1826,  the  Chinese  schools  contained  two 
hundred  and  fifty  boys,  and  the  college  twenty.  No  instance  of 
the  conversion  of  pupils  had  then  occurred. 

Malacca  is  chiefly  conspicuous  in  the  missionary  world  for  its 
college.  It  has  ample  buildings,  and  highly  improved  grounds, 
with  about  ten  thousand  dollars  at  interest.  The  location  is 
within  the  city,  on  the  margin  of  the  sea ;  and  was  granted  it  by 
government.  There  have  presided  over  it,  in  succession,  Milne, 
Humphreys,  Collie,  Kidd,  Tomlin,  and  Evans.  The  last  arrived 
in  1833. 

Like  other  "  colleges  "  in  the  East,  it  is  rather  an  elementary 
school.  The  pupils  are  taught  from  the  alphabet  upward,  and 
retire  from  a  full  course,  with  a  decent  knowledge  of  English, 
and  the  common  rudiments  of  science.  About  sixty  or  seventy 
thus  educated  have  left  the  institution,  who  generally  reside  in 
the  straits,  employed  as  porters,  runners,  and  under-clerks.  I 
could  not  learn  that  any  of  them  are  more  than  nominal  Chris- 
tians. Until  lately,  the  school  has  for  some  years  been  very 
small ;  but  it  is  now  increased  to  above  seventy,  of  all  ages,  from 
six  or  seven  years  upward.  Mr.  Evans  not  only  has  large  expe- 
rience in  teaching,  but  is  a  skilful  financier ;  and  the  prospect  of 
utility  was  never  so  great  as  at  present.  He  has  lately  baptized 
several  pupils,  on  their  fully  embracing  the  Christian  system, 
some  of  whom  he  hopes  are  truly  pious.  The  whole  cost  of  an 
in-door  student,  including  food,  apparel,  washing,  &c,  is  four 
dollars  per  month. 


SCHOOLS CONVERSIONS.  99 

The  system  of  common  schools  has  been  largely  pursued  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society  for  twenty  years.  By  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  G.,  1  was  able  to  visit  most  of  them. 
They  form  a  curious  variety  —  Chinese,  Malay,  Tamul,  Por- 
tuguese, and  English ;  some  for  boys,  and  some  for  girls ;  and 
numbering  in  the  whole  not  less  than  eight  hundred  pupils. 
The  resident  English  have  not  only  liberally  contributed  to 
the  expense,  and  shared  the  labor  of  management,  but  have 
been  unceasing  in  their  pains  to  gather  and  encourage  schol- 
ars. Little  benefit  has  resulted,  in  comparison  to  the  means 
and  the  money  employed.  I  regretted  to  see  so  much  charity- 
money  bestowed  on  Portuguese  schools.  The  cause  of  benevo- 
lence is  not  concerned  to  perpetuate  this  language  in  the  East ; 
and  the  spoken  language  is  so  corrupt  that  the  pure  Portuguese, 
learned  at  school,  is  almost  useless.  It  has  not  been  possible  to 
obtain  in  this  language  a  proper  supply  even  of  school-books ;  much 
less  will  the  pupils  find  valuable  reading,  even  if  they  become 
able  to  understand  it.  Nearly  three  hundred  pupils,  the  descend- 
ants of  Chinese  fathers,  married  to  Malays,  &c,  study  Chinese. 
No  objection  is  made  by  these  parents  to  the  use  of  Christian 
school-books,  nor  to  the  pupils  attending  worship  on  the  Sab- 
bath, and  other  religious  services. 

A  number  of  German  brethren  have  recently  settled  at  Ma- 
lacca to  labor  for  the  Malays,  some  of  which  are  supported  by 
individuals  in  England  and  elsewhere.  The  school  formed  by 
Mr.  Tomlin,  (and  still  principally  supported  by  him,)  for  all  sorts 
of  boys  to  be  taught  in  English,  is  still  maintained,  taught  by  one 
of  these.  Its  plan  is  happy,  and  many  have  learned  not  only  the 
English  language,  but  the  rudiments  of  geography,  grammar, 
arithmetic,  &c. 

As  to  conversions  to  Christianity,  Malacca  has  few  instances; 
so  few  as  to  call  for  anxious  inquiry.  As  to  the  natives,  it  re- 
mains a  moral  wilderness.  The  schools,  so  vigorously  and  so 
long  maintained,  have  not  been  prolific  of  spiritual  good.  Thou- 
sands who  have  attended  them,  are  now  heads  of  families,  and 
ample  time  has  elapsed,  to  allow  the  efforts  to  show  mature 
results  ;  but  no  Malay  Christian,  that  I  could  learn,  is  to  be  found 
in  the  place !  Even  the  Protestant,  Portuguese,  and  Dutch  in- 
habitants have  diminished  in  number. 

The  Malay  race  is  classed  by  itself,  in  geographies,  as  the  fifth 
great  division  of  the  human  family ;  but  with  what  propriety  I 
do  not  see.    They  have,  certainly,  no  peculiarity  of  form  or  fea- 


100  ORIGIN    OF    THE    MALAYS. 

ture,  to  entitle  them  to  this  distinction,  and  history,  so  far  from 
furnishing  a  claim,  shows  them  to  be  a  mixed  race,  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin. 

The  original  country  of  the  Malays  is  not  known.  The  evi- 
dence is  in  favor  of  Sumatra.  Both  at  Celebes  and  Sumatra, 
there  are  prevalent  traditions,  which  assign  the  period  of  their 
origin  to  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  About  that  time,  a 
celebrated  chief  of  Celebes  went  on  an  exploring  and  trading 
voyage  to  the  westward,  from  whence  he  had  occasionally  seen 
natives.  In  the  course  of  the  expedition,  he  put  into  a  river  of 
Sumatra,  where  a  large  number  of  his  followers  absconded  in  a 
body,  and,  passing  into  the  interior,  settled  the  region  of  Men- 
an-ka-bo.  Obtaining  wives  from  the  adjacent  tribes,  and  pos- 
sessing more  civilization,  they  gradually  formed  a  new  race,  and 
rose  to  dominion.  Most  of  them  had  been  slaves,  obtained  from 
the  Moluccas,  and  employed  as  wood-cutters  and  drudges 4o  the 
fleet.  Hence  they  were  called  Malays,  from  Mala,  to  bring,  and 
aya,  wood.  Sir  Stamford  RafRes  affirms  that,  to  this  day,  the 
people  of  Celebes  look  with  great  contempt  on  Malays ;  and  are 
in  the  habit  of  repeating  the  origin  of  the  name.  A  general 
similarity  between  the  Malays  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Moluc- 
cas has  been  often  remarked.  And,  what  is  more  remarkable, 
the  Malay  language  is  spoken  more  purely  in  the  Moluccas  than 
on  the  Malay  peninsula. 

If  this  origin  of  the  Malays  be  true,  it  accounts  for  the  simi- 
larity which  has  been  remarked  between  them  and  several  of  the 
tribes  of  the  archipelago,  such  as  the  Eidahans  and  Dayas  of 
Borneo ;  the  Sabanos,  of  Magindano ;  the  Tagats  and  Pampau- 
goes,  of  the  Manillas;  and  the  Biscayans,  of  the  Philippines. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  Arabs  in  Sumatra,  the  Moslem  faith  rap- 
idly supplanted  paganism,  and  this  by  proselytism,  not  by  force. 
Whether  their  language  had  before  been  reduced  to  writing,  is 
not  clear;  but  it  now  was  written  in  the  Arabic  characters,  which 
continue  to  be  used.  Since  the  introduction  of  European  influ- 
ence, the  Roman  alphabet  is  becoming  prevalent,  and  the  larger 
part  of  those  who  can  read,  do  so  in  that  character. 

The  new  nation  extended  their  conquests  and  colonies,  till  all 
Sumatra  yielded  them  feudal  homage.  In  the  thirteenth  century, 
they  passed  over  to  the  peninsula,  and  took  or  built  Malacca  and 
Singapore.  Gradually  extending  their  dominions  and  colonies, 
the  chief  seat  of  their  power  was  transferred  to  the  new  territory  ; 
and  the  chiefs  of  Sumatra  began  to  throw  off  their  yoke.  Pro- 
ceeding to  acquire  power  and  numbers,  they  at  length  not  only 


MALAY   PENINSULA.  101 

regained  Sumatra,  but  conquered  the  Sunda,  Philippine,  and 
Molucca  Islands,  with  many  smaller  groups,  and  are  now  found 
in  all  these  regions,  as  well  as  Borneo,  Luconia,  and  many 
other  islands  ;  but  without  any  centre  of  unity  or  power,  without 
literature,  freedom,  or  civilization.  They  have  sunk  to  insignifi- 
cance, and  are  apparently  still  sinking  in  national  character. 

To  elucidate  and  establish  the  filiation  of  the  Malays,  and 
many  of  their  neighbor  tribes,  a  full  comparison  of  the  languages 
of  Farther  India,  is  greatly  wanted.  Dr.  John  published  a  work 
on  this  subject ;  but  it  is  much  too  imperfect  to  be  of  any  value. 
No  one  man  can  do  more  than  contribute  to  the  undertaking. 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Brown,  missionary  at  Sudiya,  in  Asam,  is  making 
exertions  to  obtain  comparative  vocabularies  of  as  many  of  the 
Eastern  languages  as  possible,  and,  we  presume,  will  succeed  in 
presenting  a  valuable  contribution  toward  this  desideratum. 

At  what  period  the  people  of  Menangkabo  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  the  prophet,  does  not  appear.  The  conversion  of 
Malacca  and  Acheen  took  place  in  the  thirteenth  century  ;  but  it 
is  uncertain  whether  Menangkabo  was  converted  previous  to  this 
date  ;  although  the  religion  is  said  to  have  been  preached  at 
Sumatra,  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century.  About  A.  D.  1160,  a 
colony  issued  from  the  interior  of  Sumatra,  and  established 
themselves  at  Singapore,  where  a  line  of  Hindu  princes  con- 
tinued to  reign  until  1276.  Whatever  may,  in  more  remote 
times,  have  been  the  nature  of  the  intercourse  between  foreign 
nations  and  Menangkabo  itself,  we  know  that  Singapore,  during 
the  period  noticed,  was  an  extensively  maritime  and  commercial 
state,  and,  at  the  time  when  the  Portuguese  settled  at  Malacca, 
embraced  the  largest  portion  of  the  commerce  between  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  and  the  China  Sea. 

The  Malay  peninsula  (called  by  the  natives  Tanah  Malayu, 
"the  land  of  the  Malays")  is  the  only  great  country  wholly  occu- 
pied by  this  race  ;  and  is  now  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  Keda, 
Perak,  and  Salengore,  in  the  west ;  Johore,  in  the  south  ;  Pahang, 
Tringano,  Calantan,  Patini,  and  Ligore,  in  the  east.  There  are 
states  in  the  interior  less  known ;  viz.  Rumbo,  Johole,  Jompole, 
Gominchi,  Sungie-Oojong,  Scrimenanti,  Nanning  Ulu,  Calang, 
Jellye,  Jellaboo,  Segamet,  Kemoung,  &c.  Some  of  these  are 
divided  into  separate  tribes ;  as,  for  instance,  Jellaboo  consists 
of  the  tribes  of  Bodoanda,  Tannah-Dottar,  Muncal,  and  Battu- 
Balang.  Scrimenanti  embraces  twelve  tribes,  though  the  popu- 
lation does  not  exceed  ten  thousand.  Sungie-Oojong,  Johole, 
9* 


102  MALAY   PENINSULA. 

Scrimenant i,  and  Rumbo,  are  called  "  Menangkabo  states."  The 
entire  population  is  very  small ;  some  of  the  states  numbering 
not  more  than  two  thousand  souls.  The  whole  peninsula,  ex- 
cept Rumbo  and  Johore,  is  claimed  by  Siam;  but  many  of 
the  tribes  are  independent,  and  of  others  the  subjection  is  but 
nominal. 

Scattered  over  the  peninsula,  without  specific  districts  and 
locations,  are  several  wild  tribes,  of  whom  almost  nothing  is 
known.  East  of  Malacca  are  Udai,  Sak-kye,  and  Rayet-Utan, 
and  some  negro  tribes.  These  all  go  under  the  name  of  Orang- 
Benua,  or  country  people.  These  have  each  a  language  or  dia- 
lect, but  largely  tinctured  with  Malay.  Further  north,  on  the 
mountains,  are  negro  tribes ;  but  evidently  distinct  from  the 
African  race.  Of  these  tribes  we  hope  soon  to  know  more. 
They  seem  to  be  a  distinct  variety  of  the  human  race ;  differing 
both  from  the  African,  and  the  Papuan  of  New  Guinea ;  and  in- 
ferior to  both.  The  average  height  of  the  men  is  about  four  feet 
eight  inches.  These  Malay  negroes  are  thinly  spread  over  a 
considerable  district,  in  and  in  the  rear  of  Malacca,  and  thence 
northward  to  Mergui;  amounting  in  the  whole  to  but  few 
thousands.  There  are  at  least  five  tribes  of  them  —  the  Joc-oons, 
Sa-mangs,  Oo-dees,  Sak-ais,  and  Ry-ots.  All  of  them  are  much 
below  the  Malays,  and  some  scarcely  above  the  apes ;  dwelling 
in  trees  and  clefts  of  the  mountain.  A  few  have  learned  a  little 
Malay,  and  occasionally  venture  among  adjacent  tribes,  to  pur- 
chase tobacco  and  utensils;  but  of  letters  they  know  nothing. 
Nor  have  any  religious  observances  been  discovered  among 
them.  Their  only  weapon  is  the  sumpit,  a  small  hollow  cane, 
about  eight  feet  long,  through  which  they  blow  short  arrows, 
often  poisoned  at  the  tip.  One  of  these,  together  with  the  quiver 
full  of  poisoned  arrows,  was  presented  to  me  by  the  British 
resident  at  Malacca.  The  sumpit  is  somewhat  ornamented, 
but  as  a  warlike  weapon,  is  quite  insignificant. 

I  cannot  insert  a  tenth  part  of  the  memoranda,  gained  from 
travellers  and  merchants,  respecting  the  different  principalities 
of  the  Malay  peninsula.  A  few  geographical  notes  for  the  use 
of  those  who  would  closely  survey  the  world  as  a  missionary 
field,  I  feel  bound  to  insert 

Of  Malacca  1  have  already  spoken. 

Keda,  generally  written  Queda,  is  divided  from  Siam  by  the 
Langa  River,  in  lat.  6°  50' ;  and  from  Perak,  on  the  south,  by 


KEDA PERAK.  103 

Kurao  River,  in  about  lat.  5°  30'.  It  extends  from  the  seaboard 
but  nine  or  ten  miles ;  but  embraces  several  large  islands. 
Many  rivers  enter  the  ocean  along  its  coast ;  some  four  or  five 
of  which  are  large,  for  a  little  way.  The  population  does  not 
exceed  200,000,  embracing  four  classes  —  the  Malays,  Siamese, 
Samsams,  (or  Mahometan  aborigines,)  and  Samangs.*  The 
latter  resemble  the  Rayet-Utans,  further  south,  in  the  region  of 
Rumbo;  but  their  complexion  is  darker,  and  hair  generally 
curled.  From  the  earliest  knowledge  of  Europeans,  it  has  been 
tributary  to  Siam.  But  "  it  does  not  appear,  either  by  writings  or 
tradition,  that  Queda  was  ever  governed  by  the  Siamese  laws  or 
customs.  There  would  then  have  been  some  remains,  had  there 
been  any  affinity  between  them.  The  people  of  Queda  are 
Mahometans;  their  letters  Arabic,  and  their  language  Jawee ; 
their  kings  originally  from  Menankabo,  on  Sumatra.  But,  as 
Queda  was  very  near  Ligore,  a  province  of  Siam,  they  sent, 
every  third  year,  a  gold  and  silver  tree,  as  a  token  of  homage  to 
Ligore.  This  was  done  to  preserve  a  good  correspondence  ;  for 
at  this  period  the  Siamese  were  very  rich  and  numerous,  but  no 
warriors ;  and  a  considerable  trade  was  carried  on  between  Ligore 
and  Queda.  After  the  destruction  of  Siam,  the  king  of  Ava 
demanded  the  token  of  homage  from  Queda,  and  received  the 
gold  and  silver  tree :  when  Pia  Tach  drove  away  the  Burmans, 
and  built  a  new  metropolis,  the  king  of  Queda  sent  the  trees  to 
Siam  ;  and  has  kept  peace  with  both ;  paying  homage  sometimes 
to  one,  sometimes  to  the  other,  and  often  to  both."  f 

The  British  province  of  Penang  was  given  by  the  raja  of 
Johore  in  1785,  to  Captain  T.  Light,  as  a  marriage  portion  with 
his  daughter.  Captain  L.  transferred  it  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, which  received  also  a  section  of  territory  on  the  main  land, 
now  called  Wellesley  Province,  and  allowed  the  raja  ten  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  city  of  Keda  stands  at  the  mouth  of  an  in- 
considerable river,  in  lat.  6°  5'. 

Perak  is  bounded  by  Keda  on  the  north,  and  by  the  brook 
Runkup,  which  divides  it  from  Salengore,  on  the  south  ;  making 
about,  one  hundred  miles  of  sea-coast.  The  nominal  boundary 
to  the  west  is  Tringano ;  but  the  central  region  is  little  known, 
and  the  frontier  indistinct.  The  population,  exclusive  of  tribes 
in  this  central  region,  is  thirty-five  thousand.     But  little  of  the 

*  Descendants  of  the  intermarriages  of  Malays  and  aborigines, 
t  Grieg's  Report  to  Sir  S.  Raffles. 


104  MALAY   PENINSULA. 

land  is  cultivated,  the  inhabitants  depending  on  the  sale  of  tin, 
and  on  fishing,  for  the  purchase  of  rice  and  other  necessaries. 
Nearly  all  the  people  are  slaves,  and  perhaps  not  one  in  five 
hundred  cau  read. 

This  country  was,  for  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  under  the 
Dutch.  No  trace  of  them  remains  but  some  ruins  of  forts,  on  one 
of  the  Din  ding  Islands,  and  on  the  adjacent  coast. 

Salengore  is  divided  from  Perak  by  the  brook  above  named ; 
which  enters  the  sea  about  lat.  3°  59',  a  little  to  the  north  of  a 
larger  stream  called  the  Bernam.  It  extends  along  the  coast 
about  one  hundred  miles,  but  has  a  very  trifling  population. 
Some  Bugis,  from  Celebes,  have  held  the  government  for  half  a 
century  past.  The  people  are  notorious  for  piracy,  man-stealing, 
and  ferocity.  The  town  of  Salengore  has  but  about  four  hun- 
dred inhabitants. 

Johore  embraces  the  whole  point  of  the  peninsula  below  lat. 
2°  10',  and  all  the  contiguous  islands  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca 
and  China  Sea  as  far  as  the  Natunas.  It  formerly  extended  much 
farther  north.  Some  of  these  islands  are  from  five  to  ten  miles 
in  diameter ;  but  most  of  them  are  small,  and  too  sterile  to  be  in- 
habited. The  province  seems  to  have  gradually  diminished,  in 
consequence  and  populousness,  since  Europeans  first  knew  it. 
Its  numerous  inlets  and  harbors  afford  shelter  to  swarms  of 
pirates ;  the  fear  of  which  has  destroyed  the  native  trade,  which 
once  enriched  the  province.  Among  western  Malays,  the  term 
Johore  is  synonymous  with  pirate.  The  city  of  Johore,  to  which 
the  raja  resorted,  when  driven  by  the  Portuguese  from  Malacca, 
lies  ten  miles  up  a  river  of  the  same  name,  which  opens  at  the 
eastward  of  Singapore  Island.  It  is  no  longer  the  residence  of 
the  raja,  and  is  now  a  miserable  fishing  village,  of  about  thirty 
houses.  It  is,  however,  the  only  place  where,  at  present,  a 
mission  could  be  established.  The  surrounding  country  is 
champain  and  fertile,  but  scarcely  inhabited. 

Singapore  Island  was  purchased  from  the  sultan  of  Johore,  at 
an  enormous  price ;  and  a  pension  is  still  paid  him  of  two  or  three 
thousand  dollars  a  month.  He  is,  however,  strongly  suspected 
of  being  prominently  concerned  in  the  piracies  of  his  subjects. 
Former  sultans,  coveting  foreign  commerce,  had  sought  to  have 
a  colony  of  the  English  on  Singapore  Island.  Captain  Alexan- 
der Hamilton  declares  that  the  whole  island  was  offered  to  him, 
as  a  free  gift. 


PAHANG  —  TRINGANO.  ]  05 

Rumbo  is  the  only  important  inland  state.  It  lies  back  of 
Malacca,  about  sixty  miles  from  the  coast ;  but  the  boundaries  are 
not  settled.  The  population  does  not  exceed  ten  thousand. 
The  people  are  quiet  industrious  agriculturists,  strikingly  diverse 
from  the  daring  inhabitants  of  the  coast  Their  dialect  has  the 
peculiarity,  among  other  particulars,  of  substituting  o  for  a  in  all 
terminations.  Beside  the  Malays,  who  occupy  the  fertile  por- 
tions of  country,  and  bear  rule,  several  of  the  Orang-Benua,  or 
country  people,  are  scattered  over  the  rugged  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains, preserving  their  clanships  inviolate,  and  speaking  each  a 
several  language.  It  is  doubtful  whether  a  foreigner  could  re- 
side in  Rumbo  during  the  rains;  but  missionaries  might  be  sta- 
tioned at  Malacca,  and  spend  the  dry  season  on  the  hills,  as  those 
of  Tavoy  do  among  the  Karens. 

Pahang  extends  from  Johore  to  Kamamang,  in  lat.  4°  15',  and 
is  supposed  to  contain  about  fifty  thousand  souls.  It  pro- 
duces annually  about  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  tin.  The 
Chinese  who  procure  it  spend  the  entire  proceeds  in  opium,  of 
which  they  consume  annually  about  twenty-five  chests.  The 
chief  town  lies  on  the  Pahang  River,  and  is  a  wretched  place, 
of  eight  or  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  of  which  two  hundred 
are  Chinese,  mostly  opium-smokers,  and  degraded.  It  has 
constant  intercourse  with  Singapore,  and  would  be  a  healthy 
position  for  a  missionary.  The  interior  is  wholly  unknown, 
and  very  thinly  peopled. 

Tringano  extends  from  Kamamang  to  the  River  Basut,  which 
divides  it  from  Calantan ;  and  extends  from  the  China  Sea  on 
the  east  to  Perak  on  the  west.  It  is  a  champain  country,  of 
low  liills,  producing  a  great  variety  of  delicious  fruits.  The  Siam- 
ese do  not  send  governors  or  make  laws,  but  are  content  with 
the  annual  present  of  a  gold  and  silver  tree,  and  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  vassalage.  The  population  is  about  forty  thousand. 
The  principal  product  is  tin,  of  which  they  gather  annually  about 
six  hundred  thousand  pounds.  The  men  not  only  wear  a  krees, 
like  other  Malays,  but  often  two,  and  sometimes  a  sword  also ; 
quarrelling  much,  and  working  little.  Their  women  do  most  of 
the  business,  and  Chinese  work  the  mines. 

The  town  of  Tringano  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  at  the  head  of  a  shallow  bay.  Ships  may  approach  within 
two  miles.  The  river  is  not  so  wide  as  that  of  Pahang.  The 
town  is  illy  laid  out,  and  dirty,  but  contains  nearly  half  the  popu- 


106  MALAY   PENINSULA. 

lation  of  the  state.  In  the  time  of  Captain  Hamilton's  visit,  (1720,) 
it  contained  one  thousand  houses,  about  half  of  which  were 
Chinese.  About  three  thousand  Chinese  occupy  a  quarter  to 
themselves.  The  only  brick  buildings  are  a  mosque,  and  a 
custom-house,  neither  of  which  are  respectable.  The  country 
has  long  enjoyed  foreign  commerce,  and  the  rulers  are  intelli- 
gent. The  present  sultan  or  raja  is  friendly  to  foreigners,  and 
anxious  to  have  them  settle  there.  He  would  probably  receive 
and  protect  missionaries,  except  they  were  Dutch. 

Calantan  extends  from  the  Basut  to  the  Barana  River,  being 
the  next  petty  state  north  of  Tringano.  It  is  probably  more 
populous  than  Pahang  or  Tringano,  but  has  never  been  explored 
by  foreigners.  Siam  has  allowed  them  to  retain  their  native 
princes,  and  make  their  own  laws,  and  this  right  is  now  guar- 
antied by  the  treaty  between  Siam  and  England.  More  tjian  a 
million  pounds  of  tin  are  annually  exported,  beside  a  considera- 
ble amount  of  gold,  most  of  which  is  carried  to  Singapore  in 
prows.  The  city  is  close  to  the  sea,  but  several  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  on  which  it  stands.  The  position  is  salu- 
brious at  all  seasons,  and  foreigners  are  safe  under  the  present 
government.     Intercourse  with  Singapore  is  not  unfrequent. 

Patani  extends  from  Calantan  to  about  lat.  8°  north,  and  is 
divided  from  Keda  on  the  west,  by  high  mountains.  It  was 
once  the  most  populous  and  well-cultivated  part  of  the  penin- 
sula, yielding  much  tin,  gold,  grain,  and  salt.  The  English  had 
a  factory  here  so  long  ago  as  1612,  and  James  I.  sent  the  queen 
a  letter  and  presents.  It  was  for  a  hundred  years  the  chief  port 
in  these  seas  for  Surat  shipping,  and  maintained  a  trade  not  only 
with  Western  India,  England,  and  Portugal,  but  with  Goa,  Mal- 
abar, the  Coromandel  coast,  Siam,  Camboja,  and  China.  Their 
commerce  attracted  pirates  from  Borneo  and  Johore,  and  gradu- 
ally failed.  Few  traces  now  remain  of  its  ancient  prosperity. 
A  few  years  since,  the  district  fell  under  the  displeasure  of  Siam, 
and  war  ensued,  which  was  terminated  by  the  present  Prah  Klang, 
who,  in  1824,  laid  waste  the  country,  and  brought  away  all  the 
inhabitants  he  could  find.  These  were  distributed  to  the  princi- 
pal families  in  Bankok  as  slaves,  aud  this  fine  region  now  lies 
almost  depopulated  and  desert. 

Ligore.  This  part  of  the  peninsula  is  rather  a  section  of 
Siam,  than  a  tributary.     The  governor  is  a  Siamese,  appointed 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  MALAYS.  107 

by  the  king.  His  authority  extends  to  the  border  of  Penang ; 
and  since  the  devastation  of  Patani,  that  district  is  part  of  his 
territory. 

The  Siamese  call  this  country  Lacon,  Its  only  seaport  is  the 
city  of  Ligore,  which  for  a  long  time  enjoyed  a  large  foreign 
commerce.  The  Dutch  had  a  good  brick  factory  here,  and  resi- 
dent agents,  in  all  the  early  part  of  last  century.  The  foreign 
trade  is  extinct,  but  the  town  is  still  flourishing,  and  keeps  up 
trade  with  all  the  chief  places  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 

The  dialect  resembles  that  of  Keda,  and  seems  to  be  corrupt 
Siamese,  scarcely  intelligible  to  the  people  of  Bankok. 

All  these  provinces  are,  we  hope,  soon  to  receive  the  gospel ; 
but  at  present  only  Pahang  and  Tringano  ofFer  positions  for 
new  missions,  and  these  by  no  means  promising.  Whoever 
commences  in  these  places,  should  first  learn  Malay,  and  com- 
mence the  mission  unmarried. 

The  Malays  are  eveiy  where  Mahometans.  The  period  of 
their  becoming  so,  must  be  placed  near  the  commencement  of 
their  existence  as  a  nation  on  Sumatra,  but  is  not  known  with 
exactness.  Wherever  they  have  spread,  they  exhibit  a  vigorous 
spirit  of  proselytism ;  and  even  where  force  has  never  been  at- 
tempted, they  have  drawn  many  thousand  pagans  to  the  worship 
of  the  true  God. 

Commercial  and  piratical  in  their  character  and  aims,  they  have 
seldom  settled  far  from  coasts  and  harbors ;  so  that  the  language 
does  not  prevail  among  interior  tribes,  either  on  the  peninsula  or 
the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Over  these  tribes  they 
claim  some  authority,  and  take  precedence  by  superiority  of 
civilization,  but  their  language,  manners,  and  government,  remain 
unchanged. 

A  general  character  can  hardly  be  assigned  to  a  people 
scattered  over  so  many  countries,  and  intermingled  every  where 
with  indigenous  tribes.  They  have  generally  been  set  down  as 
distinguished  for  vileness  and  treachery.  This  opinion  has 
doubtless  been  derived  from  mariners ;  for  till  recently,  few 
others  knew  much  about  them,  and  the  piratical  tribes  alone  have 
brought  themselves  into  general  notice.  It  cannot  be  denied, 
however,  that  European  and  American  captains  on  the  coast  of 
Sumatra,  and  elsewhere,  have,  by  then  frauds  and  oppressions, 
contributed  not  a  little  to  drive  these  people  to  make  reprisals. 

Disregard  of  human  life,  revenge,  idleness,  and  piracy,  may 


108  MALAY    PENINSULA. 

perhaps  be  considered  common  to  Malays.  The  universal 
practice  of  going  armed,  makes  thoughts  of  murder  familiar. 
The  right  of  private  revenge  is  universally  admitted,  even  by  the 
chiefs,  and  the  taking  of  life  may  be  atoned  for  by  a  small  sum 
of  money.  Treachery  has  been  considered  the  leading  trait  of 
Malay  character  ;  but  probably  the  idea  is  exaggerated.  Their 
religion  teaches  them,  like  other  Mussulmans,  to  use  treachery 
and  violence  toward  infidels.  But  there  is  full  reason  to  believe, 
that,  in  intercourse  with  each  other,  domestic  and  private  virtues 
prevail  to  as  great  an  extent  as  among  other  heathen.  As  to 
piracy,  it  is  deemed  not  only  a  pure  and  chivalrous  occupation, 
but  religiously  meritorious.  It  is  carried  on  by  prince,  people, 
and  priest,  and  is  not  less  a  matter  of  pride,  than  of  rapacity. 

In  the  arts  of  peace,  they  are  greatly  inferior  to  their  neigh- 
bors of  Java,  Japan,  Cochin-China,  and  Siam.  They  have  even 
less  mechanical  ingenuity  and  skill  than  the  Bugis.  No  portion 
of  the  Malays  are  much  civilized,  and  some  are  truly  savage. 
The  feudal  system  prevails  every  where,  in  all  its  integrity.  The 
chiefs  claim  the  time  and  services  of  the  people,  at  any  time, 
and  for  any  purpose,  warlike  or  peaceful. 

In  no  part  of  the  East  is  slavery  more  common  than  among 
the  Malays.  Not  only  do  princes  sell  their  vassals,  often  without 
fault,  parents  their  children,  and  debtors  their  creditors,  but  a 
slave  trade  is  kept  up  with  activity,  both  by  sea  and  land,  and  in 
various  places.  One  of  the  chief  resorts  for  this  purpose,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  is  Pulo  Nias,  the  largest  and  most 
populous  island  of  that  region.  The  Acheens,  and  several  other 
maritime  tribes,  both  in  Sumatra  and  elsewhere,  have,  for  many 
years,  been  systematic  and  vigorous  in  this  horrid  business. 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles  took  measures  to  collect  authentic  and 
exact  statements,  on  which  the  British  government  might  act, 
but  left  the  island  before  much  was  done  ;  and  the  effort  has  not 
been  renewed.  A  late  writer  in  a  Singapore  newspaper  says  — 
"  Board  any  of  the  numerous  prows  between  Nias  and  Acheen, 
and  you  will  not  fail  to  find  young  men  and  women,  either 
kidnapped,  or  purchased  from  the  petty  rajas,  who  obtained 
them  by  similar  means,  or  more  frequently  by  the  laws  which 
give  in  pledge  to  creditors,  the  bodies  of  debtors."  Such  slaves 
are  often  seen,  exposed  for  sale,  in  the  villages  of  Sumatra. 
The  permission  of  this  traffic  is  a  deep  disgrace  to  the  Dutch 
authorities  on  that  island,  who  have  power  to  prevent,  or  at  least 
greatly  to  curtail  it.     It  is  generally  asserted,  in  the  straits,  that 


MISSIONARIES  —  SCHOOLS.  109 

Dutchmen  themselves  engage  in  this  trade ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
they  often  are  slave-holders. 

The  whole  mass  of  the  common  people  are  virtually  slaves, 
under  the  native  governments.  Every  chief  not  only  consumes 
the  labor  or  the  property  of  his  people  at  pleasure,  but  sells  the 
services  or  the  persons  of  his  vassals  to  any  persons  who  will 
purchase  them. 

Such  as  desire  to  read  further  in  regard  to  the  natives  of  the 
Malay  peninsula  may  consult  Blancard,  Commerce  des  Indies ; 
Valentyn,  Oud  und  Nieu  Ostindien ;  Van  Wurmb,  Memoire  de 
Batavia;  Popham's  Prince  of  Wales's  Island;  Asiatic  Researches; 
Marsden's  Sumatra;  and  Crawfurd's  Indian  Archipelago. 

The  Malays  have  long  had  missionaries  ;  few  of  which  have 
done  much  in  the  way  of  preaching.  Preparing  and  distribu- 
ting the  Scriptures  and  tracts,  have  engrossed  most  of  them.  No 
less  than  seven  versions  of  the  Malay  Scriptures  have  been 
printed ;  and  so  early  as  1820,  Dr.  Milne  stated  that  forty-two 
Christian  books  had  been  prepared.  Many  thousands  of 
these  have  been  distributed ;  but,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  with 
scarcely  any  perceptible  benefit.  I  did  not  hear  of  a  single 
Malay  convert  on  the  whole  peninsula.  In  examining  into  the 
reasons  for  this  failure,  two  considerations  occur,  which  sufficient- 
ly account  for  the  want  of  conversions,  in  the  case  of  those  who 
have  been  devoted  to  making  and  distributing  books,  rather 
than  preaching  the  word.  The  books  are  not  intelligible  to  the 
generality  even  of  good  readers;  and  the  number  of  those  who 
can  read  and  understand  a  book  on  an  unaccustomed  subject, 
(except  those  taught  in  missionary  schools,)  is  probably  not  much 
more  than  one  in  five  hundred. 

Schools,  also,  have  from  the  beginning,  engaged,  to  a  consid- 
erable extent,  the  attention  of  Malay  missionaries  ;  and  the  Eng- 
lish residents  at  Penang,  Malacca,  and  Singapore,  have  strenu- 
ously aided.  But  the  jealousy  of  the  Hadjees,  which  cannot  be 
overcome;  the  difficulty  of  retaining  pupils  long  enough  to  ac- 
quire any  valuable  knowledge;  the  habits  learned  by  the  children 
at  home  ;  and  the  cessation  of  all  literary  pursuits  from  the  time  of 
leaving  school,  —  have  almost  neutralized  the  benefits  conferred. 
Very  few  of  the  pupils  have  so  much  as  learned  to  read  well  in 
their  own  language,  and  still  fewer  received  such  an  education 
as  some  of  the  Bengal  schools  confer. 

The  Malay  language  is  pronounced,  by  all  who  attempt  it,  an 
easy  language  to  acquire.     This  is  doubtless  true,  to  a  certain 

VOL.  II.  10 


110  MALAY   PENINSULA. 

extent.  It  has  no  sounds  difficult  for  Europeans  to  pronounce ; 
its  construction  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  its  words  are  few. 
There  is  no  change  made  in  words  to  express  numher,  person, 
gender,  mood,  and  time ;  and  the  same  word  is  often  used  as 
a  noun,  adjective,  verb,  and  adverb.  Even  the  tenses  to  verbs 
are  seldom  varied.  Hence,  so  much  as  is  necessary  for  common 
purposes  is  soon  learned.  But,  whoever  would  speak  on  literary 
or  religious  subjects,  finds  great  difficulties.  The  absence  of 
grammatical  inflections  and  particles  creates  great  ambiguity,  and 
makes  the  meaning  so  dependent  on  the  juxtaposition  of  words, 
as  to  make  great  skill  necessary  to  propriety  in  discoursing  on 
any  critical  or  novel  subject.  Beside  this,  the  language  is  so 
poor  in  abstract  terms,  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  avoid  using  a 
host  of  new  words.  These  are  adopted  by  one  from  the  Eng- 
lish, another  from  the  Arabic,  another  from  the  Greek,  and 
another  from  the  Portuguese,  according  to  the  learning  or^fancy 
of  his  teacher. 

In  translating  the  Scriptures,  it  has  been  most  common  to 
adopt  from  the  Arabic ;  and  sometimes,  I  am  told,  this  class  of 
words  amounts  to  one  jifth  of  the  whole !  It  may  easily  be  con- 
ceived that,  as  these  must  be,  in  general,  the  very  words  which 
give  meaning  to  the  whole  sentence,  the  mere  Malay  reader  is 
utterly  unable  to  understand  the  book.  It  would  be  well  if  only 
one  fifth  of  the  words  were  other  than  pure  Malay ;  but  Walter 
Hamilton,  in  his  East  India  Gazetteer,  states  that,  after  repeated 
trials,  one  hundred  words  in  a  Malay  book  were  found,  on  an 
average,  to  contain  twenty-seven  primitive  Malayan,  fifty  Polyne- 
sian, sixteen  Sunscrit,  and  seven  Arabic ;  leaving  thus  only  one 
quarter  of  the  words  proper  Malayan ! 

The  preparation  of  books  ought  certainly  not  to  be  made 
prominent,  in  a  case  like  this;  but  rather  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel.  The  poverty  of  the  language,  and  the  necessity  of  using 
new  terms,  though  embarrassing  in  oral  communication,  is  much 
more  so  in  writing.  In  speaking,  explanations  may  be  made ; 
sentences  may  be  uttered  in  half  a  dozen  different  ways,  and 
truth  effectually  imparted.  Thus,  in  time,  the  way  will  be  pre- 
pared for  books,  which  will  be  hastened  by  a  proper  attention  to 
schools. 


Ill 


CHAPTER    IV. 


Take  leave  of  British  India  —  European   Manners  —  Voyage  to  Bankok 

—  River  Meinam  —  Paknam  —  Audience  with  the  Governor  —  Situa- 
tion of  Bankok  —  Floating  Houses  —  General  Appearance  —  Visit  to 
the  Pra  Klang ;  Servile  Forms  of  Politeness  —  Chow  Fah ;  Singular 
Custom  —  Pra  Nai  Wai  —  Pra  Amramole  —  Present  of  an  Elephant; 
Of  a  Cochin-Chinese  Slave  —  Population  of  Bankok  —  Police  of  the  City 

—  Climate  —  Wats  —  Houses  —  Streets  —  Bridges  —  Somona  Codom  — 
History  of  Siam  —  Extent  of  the  Empire  —  Population — Personal  Ap- 
pearance of  Siamese —  Dress  —  Amusements  —  Military  Force  — Com- 
merce —  Prices  of  Provision  —  Fruits  —  Currency  —  Character  —  Degree 
of  Civilization  —  Slavery — Language  —  Establishment  of  the  Mission  — 
Mission  Premises  —  Worship  —  Converts  —  Bankok  a  Station  for  the 
Chinese  —  Distribution  of  Scriptures  —  Need  of  more  Laborers  —  Constitu- 
tion of  a  Church  —  Harmony  of  Sects  —  Roman  Catholics. 


As  I  am  now  taking  my  leave  of  British  Indian  society,  and 
have  but  slightly  alluded  to  the  mode  of  living,  it  is  incumbent  on 
me  to  say  a  few  words  on  that  point.  The  houses  are  large  and 
airy,  with  whitewashed  walls  ;  the  floors  are  matted ;  as  little 
furniture  as  possible  kept  in  any  room  ;  and  punkas  depend 
from  eveiy  ceiling.  Every  bed  has  its  musquito  curtain  of 
gauze,  which  is  tied  up  during  the  day,  and  let  down  about  sun- 
set, before  the  insects  get  abroad.  A  taper,  in  a  tumbler  of 
oil,  burns  all  night  in  each  room,  by  which,  before  day  dawn,  you 
dress  negligently  for  the  morning  drive.  At.  dawn,*  a  servant 
brings  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  a  slice  of  dry  toast,  and  announces 
that  the  horses  are  ready.  An  hour's  ride  brings  you  home 
again,  and  you  shave,  bathe,  dress,  read,  &c,  till  breakfast,  which 
is  at  ten  o'clock.  Here  the  family  meet,  and  enjoy  social  inter- 
course during  a  leisurely  repast,  when  they  separate  again,  the 
gentlemen  to  their  place  of  business,  and  the  ladies  to  their 
domestic  employments.  Calls  of  ceremony  are  made  about 
noon  ;  always,  of  course,  in  some  close  carriage,  to  avoid  the  sun. 
About  one  or  two  o'clock  comes  tiffin,  or  lunch,  as  we  say,  con- 
sisting of  plantains  and  other  fruits,  with  nice  bread  and  butter, 


*  It  will  be  recollected  that  between  the  tropics  the  sun  always  rises  not 
far  from  six  o'clock. 


112  SIAM. 

and  water,  bottles  of  which  have  been  cooled  in  tubs  of  moist 
saltpetre. 

Merchants,  and  gentlemen  whose  business  is  at  a  distance  from 
their  dwelling,  do  not  come  home  to  this  meal,  but  have  it 
brought  to  them.  As  to  dinner,  there  is  a  diversity,  the  plainer 
sort  taking  it  at  five  o'clock,  and  then  riding  out;  the  more 
fashionable  riding  first,  and  dining  about  half  past  seven  or  eight. 
But  the  sunset  drive,  all  regard  as  indispensable.  Indeed,  Eu- 
ropean life  in  India  seems  a  constant  struggle  to  keep  off 
death.  The  standing  and  favorite  dish,  both  at  breakfast  and 
dinner,  is  rice  and  curry ;  the  former  boiled  plain  and  dry,  the 
latter  consisting  of  prawns,  fish,  or  fowl,  stewed  with  abundant 
gravy,  seasoned  almost  to  burning  heat,  with  ground  chillies, 
ginger,  and  onions.  Instead  of  water,  the  curry  is  mixed  with 
the  expressed  juice  of  rasped  coco-nuts.  The  dinner  is  gener- 
ally sumptuous,  and  the  etiquette  quite  ceremonious,  but  far  re- 
moved from  stiffness  and  reserve.  The  waving  punka  overhead 
entirely  prevents  discomfort  on  account  of  the  heat.  So  far  as 
my  experience  goes,  English  society  in  India  is  far  more  in- 
telligent and  agreeable  than  among  the  same  grade  in  England ; 
perhaps  because  they  are  all  travellers  ;  and  travelling  not  only 
instructs  and  polishes,  but  tends  strongly  to  promote  liberal  and 
enlarged  feelings.  After  dinner,  music  and  rational  conversation 
fill  up  the  evening,  and  all  retire  in  good  season.  A  cup  of  tea 
is  generally  handed  round  in  the  course  of  the  evening ;  but 
spirituous  liquors  are  sinking  into  disuse. 

Missionaries  in  Hindustan  live  in  a  similar  manner,  only  as 
much  more  plainly,  as  ministers  in  this  country  live  more  plain 
than  their  wealthy  parishioners.  The  missionaries  in  Burmah 
have  breakfast  and  dinner  earlier,  and  omit  tea.  They  do 
not  keep  horses,  and  take  their  morning  and  evening  exercise 
on  foot.  They  seldom  get  any  other  meat  than  fowl,  or  any 
other  vegetables  than  rice,  sweet  potatoes,  stewed  cucumbers, 
and  pumpkins.  Plantains  are  often  fried  or  roasted,  and  are 
very  fine.  At  stations  where  there  are  English  officers,  there 
are  always  bakers  and  herdmen,  who  daily  furnish  excellent 
bread,  and  plenty  of  butter  and  milk.  Their  houses  are  described 
and  represented  Vol.  I,  p.  72. 

Leaving  Singapore  on  the  24th  of  May,  1837,  I  arrived  off  the 
River  of  Siam,  without  accident,  in  eleven  days.  We  came  to 
anchor  on  the  edge  of  the  bar,  amid  numerous  junks  just 
leaving  Siam ;  but  could  scarcely  discern  the  low  shore,  distant 
fifteen  or  sixteen  miles.     The  river,  called  by  the  natives  Meinam, 


RIVER    MEINAM  —  PAKNAM.  113 

or  "  mother  of  waters,"  is  difficult  to  find,  as  the  coast  is  a  dead 
level,  scarcely  above  low-water  mark.  The  bar  is  ten  or  twelve 
miles  broad,  with  but  one  and  a  half  fathom's  water  at  low  tide, 
and  extending  many  miles  east  and  west.  Vessels,  therefore,  can 
pass  and  repass  with  only  part  of  their  load.  Even  thus  lightened, 
they  generally  ground  once  or  twice  ;  but,  the  bottom  being  soft 
mud,  except  at  its  outer  edge,  they  take  no  harm.  The  south- 
west monsoon,  concentrating  here  as  in  the  end  of  a  funnel, 
raises  a  heavy  sea,  and  makes  it  a  wild  place  for  vessels  to  remain, 
as  they  must  for  several  weeks.  Formerly,  ships  trading  to  the 
Meinam  River,  anchored  in  the  fine  harbor  of  Ko-ci-chang  Island, 
where  wood  and  water  are  easily  procured  ;  but  the  great  distance 
renders  it  inconvenient.  A  small  fleet,  however,  in  possession 
of  that  cluster  of  islands  could  effectually  blockade  Baukok,  and 
cut  off  all  its  commerce. 

Taking  a  seat  with  the  captain  in  the  pinnace  at  dawn  of  day, 
on  the  4th  of  June,  we  crossed  the  bar  in  about  three  hours, 
scarcely  discerning  the  mouth  of  the  river  till  we  were  in  it. 
I  looked  in  vain  along  the  beach  for  the  nocto,*  said  to  be  taller 
than  the  ostrich.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  wide,  and  presents  nothing  but  gloomy  mangrove,  the  deadly 
silence  of  which  was  only  broken  by  the  occasional  screams  of 
unseen  birds.  The  region  is  precisely  similar  to  the  Sunder- 
bunds  of  the  Ganges. 

We  had  scarcely  ascended  a  mile,  before  there  came  on  one 
of  those  violent  squalls  of  wind  and  rain,  common  here  at  this 
season.  On  every  side  had  been  seen  boats ;  but  now,  in  a  min- 
ute or  two,  they  were  either  upset,  or,  being  near  the  shore,  had 
run  aground  for  safety.  Being  in  the  mid-channel  for  the  benefit 
of  the  tide,  we  were  near  being  overturned.  As  we  dashed  on 
before  it,  using  every  effort  to  reduce  sail,  and  expecting  at  least 
to  lose  the  mast,  we  passed  some  of  the  natives  swimming  with 
perfect  coolness  beside  their  boats,  and  preparing  to  right  them. 
It  was  difficult  to  feel  that  we  must  not  stay  to  aid  them ;  but  the 
offer  would  have  been  matter  of  ridicule. 

Three  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  we  reached  the 
town  of  Paknam,  where  all  foreigners  are  required  to  stop  and 
report  themselves.  The  first  impressions  of  Siamese  towns 
were  by  no  means  exhilarating.  Led  through  rain  and  mud, 
along  narrow,  filthy  passages,  called  streets,  and  a  stinking  bazar, 
we  reached  the  mean  and  dirty  house  of  the  governor  of  the 


So  called  by  the  Siamese,  from  noc,  great,  and  to,  a  bird. 

10* 


114  SIAM. 

province.  The  hall  of  audience  presented  a  burlesque  on  offi- 
cial pomp.  It  was  a  large  room,  open  in  front,  with  part  of  the 
floor  raised,  as  usual,  a  few  feet,  destitute  of  carpet  or  matting. 
From  the  lofty  ceiling  hung  an  odd  diversity  of  small  chande- 
liers, apparently  never  used,  and  against  the  very  tops  of  the 
pillars  stood  Dutch  and  Chinese  mirrors,  leaning  forward, 
in  which  one  sees  himself  drawn  out  into  more  shapes  than 
Proteus  ever  knew.  Chinese  paper-hangings  and  pictures, 
neither  new  nor  nice,  covered  most  of  the  rest  of  the  roof  and 
walls;  the  whole  grim  with  dust  and  smoke.  His  lordship, 
perfectly  naked,  except  the  cloth  round  his  loins,  sat  on  a  mat, 
leaning  on  a  triangular  pillow,  covered  with  morocco.  The 
attendants  crouched,  as  before  the  highest  monarch,  and  we 
alone  dared  to  assume  any  position  by  which  the  head  should  be 
more  elevated  than  his.  A  multitude  of  questions  was  asked, 
respecting  the  ship's  size,  cargo,  armament,  crew,  &c,  and  my 
name,  office,  countries  I  had  seen,  objects  in  coming  to  Siam, 
and  intended  length  of  stay ;  all  which  were  carefully  written 
down  to  be  forwarded  post  haste  to  Bankok. 

Preferring  exposure  to  the  rain,  in  the  open  pinnace,  to  our 
catechetical  tedium,  we  embarked  as  soon  as  released,  and  ar- 
rived at  Bankok  (distant  about  twenty-five  miles)  a  little  after 
dark.  At  Paknam,  and  several  places  above,  are  forts  on  well 
selected  points,  and  somewhat  in  European  construction.  Most 
of  the  way,  the  shores  are  uninhabited,  and  appear  to  be  in 
process  of  being  redeemed  from  the  sea,  the  high  tide  laying 
them  under  water.  Almost  the  only  growth,  at  first,  is  the  attap, 
or  dennee,  called  by  Siamese  chak,  (Cocos-nypa,)  and  of  which 
the  best  thatch  is  made ;  and  the  mangrove,  [BMzophora,)  in 
several  varieties.  This  latter  plant  grows  over  all  the  East,  on 
the  boundary  between  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  sometimes  in 
the  salt  water  itself;  and  is  a  principal  agent  in  extending  the 
deltas  of  great  rivers.  It  grows  down  to  low-water  mark,  its 
thick,  strong  roots  resisting  almost  any  wave.  The  fruit,  club- 
shaped,  and  a  foot  long,  bending  down  the  branch  to  which 
it  hangs,  reaches  the  earth,  vegetates,  and  forms  an  arch. 
These  arches,  roots,  branches,  and  strong  stems,  obstructing  all 
currents,  the  quiet  water  deposits  its  sediment,  and  earth  gains 
on  ocean. 

The  latter  half  of  the  way  presents  almost  a  continued  suc- 
cession of  houses,  embowered  in  a  dense  growth  of  various 
palms,  and  other  fruit-trees.  Behind,  as  I  afterward  found,  are 
rich  and  extensive  paddy-fields.     The  river  at  the  mouth  is,  per- 


BANKOK FLOATING    HOUSES.  115 

haps,  two  miles  wide,  but  half  way  up  lessens  to  one,  and  at 
JBankok  to  less  than  half  a  mile. 

Bankok  is  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the  sea;  lat.  13° 
58/,  long.  100°  34'.  It  covers  a  considerable  island  in  the 
river,  and  extends  along  both  shores  for  several  miles,  above  and 
below.  Its  aspect  differs  from  that  of  any  other  city,  and  but 
for  its  novelty,  would  be  rather  repulsive.  Little  is  seen  on 
ascending   the  river,   but  a  row  of   floating    houses,  on  each 


side,  small  and  mean ;  most  of  them  open  in  front,  and  con- 
taining a  little  shop.  The  goods  are  arranged  on  a  succes- 
sion of  shelves,  like  stairs,  to  the  height  of  about  three  feet; 
and  the  shopman  sits  alongside  on  the  floor,  as  seen  in  the 
picture.  The  front  of  the  centre  part,  or  shop,  opens  with  hinges 
at  the  top,  and  is  propped  up  in  the  day-time  with  a  bamboo, 
making  a  good  awning.  The  sides  and  rear  of  the  building  are 
occupied  by  the  family.  The  whole  stands  on  a  raft  of  large 
bamboos,  which  is  renewed  every  two  or  three  years.  They  are 
kept  in  place,  not  by  anchors,  but  by  large  poles  on  each  side, 
driven  into  the  muddy  bottom. 

The  Chinese  junks,  which  make  annual  voyages  to  Bankok, 
had  not  all  gone,  when  I  arrived,  (early  in  June,)  and  a  large 
number  lay  moored  in  the  mid-river ;  some  of  great  size, 
probably  eight  or  nine  hundred  tons.  A  few  handsome  pagodas, 
and  other  sacred  edifices,  rise  from  what  seems  to  be  a  forest, 
but  is  in  reality  a  great  city.  Innumerable  boats,  of  every  size, 
move  about  the  river.  The  larger  ones  are  at  once  boat, 
dwelling-house,  and  shop.  The  smallest  are  scarcely  so  large 
as  a  coffin.  Hucksters,  and  retailers  of  all  sorts,  ply  about  with 
their  wares  exhibited  on  the  deck  of  their  batteau ;  one  person 
paddling  at  each  end,  generally  a  woman.  Cargo-boats,  yawls, 
sampans,  pleasure-boats,  &c,  make  up  a  scene  of  extraordinary 


116  SIAM. 

variety,  animation,  and  novelty.  Canals  and  ditches,  navigable  a 
part  of  every  tide,  are  ramified  in  all  directions,  and  reach  almost 
every  house.  The  river  is  at  once  the  highway,  the  canal,  the 
exchange,  the  market,  and  the  pleasure-ground. 

It  was  always  interesting  to  see  how  a  little  good  nature  pre- 
vented all  confusion  and  danger.  No  one  resents  occasional 
concussions.  Smaller  boats  always  give  place  to  larger.  The 
paddles,  held  perpendicularly,  occupy  much  less  space  than  oars, 
and  all  ply  with  consummate  dexterity.  If  a  man  or  woman  be 
knocked  into  the  water,  there  is  a  laugh  on  both  sides,  and  no 
one  is  alarmed.  If  a  skiff  is  upset,  the  boatmen  soon  hold  it 
edgewise,  and,  with  a  sudden  toss,  throw  it  up  into  the  air.  It 
comes  down  quite  dry,  and  they  get  in  and  proceed  as  if  nothing 
had  happened.  Even  children  of  five  and  six  years  push  about, 
wholly  alone,  in  boats  not  much  larger  than  themselves,  with  the 
edge  hardly  two  inches  above  the  water.  I  sometimes  saw  these 
overset ;  but  no  one  offered  assistance,  and  the  child  showed  no 
apprehension.  On  one  occasion,  as  I  was  passing  up  the  river, 
a  little  girl,  of  six  or  seven  years,  coming  suddenly  out  of  a  little 
passage  between  two  houses,  struck  her  skiff  so  hard  against 
my  boat,  that  hers  was  upset,  and  she  was  thrown  off  several 
feet,  while  her  little  paddle  flew  in  an  opposite  direction.  She 
looked  for  a  moment  perfectly  amazed,  and  then  burst  out  into 
a  fit  of  laughter!  My  boatmen  never  thought  of  stopping,  and 
1  soon  perceived,  on  looking  back,  that  she  had  recovered  her 
paddle,  and  was  swimming  behind  her  boat,  still  upside  down, 
pushing  it  toward  the  shore.  A  case  of  drowning  is  seldom 
heard  of. 

The  memoranda  sent  up  by  the  governor  of  Paknam  to  the 
Pra  Klang,  or  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  produced  me  an  early 
invitation,  through  one  of  his  writers,  to  call  and  see  him.  As 
soon  as  the  ship  came  up  the  river,  and  put  me  in  possession  of 
proper  clothes,  and  a  present,  Mr.  Jones  and  myself  waited  on 
hirn,  at  an  hour  agreed  upon. 

The  great  man,  the  apartment,  and  the  ceremonies  differed  little 
from  the  scene  at  Paknam,  except  in  being  more  respectable. 
His  lordship  seemed  about  fifty  years  old,  and  possessed  that 
important  item  of  honorable  distinction  in  the  East  —  corpu- 
lence. His  entire  dress  being  only  a  cotton  pa-nome,  or  wrapper 
round  the  hips,  corpulence  seemed  any  thing  but  attractive  in 
this  case.  He  held  his  present  office  during  the  embassies  of 
Colonel  Burney  and  Major  Crawfurd  from  England,  and  of  Mr. 
Roberts  from  our  country ;  and  is  certainly  a  clever  and  enlight- 
ened man. 


VISITS    TO    NOBLES REFRESHMENTS.  117 

We  were  not  required  to  take  oft'  our  shoes,  or  hold  down  our 
heads ;  but  those  in  attendance,  among  whom  were  native  princes 
and  a  Portuguese  interpreter,  crawled  about  on  bauds  and  knees, 
with  demonstrations  of  the  deepest  homage. 

My  reception  was  kind,  frank,  and  respectful.  He  put  many 
questions  respecting  my  age,  clerical  rank,  objects  in  coming, 
what  other  countries  I  had  ever  seen,  what  I  saw  and  heard 
among  great  men  at  Ava,  the  condition  of  Burmah,  probable 
successor  to  the  throne,  &c.  He  had  heard,  but  in  a  very  vague 
manner,  of  the  death  of  the  Burman  king,  and  was  delighted  to 
obtain  information  from  one  who  had  so  lately  visited  Ava. 
The  answers  were  all  written  down  by  a  secretary,  and  read  over 
to  him,  to  be  sure  of  their  exactness.  They  were  probably  to  be 
communicated  to  the  king.  Fruits,  sweetmeats,  and  cheroots 
were  frequently  handed,  and  for  drink,  tea  in  little  cups,  and  the 
juice  of  pine-apples  in  flowing  bumpers.  How  dignified, 
rational,  and  virtuous,  such  beverages,  compared  to  the  spirituous 
potations  demanded  by  the  hospitalities  of  more  civilized  races! 
I  found  it  difficult  to  introduce  religious  subjects,  except  to  pre- 
sent him  thanks,  on  behalf  of  our  Board,  for  his  kindness  and 
protection  to  the  missionaries,  which,  though  scanty,  has 
been  valuable  ;  and  to  descant  a  little  on  the  nature  of  true  re- 
ligion, and  the  policy  and  justice  of  free  toleration. 

1  discovered  none  of  that  dislike  of  Burmah,  which  Crawfurd 
mentions  as  so  great,  that  any  allusion  to  that  country  was  a 
breach  of  politeness.  On  the  contrary,  my  having  recently  spent 
several  months  there,  and  seen  "the  great  government  men,"  led 
to  numerous  questions,  not  only  now,  but  at  each  succeeding 
audience. 

At  a  subsequent  visit,  I  saw  my  first  Siamese  acquaintance,  the 
governor  of  Paknam,  submitting  to  the  same  servilities.  Before 
the  king,  this  lordly  Pra  Klang,  himself  and  the  highest  nobles 
creep  as  abject  as  the  poor  slaves  do  here.  With  us,  an  inferior 
stands;  but,  in  Burmah  and  Siam,  he  seats  himself  if  we  stand, 
squats  if  we  sit,  and  leans  down  on  his  elbows  if  we  sit  on 
the  floor.  To  hold  the  head  higher  than  a  superior  or  equal,  is 
an  affront.  Hence,  when  the  servants  bring  in  refreshments,  they 
are  obliged  to  place  the  waiter  on  the  floor,  as  soon  as  they  reach 
the  apartment  where  the  master  and  guests  are,  and  come  in 
crawling  on  their  elbows  and  bellies,  shoving  the  refreshments 
before  them.  I  always  observed  the  attendants  on  the  young 
nobles  walk  about  on  their  knees,  to  avoid  the  elevation  of  their 
heads  above  that  of  the  young  master. 


118  SIAM. 

There  was  less  of  dignity  and  intelligence  displayed  by  Si- 
amese nobles  than  I  met  with  in  those  of  Burmah.  The  mag- 
nitude and  value  of  the  diamonds  and  rubies  I  had  seen  in 
Burmah,  in  what  country  I  had  seen  the  best,  and  the  exact 
size  and  hue  of  the  young  white  elephant  I  had  seen  at  Madras, 
seemed  topics  of  primary  interest !  The  Pra  Klang  produced 
some  of  his  gems,  which  were  indeed  of  astonishing  size  and 
brilliancy.  A  full  band  of  Siamese  music  played,  during  the 
interview,  at  a  little  distance,  in  a  manner  far  from  disagreeable. 

Subsequent  visits  introduced  me  to  Chow  Fah  Noi,  or  his 
royal  highness,  Prince  Momfanoi,  Pra  Nai  Wai,  Pra  Am-ra- 
mo-le,  &c.  The  circumstances  did  not  so  differ  from  those  to 
the  Pra  Klang,  as  to  afford  new  views  of  national  character,  and 
I  therefore  offer  no  description.  One  of  the  present  king's 
sons,  and  other  "nobles,"  as  they  are  called,  visited  the  mission- 
house  during  my  stay,  but  neither  in  dress,  deportment,  intellect, 
or  information,  inspired  the  least  respect.  Mr.  Hunter,  the  only 
European  merchant  in  Siam,  offered  to  introduce  me  to  the 
king  ;  but  for  various  reasons  I  thought  it  inexpedient. 

Chow  Fah  Noi  is  the  probable  successor  to  the  tin-one ;  and  in 
fact  is  now  entitled  to  it,  rather  than  the  present  monarch,  who 
is  an  illegitimate  son.  Should  he  assume  the  government,  Siam 
must  advance  from  her  present  lowliness  and  semi-civilization. 
No  man  in  the  kingdom  is  so  qualified  to  govern  well.  His 
naturally  fine  mind  is  enlarged  and  improved  by  intercourse 
with  foreigners,  by  the  perusal  of  English  works,  by  studying 
Euclid  and  Newton,  by  freeing  himself  from  a  bigoted  attach- 
ment to  Boodhism,  by  candidly  recognizing  our  superiority,  and 
a  readiness  to  adopt  our  arts.  He  understands  the  use  of  the 
sextant  and  chronometer,  and  was  anxious  for  the  latest  nautical 
almanac,  which  I  promised  to  send  him. 
His  little  daughters,  accustomed  to  the  sight 
of  foreigners,  so  far  from  showing  any  signs 
of  fear,  always  came  to  sit  upon  my  lap, 
though  the  yellow  cosmetic  on  their  limbs 
was  sure  to  be  transferred  in  part  to  my 
dress.  One  of  them  took  pride  in  repeating 
to  me  a  few  words  of  English,  and  the  other 
took  care  to  display  her  power  of  projecting 
the  elbow  forward.  This  singular  custom, 
as  has  been  mentioned,  prevails  in  Burmah, 
i*d7  silting.  and  is  deemed  very  genteel. 

Pra  Nai  Wai  (or  Koon  Sit,  as  his  late  title 


PRESENT  OF  AN  ELEPHANT  —  OF  A  SLAVE  BOY.      119 

was)  is  son  of  the  Pra  Klaug,  and  resembles  Chow  Fall  in 
many  points,  both  of  character  and  attainments,  but  does  not 
speak  English  so  well.  They  are  intimate  friends,  and  will 
probably  rise  together.  His  influence  must  prove  auspicious  to 
the  best  interests  of  his  country. 

Pra  Amramole  is  superior  of  .a  principal  monastery,  and 
finishes  the  list  of  Siamese  who  understand  English.  Gutzlaff 
speaks  much  of  him,  in  his  journal,  as  his  "pupil."  He  reads 
English,  but  does  not  speak  it,  and  has,  hi  addition  to  the  exten- 
sive and  costly  library  of  his  institution,  many  good  English 
books,  maps,  &c.  I  greatly  admired  his  pure  and  simple  man- 
ners, and  extraordinary  good  sense.  His  knowledge  of  the 
system  of  Christianity  is  not  small.  He  has  read  our  Scriptures, 
and  heard  much  of  them  explained  and  enforced  by  Gutzlaff, 
Jones,  and  others  ;  but,  alas !  he  remains  a  heathen. 

None  of  these  distinguished  personages  manifested  any  other 
than  the  most  friendly  feelings.  On  making  my  farewell  visit 
to  the  Pra  Klang,  I  noticed  some  slaves  pushing  a  young  ele- 
phant through  the  gate  into  the  yard  in  front  of  the  audience- 
hall.  He  was  just  weaned,  and  came  reluctantly,  but  gently,  into 
the  midst  of  the  prostrate  crowd,  manifesting  no  dislike  to  the 
strange  costume  of  Mr.  Jones  and  myself.  When  I  had  caressed 
him  a  moment,  and  admired  his  smooth,  glossy  skin,  I  was  told 
that  he  was  a  present  for  me  !  What  could  I  do?  The  vessel 
had  dropped  down,  and  passed  the  bar,  and  it  was  too  late  now 
to  get  water  or  provisions  for  such  a  passenger.  Fearful  of  giv- 
ing offence,  by  refusing  so  great  an  honor,  (for  only  nobles  are 
allowed  to  own  and  use  elephants,)  I  showed  why  it  was  not  now 
convenient  to  take  him,  and  begged  that  they  would  give  me 
instead,  an  ankus,  or  elephant-hook,  such  as  is  used  in  Siam. 
The  poor  little  elephant  was  accordingly  withdrawn,  and  the 
hook  sent  to  my  boat.  I  brought  it  home  as  a  keepsake  and 
curiosity.  But  it  is  a  ferocious  instrument.  The  iron  head  or 
hook  weighs  four  and  a  quarter  pounds,  fastened  to  a  handle 
of  very  heavy  wood,  about  four  feet  long.  A  blow  might 
be  struck  with  such  an  instrument,  which  would  break  any 
elephant's  skull. 

The  most  interesting  gift  was  a  slave  boy,  about  fifteen  years 
of  age,  brought  from  Cochin-China,  a  prisoner  of  war.  The 
king  had  given  him,  with  others,  to  Pra  Nai  Wai,  who,  finding 
him  to  be  a  boy  of  uncommon  cleverness,  had  lent  him  to  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Jones,  that  he  might  learn  English.  Having  noticed 
him  in  that  family,  and  hoping  that  he  might,  at  some  future  day, 


120  SIAM. 

carry  the  gospel  to  Cochin-China,  or  at  least  prove  a  blessing  to 
Siam,  I  asked  the  prince,  his  master,  to  set  him  free,  that  he 
might  return  with  me  to  America,  and  receive  a  trade  and  edu- 
cation. He  chose  not  to  set  him  free,  lest  it  might  offend  the 
king,  but  gave  him  to  me  before  witnesses.  After  accompanying 
me  to  Singapore,  Malacca,  and  China,  he  came  home  with  me  to 
the  United  States,  and  is  now  engaged  in  acquiring  the  trade  of 
a  carpenter.  If  it  should  hereafter  seem  proper,  he  will  be  sent 
to  an  academy  a  few  years,  before  he  returns  to  Bankok. 

Few  places  have  their  population  so  variously  estimated  as 
Bankok.  Gutzlaff  makes  it  410,000;  a  writer  in  the  Singapore 
Chronicle,  150,000 ;  Crawfurd,  very  trustworthy  in  his  statistics, 
50,000 ;  Hamilton,  from  30,000  to  40,000.  Mr,  Tomlin  makes 
the  whole  Siamese  population  8,000 ;  but  Mr.  Abeel  computes 
the  priests  alone  at  10,000.  I  took  some  pains  on  the  subject, 
inquiring  of  the  chief  men,  counting  the  houses  in  some  sec- 
tions, ascertaining  the  real  number  of  priests,  &c,  and  am  of 
opinion  that  the  city  and  immediate  suburbs  contain  at  the 
most  about  100,000  souls.  Within  the  walls  there  cannot  be 
more  than  3,000  or  4,000  people.  The  350,000  Chinese,  which 
have,  by  Gutzlaff  and  others,  been  set  down  to  Bankok,  I  was 
assured  by  several  of  the  princes,  is  the  sum  of  all  such  resi- 
dents in  the  kingdom.     In  the  city  and  vicinity  are  probably, 

Chinese  and  descendants 60,000 

Siamese 30,000 

Cochin-Chinese,   Peguans,   Tavoyers,   Malays, 

Portuguese,  &c, 10,000 


100,000 


There  is,  however,  no  mode  of  ascertaining  the  true  census, 
and  every  traveller  will  make  his  own  guess. 

The  number  of  Chinamen  increases,  though  a  large  part  of 
them  go  back  to  their  country  after  a  few  years.  Loubiere,  who 
visited  Siam  in  1677,  estimated  all  the  Chinese  then  in  the 
country  at  3,000  or  4,000.  The  price  of  their  passage  is  but  six 
or  eight  dollars,  and  it  is  thought  that  1000  emigrants  arrive 
annually.  The  variety  of  their  dialects  drive  them  to  clan-like 
associations,  which  not  only  keep  them  reserved  and  cold  toward 
each  other,  but  often  engage  them  in  injurious  animosities.  The 
three  principal  classes  speak  respectively  the  Mandareen,  Can- 
ton, and  Tay-chew  dialects;  the  latter  being  much  the  most 
numerous. 


POLICE CLIMATE.  121 

The  city  has  no  mayor,  and  little  police  of  any  kind.  Each 
great  man  exercises  supreme  power  over  his  slaves,  which  often 
amount  to  several  thousand.  Each  class  of  foreigners  have  their 
head  man,  before  whom  causes  are  heard.  There  is  little  liti- 
gation among  Siamese.  No  one  dare  carry  a  complaint  to  a 
ruler  without  a  bribe  ;  and  most  persons  choose  rather  to  suffer 
indignities  and  injuries,  than  complain.  Gambling  prevails  to  a 
frightful  extent,  especially  among  the  Chinese.  The  licensing 
and  management  of  the  "  hells "  is  farmed  out  by  govern- 
ment to  an  individual,  who  is  said  to  pay  about  thirty-three 
thousand  dollars  per  annum  for  the  privilege.  He  generally 
grows  rich  on  his  bargain,  though  his  income  is  only  an  eighth 
of  all  sums  won.  Opium-smoking  is  very  common,  and  the 
practice  increasing. 

The  climate  of  Bankok  may  be  called  hot,  but  as  pleasant 
and  salubrious,  probably,  as  almost  any  city  in  the  East.  The 
suite  of  Mr.  Crawfurd,  when  here  as  English  ambassador, 
amounted  to  a  hundred  and  thirty  persons.  They  were  very 
inconveniently  lodged ;  and  their  stay  was  during  the  four  worst 
months  of  the  year ;  yet  no  death,  or  even  indisposition,  oc- 
curred, except  a  casualty. 

November,  December,  January,  and  February,  are  the  winter 
months.  March,  April,  and  May,  are  hot.  The  rains  begin  the 
last  of  May,  and  continue  through  September,  and  occasionally 
till  the  beginning  of  November.  Even  in  the  height  of  the  wet 
season,  it  seldom  rains  so  much  and  so  long,  as  to  be  tedious. 
In  the  beginning  and  close  of  the  season,  most  of  every  day  is 
fine,  and  often  several  days  successively.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
very  pleasant  part  of  the  year.  The  following  is  an  abstract 
from  a  register  kept  for  one  year  by  Dr.  Bradley :  — 

Cool  Season. 

Mean  temperature  of  November. 79.51. 

"  "  "   December 77.83. 

«  «  «    January 79.86. 

«  "  "    Februaiy 80.77. 

"  «  "    Cool  season 78.99. 

Hot  Season. 

Mean  temperature  of  March 84.38. 

"  ■  "    April 86.33. 

"  "  "   May 84.58. 

«  "  "    Hot  season 85.09. 

VOL.    II.  11 


122  SIAM. 

Wet  Season. 

Mean  temperature  of  June 84.78. 

"  "  "    July 83.76. 

"  "  "    August 84.02. 

"  "  "    September 83.62. 

"  "  "    October 83.29. 

"  "  "    Wet  season 83.95. 

Mean  temperature  of  the  Year 82.57. 

Mean  range  of  thermometer,  about  13°. 

The  sacred  places  in  Bankok  are  called  Wats.  They  consist 
of  a  spacious  grove,  containing  pagodas,  temples,  image-houses, 
dwellings  for  the  priests,  and  various  minor  structures  used 
in  particular  observances.  The  pagodas  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  those  of  Burmah,  but  are  smaller  and  less  numerous/  The 
priests'  residences  are  generally  less  sumptuous  than  those  of 
Ava,  but  are  oftener  built  of  brick,  and  have  tiled  roofs.  I  saw- 
some  not  only  well  furnished,  but  elegant ;  and  as  imposing  as 
carving  and  gilding,  in  bad  taste,  can  make  them. 

In  and  around  Bankok  are  more  than  a  hundred  Wats,  occu- 
pying all  the  best  locations.  As  some  of  them  embrace  several 
acres,  they  cover  no  small  part  of  the  site  of  the  city,  and  are 
the  only  pleasant  parts  of  it.  Paved  and  shady  walks,  clean 
courts,  and  fragrant  shrubberies,  form  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
vile  odors,  rude  paths,  and  spreading  mud,  encountered  every 
where  else.  The  style  of  building  and  decoration  is,  in  all, 
more  or  less  Chinese  ;  but  generally  with  incongruous  additions 
of  Portuguese,  Siamese,  or  Peguan  artists.  Griffins,  balustrades, 
granite  flagging,  &c,  imported  from  China,  are  found  in  the  best 
Wats.  Most  of  the  buildings  are  of  brick,  plastered  on  the 
outside,  and  wrought  into  an  absurd  mosaic,  with  Chinese  and 
Liverpool  cups,  plates  and  dishes  of  all  sizes,  broken  and  whole, 
so  set  in  as  to  form  flowers  and  figures!  A  more  grotesque 
mosaic  there  could  not  be. 

One  trace  of  Egyptian  architecture  is  universally  found,  both 
in  sacred  structures  and  private  ;  viz.,  in  the  tapering  shape 
of  doors  and  windows.  Pagodas  here,  as  elsewhere,  are  plainly 
of  the  family  of  the  pyramids.  The  Burmans  make  stupendous 
pagodas  and  monasteries,  while  the  image-houses  and  zayats  are 
comparatively  small,  and  often  trifling.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Siamese  construct  trifling  pagodas,  and  small  and  detached 
priests'  houses,  and  bestow  their  wealth  and  labor  in  erecting 


BANKOK  —  SOMONA  CODOM.  123 

vast  image-houses  or  temples.  These  are  made  beautiful  to 
Siamese  taste,  by  pillars,  gilding,  historical  paintings,  and  Chinese 
tinsel.  If  ever  Christianity  become  prevalent  in  this  country, 
it  will  fold  in  these  structures  an  ample  supply  of  churches. 

One  cannot  avoid  contrasting  the  size  and  costliness  of  the 
sacred  edifices  with  the  meanness  of  the  city  in  other  respects. 
The  houses  are  small  and  rude,  and  the  streets  in  general  nothing 
more  than  foot-paths,  overgrown  with  bushes,  bamboos,  and 
palms.  Every  species  of  filth  and  offal  is  thrown  among  these 
bushes;  and  the  state  of  the  air  maybe  supposed.  Every  few 
rods,  a  canal  or  ditch  is  to  be  crossed ;  and  a  log,  or  plank  or 
two,  without  a  handrail,  is  generally  the  only  bridge;  those 
of  the  principal  thoroughfares  are  better,  but  none  are  good 
or  neat.  Of  the  numerous  canals,  not  one  is  walled  up  or 
planked,  except  sometimes  to  secure  a  Wat.  Most  of  them 
are  left  bare  at  half-tide,  presenting  a  loathsome  slime, 
and  filling  the  air  with  stench,  beside  being  useless  half  the 
time.  Not  an  effort  seems  to  be  made  by  the  authorities  to 
improve  the  city.  Hindus  make  tanks,  wells,  bridges,  and 
choultries  for  the  public  good ;  but  no  such  efforts  are  known 
in  Siam.  Such  works  are  so  much  less  meritorious,  according 
to  Boodhism,  than  the  erection  of  sacred  edifices  and  supporting 
priests,  that  private  munificence  is  led  by  superstition  thus  to 
expend  itself;  and  the  rulers  are  too  selfish  to  supply  the 
deficiency. 

Several  writers  speak  of  the  Siamese  worshipping  a  god  called 
Somona  Kodom.  Among  others  is  Finlayson,  who  attempts  to 
translate  the  name,  and  says,  "  The  founder  of  the  Siamese  re- 
ligion has  various  names,  one  of  which  is  Somona  Codom,  that  is, 
' He  ivho  steals  cattle' ": '!  How  he  got  this  interpretation  he  does 
not  say.  The  American  ambassador,  Roberts,  adopts  the 
same  mistake.  He  says,  "  Somona  Kodom,  the  cattle-stealer,  a 
Singalese,  was  the  missionary  who  first  propagated  this  religion 
in  these  parts " !  Somona  Codom  is  but  another  name  for 
Gaudama;  and  the  Siamese  have  no  other  deity.  Their  lan- 
guage having  no  letter  g,  c  is  substituted ;  and,  as  final  vowels 
are  generally  omitted,  Gaudama  becomes  Caudam,  or  Codom. 
Somona  is  merely  a  title,  and  means  "priest"  —  the  priest 
Codom.  In  the  word  Boodka,  they  change  b  into  p,  and  d  into 
t,  making  it  Pootah,  or  P-hida.  They  generally  write  it  Pra 
Pootah  Chow,  or  the  "  Lord  God  Boodh." 

The  Siamese  call  themselves  Tai, (pronounced  tie;)  the  Shyans 


124  SIAM. 

they  call  Tai-Yai,  or  "  the  Great  Tai."  By  the  Burmans,  Siam  is 
called  Yudia,  from  the  name  of  the  former  metropolis,  and  the 
people  they  call  Yudia  Shyan,  or  Yudias.  The  Asamese,  the 
Shyans,  and  the  Siamese  evidently  spring  from  a  common  stock; 
the  Shyans  probably  being  the  parent.  Their  existence,  as  an 
independent  people,  is  probably  of  no  very  ancient  date.  They 
have  histoiy,  carrying  back  its  dates  to  the  time  of  Somona 
Codom,  B.  C.  544 ;  but  their  credible  records  reach  only  to  about 
1350,  at  which  time  Ayutliia,  the  old  capital,  seems  to  have  been 
founded.  Before  this,  their  capital  was  Lakontai,  in  the  Laos 
country.  They  seem  to  have  been  at  one  time  subject  to  Cam- 
boja,  as  is  declared  in  the  records  of  that  country.  The  fact 
that  the  Cambojan  language  was  once  that  of  the  court,  and  re- 
mains so  to  a  considerable  extent,  tends  to  confirm  this  position. 

The  region  of  Siam  seems  to  have  been  known  to  the  early 
Romans.  There  are  good  reasons  for  supposing  it  to  be  the 
country  called  Sina,  by  Ptolemy  and  Cosmas ;  though  that  term 
may  include  also  Camboja  and  China. 

The  first  notice  of  Siam,  by  European  writers,  is  an  account 
of  an  overland  expedition  against  Malacca  in  1502.  Crawfurd 
states  that,  from  1567  to  1596,  Siam  was  subject  to  Burmah.  In 
1612,  an  English  ship  ascended  the  river  to  A-yut-hia,  then  the 
metropolis.  Nine  years  afterward,  the  Franciscans  and  Domini- 
cans introduced  Popery.  In  1683,  Phaulcon,  an  enterprising 
Greek,  became  prime  minister,  and  introduced  a  respect  for 
European  customs  and  nations ;  but  was  cut  off  before  he  had 
accomplished  any  great  improvements  in  society.  In  1687,  the 
misconduct  of  some  English  merchants,  at  Mergui,  ended  in 
their  being  massacred ;  and  in  the  following  year,  some  which 
had  settled  at  Ayuthia  were  expelled  the  kingdom.  Contests 
for  the  throne  distracted  the  country  from  1690  till  1759 ;  and 
during  this  interval,  viz.  about  1750,  Alompra,  the  victorious 
founder  of  the  present  Burman  dynasty,  seized  Mergui,  Tavoy, 
and  Martaban,  and  overran  the  whole  valley  of  the  Meinam. 
During  the  war,  some  of  the  principal  citizens  moved  to 
Chantabon,  a  province  on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and 
thus  escaped  the  presence  and  exactions  of  the  Burman  armies. 
Among  these  was  Pye-ya-tak,  son  of  a  wealthy  Chinaman  by  a 
native  woman,  who  gradually  gathered  followers,  and  made 
successful  resistance  to  the  new  dynasty,  till,  at  length,  he  drove 
the  Burmans  from  the  country,  and  assumed  the  .throne.  With 
a  view  to  commerce,  he  made  Bankok  the  metropolis,  instead  of 
Ayuthia,  and,  after  a  successful  reign,  died  in  1782. 


POPULATION PERSONAL    APPEARANCE.  125 

The  kingdom  is  now  larger  and  in  a  better  state  than  ever 
before.  The  Tenasserim  provinces  are  indeed  lost ;  but  it  has 
acquired  Keda,  Patani,  Ligore,  and  most  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 
It  has  recently  acquired  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  fertile 
sections  of  Camboja;  embracing  the  rich  province  of  Bata-bang. 
The  present  boundary,  in  that  direction,  is  on  the  Camboja  River, 
extending  from  about  lat.  12°  to  14°  north.  Including  the  dis- 
tricts just  named,  Siam  extends  from  7°  to  19°  of  north  latitude, 
bounded  by  the  Tenasserim  provinces  on  the  west,  Burman  Lao 
and  China  on  the  north,  Cochin-China  on  the  east,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Siam  on  the  south.  The  extreme  length  is  about  eight  hun- 
dred miles,  and  the  average  breadth  about  one  hundred. 

The  population  of  Siam  is  probably  about  3,000,000.  Of 
these  about  800,000  are  Shyans,  195,000  Malays,  and  450,000 
Chinese,  leaving  the  number  of  proper  Siamese  1,500,000. 

In  1750,  the  whole  population  was  computed  by  the  French 
missionaries  at  1,900,000.  Our  late  ambassador  to  Siam,  Mr. 
Roberts,  estimates  the  proper  Siamese  at  1,600,000;  Siamese 
Laos,  1,200,000 ;  Chinese,  500,000 ;  Malays,  320,000. 

The  country  is  described  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  as  one  of  the  most 
fertile  in  Asia;  and  by  the  Encyclopaedia  Americana  as  very 
mountainous.  Both  statements  are  true  in  part.  The  Meinam 
valley,  no  where  over  fifty  miles  wide,  the  district  of  Chantabon, 
recently  taken  from  Camboja,  and  some  other  level  spots,  are 
exceedingly  productive.  But  most  of  the  empire  is  mountainous, 
poor,  and  scarcely  inhabited. 

In  personal  appearance,  they  come  behind  any  nation  I  have 
yet  seen,  especially  the  women.  Among  the  thousands  of  these 
that  came  under  my  notice,  I  never  saw  one  who  was  comely. 
The  men  are  often  good  looking.  The  national  characteristics 
seem  to  be  a  broad  and  flat  face,  long  and  square  lower  jaw, 
large  mouth,  thick  lips,  small  nose,  forehead  very  broad  and 
low,  cheek  bones  prominent.  A  striking  peculiarity  is  the  size 
of  the  back  part  of  the  jaw,  the  bone  and  flesh  projecting  laterally, 
as  if  the  parotid  glands  were  swollen.  The  average  height  of  the 
men  is  five  feet,  two  inches.  Both  sexes  wear  the  hair  close, 
except  on  the  top  of  the  head,  from  the  forehead  to  the  crown, 
where  it  is  about  two  inches  long,  and,  being  kept  stroked  back, 
stands  erect.  The  rest  is  kept  shaved  by  men,  and  cut  pretty 
close  by  women.  As  the  shaving  is  not  often  done,  it  is  gener- 
ally difficult  to  tell  a  man  from  a  woman.  The  principal  mark 
is,  that  a  woman  has  a  line  round  the  edge  of  the  top-knot,  made 
by  plucking  out  a  breadth  of  two  or  three  hairs,  so  as  to  show 
11* 


126 


the  white  skin,  as  in  the  picture.  Only  those  who  are  nice  about 
their  persons,  however,  take  this  trouble. 
Roberts  declares,  in  his  Embassy  to  the 
East,  that  he  never  could  tell  a  man 
from  a  woman,  when  numbers  were 
seated  together. 

The  raiment  of  both  sexes  is  alike; 
consisting  of  a  cloth,  wrapped  round  the 
hips,  with  the  eud  passed  between  the 
thighs,  and  tucked  in  at  the  small  of  the 
back.  It  descends  below  the  knees,  and 
is  generally  of  printed  cotton.  At  a 
distance,  it  resembles  trousers.  Young 
women,  and  those  of  the  richer  sort, 
wear  also  a  narrow  kerchief,  or  scarf) 
crossed  on  the  breast,  and  passing  under 
the  arms,  as  in  the  figure. 
Unlike  most  Asiatics,  the  Siamese  re- 
ject ornaments  in  the  nose  or  ears,  but  are  fond  of  bangles, 
bracelets,  necklaces,  and  finger-rings.  Turbans  are  not  used; 
but  in  the  sun,  a  light  hat,  made  of  palm-leaves,  precisely  in  the 
shape  of  a  large  inverted  milk-pan,  is  set  upon  the  head  by  an 
elastic  bamboo  frame,  which  holds  it  up  several  inches,  and 
permits  the  air  to  pass  between.  Neither  sex  tattoo  any  part 
of  their  bodies,  deeming  it  a  mark  of  barbarism.  The  universal 
mode  of  carrying  small  children,  as  in  every  other  part  of  the 
East  visited  by  me,  is  astride  on  the  hip,  as  shown  in  the  picture. 
It  certainly  is  more  easy  thus  to  carry  a  heavy  child  than  in  the 
arms,  at  least  when  the  infant  is  divested  of  all  raiment. 

Play-acting,  cock-fighting,  and  flying  kites,  are  prominent 
amusements.  In  the  two  latter,  princes  and  priests,  both  old 
and  young,  engage  with  delight.  They  have  also  a  small  pug- 
nacious species  of  fish,  the  fighting  of  which  is  a  very  admired 
pastime. 


Siamese    Woman. 


In  regard  to  buildings,  food,  agriculture,  education,  literature, 
medical  practice,  priesthood,  religion,  crimes,  punishments,  gov- 
ernment, laws,  marriage,  divorce,  burial,  and  many  other  topics, 
the  statements  made  respecting  Burmah  apply  so  nearly  as  to 
make  further  remarks,  in  this  place,  unnecessary. 

They  have  no  standing  army,  but  every  able-bodied  male  is 
liable  at  any  time  to  be  called  into  the  field,  by  the  mere  will  of 
his  chief.     The  king  has,  for  a  good  many  years,  made  large 


A  RMY NA  V  Y  —  C  OMMERCE.  127 

annual  purchases  of  muskets,  which  must  amount  now  to  more 
than  eighty  thousand  stand.  Of  cannon  they  have  plenty.  They 
make  good  brass  cannon,  some  of  them  very  large,  but  seldom 
have  proper  carriages.  At  Bankok  there  is  the  semblance  of  a 
respectable  navy,  consisting  of  scores  of  war  junks,  galleys,  and 
other  vessels  of  various  sizes,  built  on  the  Cochin-Chinese  model, 
and  mounting  heavy  guns.  But  the  Siamese  are  no  sailors  ;  and 
when  brought  into  service,  these  vessels  are  manned  by  the 
promiscuous  populace,  and  officered  by  Chinese  or  other  for- 
eigners. No  crews  are  now  attached  to  their  vessels,  and  they 
stand  in  rude  wet  docks,  covered  by  regular  ship-houses,  as  in 
our  navy-yards. 

The  commerce  of  Siam  has  narrowly  escaped  the  fate  of  that 
of  Tringano,  Patani,  &c.  Hamilton  states  that  he  visited  Siam 
in  1719,  "  on  the  foundation  of  a  treaty  of  commerce,  made  in 
1684,  between  King  Charles  and  the  King  of  Siam's  ambassadors 
in  London."  His  ship  went  up  to  Ayuthia,  leaving  the  guns 
"  at  Bankok,  a  castle  about  half  way  up  the  river."  The  Dutch 
trade  must  even  then  have  been  considerable,  as  they  had  a 
factory  about  a  mile  below  Ayuthia,  and  a  resident  company  of 
merchants.  It  appears  that,  long  previous  to  the  said  treaty  with 
England,  some  British  merchants  had  a  factory  near  Ayuthia ;  but 
a  quarrel  with  the  governor,  who  commanded  in  1084,  resulted 
in  their  expulsion,  and  only  within  about  twenty  years  has  that 
trade  regularly  recommenced.  American,  Dutch,  and  Bombay 
vessels  now  resort  to  Bankok ;  and  though  the  trade  is  not  likely 
soon  to  be  large  or  important,  it  will  probably  be  steady.  A  new 
treaty  of  commerce  was  made  with  England  in  1826,  and  another 
with  the  United  States  in  1833. 

The  number  of  Chinese  junks,  regularly  trading  to  this  city, 
cannot  be  less  than  two  hundred  annually.  Many  of  them  are 
of  five  or  six  hundred  tons,  and  some  are  not  less  than  a  thou- 
sand. Thirty  or  more  trade  to  Canton  and  vicinity;  nearly 
as  many  are  from  Hainan ;  and  the  rest  from  other  places. 
Seventy  or  eighty  sometimes  lie  in  the  river  at  a  time.  Some  of 
these  vessels  are  owned  by  Siamese,  and  still  more  by  Chinamen, 
residing  in  Bankok;  but  the  crews  are  never  Siamese.  None 
of  the  larger  ones  make  more  than  one  voyage  a  year ;  going  in 
one  monsoon,  and  returning  in  the  other.  Most  of  them  arrive 
in  December  and  January,  and  depart  in  May  and  June.  Nu- 
merous prows  and  small  junks  keep  up  a  constant  intercourse 
with  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  principal  neighboring 


128  SIAM. 

islands.*  Two  or  three  Siamese  ships,  built  on  the  European 
model,  trade  to  Singapore.  Cochin-Chinese  vessels  were  former- 
ly numerous ;  but  the  late  war  has  suppressed  that  trade,  for  a 
tune  at  least.  An  artificial  canal,  kept  in  good  order,  connected 
with  the  Camboja  River,  brings  some  trade  from  that  direction. 
Baukok  has  certainly  the  largest  commerce,  next  to  Canton,  of 
any  place  in  the  world,  not  inhabited  by  white  men. 

During  the  presence  of  the  junks  in  the  river,  the  city  ex- 
hibits a  very  active  scene  of  buying  and  selling ;  many  of  them 
retailing  their  cargo  from  the  vessel.  The  shops  furnish,  at  all 
times,  almost  every  article  demanded  by  European  or  Indian 
customs. 

The  total  value  of  exports  per  annum  from  Bankok,  is  not  less 
than  five  millions  of  dollars.  The  chief  articles  are  sugar,  sapan 
wood,  tin,  timber,  rice,  stick-lac,  gamboge,  benzoin,f  ivory,  pepper, 
and  cotton  ;  and  small  quantities  of  betel-nut,  dried  fish,  lead, 
gold,  silver,  gems,  tombac,!  shagreen  skins,  and  buffalo  horns. 
The  export  price  of  sugar  is  about  four  cents  a  pound. 

The  imports  are  arms,  ammunition,  anchors,  piece  goods, 
cutlery,  crockery,  mirrors,  and  many  other  productions  for  Euro- 
pean, Chinese,  aud  other  foreign  consumption. 

Sugar,  the  principal  export,  is  wholly  made  by  Chinamen,  and 
most  of  the  other  staples  are  the  fruits  of  their  industry.  In- 
deed, to  these  emigrants  Siam  owes  much  of  what  elevates  her 
from  among  barbarians ;  not  only  in  commerce,  manufactures, 
and  improved  husbandly,  but  in  domestic  habits. 

The  Siamese  have  coined  money,  but  use  cowries  for  veiy 
small  change.  The  coins  are  merely  a  small  bar  of  silver,  turned 
in  at  the  ends,  so  as  to  resemble  a  bullet,  and  stamped  with  a 
small  die  on  one  side. 

400  Cowries  make 1  P'hai. 

2  P'hai 1  Songp'hai. 

2  Songphais 1  Fuang. 

2  Fuangs 1  Saloong. 

4  Saloongs 1  Bat  or  tical. 

4  Ticals 1  Tamloong. 

20  Tamloongs 1  Chang. 

*  The  chief  of  these  are,  on  the  eastern  shore,  Banplasoi,  Banpakung, 
Banpra,  Banpomung,  Rayong-Passeh,  Chantabon,  and  Kokung ;  and  on  the 
western  side,  Ligore,  Sangora,  Champon,  Kalantan,  Tringano,  Talung, 
Patani,  and  Pahang. 

t  Crude  frankincense,  sometimes  called  Benjamin. 

j:  Native  copper  with  a  small  mixture  of  gold. 


PRICES    OF    LIVING FRUITS CHARACTER.  129 

The  two  last  are  nominal.  They  sometimes  have  a  gold  fuang, 
equal  to  eight  ticals.  The  tical,  assayed  at  the  mint  of  Cal- 
cutta, yielded  about  one  rupee,  three  and  a  half  annas,  equal  to 
2s.  6d.  sterling,  or  about  sixty  cents  of  American  money. 

For  weights  they  use  the  catty  and  picul.  The  catty  is  double 
that  of  the  Chinese,  but  the  picul  is  the  same. 

Living  is  not  dear,  as  the  following  prices  show :  —  Servants 
wages,  per  month,  $3 ;  fuel,  five  hundred  small  sticks  for  $1 ; 
fowls,  each,  5  to  10  cents ;  ducks,  each,  10  to  15  cents ;  pork, 
per  pound,  7  to  8  cents ;  butter  (made  in  the  family  ;)  lard,  same 
price  as  pork ;  oil,  for  lamps  and  cooking,  per  gallon,  30  to  40 
cents ;  rice,  per  pound,  1  cent ;  milk,  per  quart,  8  to  10  cents ; 
sugar,  per  pound,  5  cents ;  tea,  per  pound,  30  to  40  cents ; 
pine-apples,  per  hundred,  70  to  100  cents;  oranges,  per  hun- 
dred, 30  to  60  cents;  coco-nuts,  for  curry,  per  hundred,  18  to 
30  cents ;  common  laborers,  per  month,  $1,50. 

No  part  of  the  East  is  more  celebrated  for  the  abundance  and 
quality  of  its  fruits.  Here  are  united  the  fruits  of  China,  the 
Indian  islands,  Hither  India,  and  tropical  America.  During 
my  stay,  the  mango,  mangosteen,  durian,  rambutan,  pomegran- 
ate, guava,  pine-apple,  and,  I  presume,  fifty  other  fruits,  were 
in  season.  About  taste  there  is  no  disputing.  Many  Europeans 
disparage  Oriental  fruits ;  but  I  deem  them  incomparably  supe- 
rior to  those  of  high  latitudes,  to  say  nothing  of  then  vast  variety, 
and  their  being  enjoyed  every  day  in  the  year. 

I  learned  nothing,  during  my  seven  weeks'  residence  in  Siam, 
to  induce  me  to  dissent  from  the  character  hitherto  given  to  this 
people  by  all  travellers.  They  are  crafty,  mean,  ignorant,  con- 
ceited, slothful,  servile,  rapacious,  and  cruel.  As  to  truth,  "  the 
way  of  it  is  not  known."  No  one  blushes  at  being  detected  in  a 
fraud,  or  a  falsehood,  and  few  seem  superior  to  a  bribe.  Quar- 
rels are  common  ;  but  as  no  one  is  allowed  to  go  armed,  they 
seldom  result  in  mischief.  They  are  cowardly,  and  shrink  from 
an  air  of  resolution  in  a  foreigner.  The  Abbe  Gervaise  said  of 
them,  a  century  ago,  that,  "  though  as  enemies  they  are  not  dan- 
gerous, as  friends  they  cannot  be  trusted." 

But  "  God  made  man  upright,"  and  the  fall  has  not  obliterated 
all  semblance  of  good  from  any  portion  of  the  human  race.  The 
Siamese  have  some  redeeming  traits.  They  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  their  offspring,  and  cherish  reverence  to  parents  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  Chinese.  They  are  temperate,  inquisitive, 
and,  except  on  great  provocation,  gentle.     Women  are  not  re- 


130  SI  AM. 

duced,  on  the  whole,  below  their  proper  level ;  for,  though  cus- 
tom forbids  them  to  rank  with  men  in  some  tilings,  yet  in  others 
they  are  allowed  an  influence  greater  than  is  accorded  them  with 
us.  They  are  always  their  husbands'  cash-keepers :  they  do 
most  of  the  buying  and  selling ;  and  are  not  made  to  share  as 
largely  in  laborious  drudgery  as  in  most  countries  of  Europe. 

The  Siamese  are  certainly  a  grade  lower  in  civilization  than 
the  Burmans.  They  make  none  of  those  beautiful  cottons  and 
silks  which  the  Burmans  wear,  and  are  destitute  of  several  other 
arts  and  handicrafts  common  in  that  country.  For  utensils  of 
brass,  iron,  and  porcelain,  and  almost  every  prevailing  luxury, 
they  depend  on  China.  Even  the  coarse  brown  pottery  is 
made  chiefly  by  Peguans.  Malte-Brun  mistakes  in  attributing 
to  them  skill  in  jewelry  and  miniature  painting.  In  the  first  they 
are  more  clumsy  than  Burmans,  and  in  the  second  horrible. 

Still  the  Siamese  are  much  above  the  semi-barbarians  of  the 
Malay  states,  and  the  islands  of  the  adjacent  seas.  They  pro- 
duce a  surplus  of  sundry  articles  for  exportation,  and  they  have 
an  important  and  well-conducted  foreign  commerce.  Their 
religious  edifices  show  surplus  resources  in  subsistence  and 
labor,  which  barbarous  tribes  never  possess.  The  government, 
though  despotic  and  ill  arranged,  is  regular  and  firm,  conferring 
many  advantages  upon  society.  In  music,  they  use  the  same 
instruments  as  the  Burmans,  and  excel  even  the  Javanese.  I 
have  often  listened  with  pleasure  both  to  single  instruments  and 
full  bands.  Their  houses,  dress,  habits,  and  entire  condition  of 
the  nation,  are  those  of  a  people  far  above  the  rudest  forms  of 
human  society.  Such  considerations  as  these  give  them  a  digni- 
fied position  in  the  grade  of  nations,  and  will  give  momentum 
to  their  influence  in  behalf  of  Christianity,  when  they  shall 
have  "  turned  to  the  Lord." 

Slavery  prevails  in  Siam.  Many  chiefs  have  hundreds,  and 
some  of  them  thousands.  In  war,  the  chief  objects  are  prisoners 
and  plunder.  They  have  almost  depopulated  some  conquered 
districts,  to  bring  the  people  to  Siam.  Around  Bankok  are 
whole  villages  of  Peguans  and  others  taken  in  war.  Their 
national  history  mentioned  above,  states  that  in  one  of  the  wars 
with  the  Shyans  of  Zemmai,  they  took  120,000  captives. 

At  all  times,  a  slave-trade  is  carried  on  along  the  Burman 
frontier,  by  wild  tribes,  who  find  a  ready  market  for  any 
Burmans  or  Karens  they  may  catch.  Persons  are  daily  sold 
into  hopeless  slavery  by  their  creditors,  for,  once  sold,  they  have 


SLAVERY STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LANGUAGE.         131 

no  means  of  paying  the  debt  but  by  getting  a  new  master.  Men 
may  sell  their  wives,  parents,  and  children,  at  pleasure ;  and 
often  sell  themselves. 

How  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  are  slaves,  no  one  could 
help  me  to  guess.  It  is  probably  much  greater  in  and  around 
the  metropolis  than  elsewhere.  With  many  of  those  kept  about 
the  person  of  the  master,  the  slavery  is  almost  nominal ;  but  in 
most  cases  it  is  severe.  A  common  custom  is  for  the  master  not 
to  support  the  servant,  but  to  allow  him  two  or  three  months  in  a 
year  to  work  for  himself,  to  obtain  food  and  clothes  for  the  rest 
of  the  year.  Often  they  are  hired  out  by  the  year,  receiving  food 
and  clothes,  but  no  part  of  the  wages.  Children  inherit  their 
parents'  bondage.  As  in  Burmah,  debtor  slaves  are  entitled  to 
freedom  on  presentation  of  the  amount  due,  which,  however, 
being  generally  borrowed,  only  secures  a  change  of  masters. 

The  Siamese  language  is  exceedingly  simple  in  its  construction, 
and  is  doubtless  an  original.  It  is  destitute  of  terminations  to 
signify  gender,  number,  person,  mood,  or  tense.  A  few  par- 
ticles supply  the  place  of  these ;  but  they  are  almost  universally 
omitted,  not  only  in  conversation,  but  by  the  best  writers.  This 
renders  it  easy  to  learn,  but  often  ambiguous ;  and  makes  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  language  necessary  to  carry  on  nice 
discussions.  Foreigners  soon  acquire  it  sufficiently  for  the  com- 
mon purposes  of  life.  The  Chinese,  being  of  various  dialects,  use 
it  in  intercourse  with  each  other,  as  more  convenient  than  their 
own,  and,  then  wives  being  Siamese,  the  progeny  speak  it  as 
their  mother  tongue. 

Except  as  improved  from  other  tongues,  the  language  is  mon- 
osyllabic. Many  terms,  which  seem  to  be  dissyllables,  are  only 
words  joined.  Thus  namta,  "tears,"  is  from  nam,  water,  and  ta, 
the  eye.  I/ukwai,  "  fruit,"  is  from  luk,  offspring,  and  mai,  wood. 
Many  words,  particularly  in  the  language  of  the  upper  classes, 
are  from  the  Cambojan.  This  is  a  polysyllabic  language,  and 
abounds  more  in  complicated  combinations  of  consonants. 
Terms  to  express  mental  operations,  and  all  religious  technicali- 
ties, are  from  the  Pali,*  which  is  also  polysyllabic.  These  terms 
undergo  various  changes,  the  most  common  of  which  is  the 
contraction  of  the  two  last  syllables  into  one. 

The  languages  of  Siam,  Asam,  and  the  Shyans,  are  essentially 
the  same  ;  but  which  dialect  is  primitive,  is  not  known.     Our 

*  Pronounced  by  Siamese  Bake. 


132  SIAM. 

missionaries  at  Sudiya  and  Bankok,  and  those  soon  to  go  to 
Zennnai,  will  be  able  to  investigate  the  origin  and  capacities  of 
this  language,  which,  being  one  of*  the  chief  in  Farther  India, 
deserves  more  attention  than  it  has  yet  received.  Captain  Low 
published,  in  1808,  a  Siamese  grammar ;  but  he  had  never  been  in 
the  country,  and  has  fallen  into  so  many  errors,  that  the  mis- 
sionaries deem  his  work  nearly  useless. 

The  form  of  the  characters  differs  little  from  the  Pali.  There 
are  thirty-four  consonants,  only  five  of  which  are  regularly  used 
as  final,  and  twelve  vowels,  with  several  diacritical  marks.  It 
has  intonations  like  the  Chinese,  which  makes  the  difficulty 
of  speaking  well  much  greater  than  that  of  learning  it.  Thus 
ma,  according  to  its  tone,  signifies  "come,"  "a  dog,"  and  "a 
horse."  Ha  means  "  to  seek,"  "  ghost,"  "  five."  Kow  means  "  to 
enter,"  "rice,"  "a  horn,"  "a  mountain,"  "he,"  "she,"  "it,"  and 
"  them." 

The  Catholics  of  Bankok  use  the  Roman  alphabet  in  writing 
Siamese.  I  noticed  also  that  the  Pra  Klang's  secretary  wrote 
in  that  character.  Chow  Fah  Yai,  eldest  legitimate  son  of  the 
late  king,  and  who  retired  to  a  convent  rather  than  contend  for 
the  throne,  has  not  only  written,  but  printed  Siamese  in  our  let- 
ters. He  has  a  press  made  by  himself,  and  types,  most  of  which, 
probably,  were  obtained  from  Italy,  through  the  Catholic  priests. 
It  is  certainly  of  great  consequence  to  follow  up  this  beginning. 
If  the  number  of  Siamese  who  can  read,  be  as  small  as  now 
appears,  there  will  be  a  necessity  for  Christian  philanthropy  to 
raise  up  readers,  as  well  as  proper  books,  and  these  may  be  better 
taught  in  the  Roman  characters  than  any  other. 

The  Baptist  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  established  the  mis- 
sion to  Siam  in  1833.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  had  visited  Bankok  in  1828, 
and  remained  about  three  years,  but  was  twice  away  to  Singa- 
pore, and  studied  the  Chinese  language  principally.  Mr.  Tom- 
lin,  London  Society's  Missionary  at  Singapore,  made  a  visit  with 
Mr.  G.,  and  remained  eight  months.  He  afterward  came  with 
Mr.  Abeel,  and  both  remained  six  months.  Mr.  Abeel  made  a 
second  visit  of  six  months,  and  then  returned  in  ill  health  to 
America.  None  of  these  brethren  contemplated  a  permanent 
residence  in  Siam,  and  in  the  report  of  their  first  six  months' 
labors,  Messrs.  G.  and  T.  called  upon  the  Baptist  brethren 
to  "  pass  the  boundary  line  of  Burmah,  and  come  forward  to 
Siam."  Mr.  T.  also  wrote  urgently  to  Maulmain  for  a  brother 
to  be  sent  at  once.    He  considered  the  Baptist  Board  called 


ORIGIN    OF    THE    MISSION PRINTING    OPERATIONS.  133 

upon,  more  than  any  other,  to  establish  a  mission  here,  not  only 
because  their  stations  in  Burmah  were  but  a  few  days'  march 
from  Bankok,  but  because  they  had  begun  with  the  Shyans, 
whose  language  was  so  similar,  and  a  large  part  of  whom  be- 
longed to  Siam.  The  project  was  seriously  entertained  by  our 
Board,  when  Mr.  Jones  was  appointed,  in  1829 ;  but  it  was  left  to 
be  decided  by  the  brethren  at  Maulmain.  Mr.  J.  was  designated 
by  them  to  this  service,  and  sailed  from  Burmah  for  Bankok  in 
September,  1832.  He  found  the  station  had  been  wholly  vacant 
for  six  months,  and  he  remained  entirely  alone  for  sixteen 
months  longer.  In  the  mean  time,  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  (without  knowing  of  the 
movement  from  Burmah)  resolved  to  make  Bankok  one 
of  then  stations ;  and  Messrs.  Johnson  and  Robinson  were 
sent  out,  who  arrived  about  the  first  of  August,  1834.  Dr.  Brad- 
ley, from  the  same  society,  arrived  the  next  year.  Mr.  J.  studies 
the  Chinese,  and  the  two  others  Siamese.  Interesting  accounts 
from  these  brethren  will  be  found  in  the  Missionary  Herald, 
published  monthly  in  Boston. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jones  may  be  said  to  have  mastered  the  Siamese 
language,  and  can  freely  impart  to  the  people  the  knowledge  of 
the  truth.  Mr.  J.  has  translated  Matthew,  Acts,  and  part  of  Luke, 
and  Mr.  Judson's  tracts  —  "  Balance,"  "  Catechism,"  and  "  Sum- 
mary of  Christian  Religion,"  and  prepared  a  tract  on  astronomy, 
and  a  brief  grammar.  Matthew,  Acts,  the  Catechism,  and  the 
Summary  have  been  printed  and  distributed  ;  beside  sheet  tracts, 
containing  the  ten  commandments,  the  sermon  on  the  mount, 
&c.  Two  school-books  for  Siamese  have  also  been  printed. 
Mrs.  Jones  has  prepared  the  History  of  Joseph,  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  other  reading  books,  together  with  a  copious  diction- 
ary, in  Siamese  and  English,  which  future  students  may  copy  to 
their  great  advantage. 

Mr.  Davenport  superintends  the  printing,  and  studies  the  lan- 
guage. The  issues  of  the  office,  within  the  year,  have  been 
13,124  books,  containing  1,439,720  pages,  comprising  the  Sum- 
mary of  Religion ;  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  Ten  Commandments, 
with  explanations;  Scripture  Parables;  A  broad-sheet  Para- 
ble; First  Lessons  in  English  and  Siamese;  Lessons  in 
Arithmetic;  Lessons  in  English;  and  several  publications  in 
( 'hinese. 

It  has  been  found  impossible  to  have  satisfactory  schools  in 
this  city.  By  no  device  can  the  scholars  be  retained  long 
enough  to  imbibe  any  useful  measure  of  knowledge.     During 

VOL.   II.  12 


134  SIAM. 

the  period  of  their  continuance,  they  cannot  he  made  to  attend 
regularly.  A  few  have  lately  heen  redeemed  from  slavery,  and 
will  be  thoroughly  instructed.  But  the  cost  of  children  is  from 
forty-eight  to  sixty,  and  for  an  adult,  about  a  hundred  dollars  ; 
so  that  this  mode  of  obtaining  scholars  cannot  be  extensively 
pursued.  Chinese  scholars  may  be  had  with  somewhat  less 
difficulty. 

Mrs.  D.,  beside  her  daily  studies,  has  a  school  of  twelve  or 
fifteen  children,  which  Mrs.  J.  daily  opens  with  prayer  and  re- 
ligious instruction  in  Siamese.  Such  of  them  as  are  not  Catho- 
lics, with  a  few  others,  are  formed  into  a  Sunday  school. 


Baptist  Mission  Premises,  Eankok. 


The  mission  premises,  although  pleasantly  and  healthfully 
situated,  are  so  confined  in  space,  as  to  be  very  inconvenient. 
The  land,  too,  is  only  hired,  and  with  no  assurance  of  perma- 
nence. The  buildings  consist  of  three  dwelling-houses,  a  print- 
ing-office, fifty-two  feet  by  twenty,  and  a  small  fire-proof  building 
for  paper,  books,  &c.  The  dwelling-houses  are  similar  to  those 
of  natives  in  construction,  only  larger,  and  cost  each  about 
three  hundred  dollars.  Mr.  Davenport's  house,  and  the  printing- 
offices,  are  in  the  rear  of  those  shown  in  the  picture,  of  which 


MISSIONARIES  —  WORSHIP.  135 

Mr.  Jones  oceupies  that  on  the  right,  and  Mr.  Dean  the  other. 
The  graves  in  front  are  those  of  the  first  Mrs.  Gutzlaff"  and  Mr. 
Jones's  children.  The  tall  palms  are  betel-trees,  described  Vol. 
L  page  154.*  There  is  scarcely  any  chance  to  walk  for  exercise  in 
or  around  Bankok,  from  the  bad  state  of  the  streets,  so  that  the 
missionaries  are  obliged  to  content  themselves,  for  the  most  part, 
with  being  rowed  out  upon  the  river  to  get  a  little  fresh  air. 
The  boat  used  for  this  purpose  is  represented  in  the  cut,  on  page 
115,  and  has  a  little  house  in  the  stern  to  keep  off  the  sun.  The 
other  boat  in  that  picture  is  a  Siam  skiff,  sharp  at  both  ends. 

The  printing-office  in  charge  of  Mr.  Davenport  has  one  press, 
which  has  been  kept  in  constant  operation  since  October,  1836, 
and  another  is  now  on  the  way.  Nine  of  the  natives  are  learn- 
ing the  business,  beside  some  engaged  in  the  bindery.  There 
are  several  small  fonts  of  English  letter,  one  of  Siamese,  and 
one  of  Chinese.  With  the  latter,  some  extracts  from  the  Bible 
will  be  printed  as  broad-sheet  tracts,  and  other  works,  where  a 
large  type  is  wanted ;  but  a  smaller  one  is  ordered  from  Seram- 
pore  for  the  printing  of  common  books.  A  set  of  blocks  for 
Milne's  tract,  called  "The  Two  Friends,"  has  been  procured, 
and  some  Chinese  workmen  are  constantly  engaged  in  working 
off  impressions.  Some  others  will  soon  be  issued  hi  the  same 
manner. 

Regular  public  worship  on  Sundays  has  not  been  commenced 
in  Siamese.  Mr.  Jones  spends  part  of  his  Sundays  in  visiting 
the  Wats ;  preaching  to  such  as  he  can  gather  there,  and  dis- 
tributing portions  of  Scripture.  I,  of  course,  accompanied  him, 
anxious  here,  as  in  every  other  place,  to  see  missionary  services 
performed  in  all  its  modes.  Though  I  have  accompanied  many 
brethren  in  this  highway,  open-air  preaching,  I  have  seldom 
described  these  occasions,  partly  because  they  are  so  often 
narrated  in  the  journals  of  missionaries,  and  partly  because  I  am 
anxious  to  maintain  the  greatest  brevity.  The  plan  pursued  in 
this  city  growa  out  of  the  nature  of  the  service,  and  is  not  mate- 
rially different  from  that  pursued  by  various  other  missionaries. 
Things  take  just  that  course  which  they  would  in  our  own  cities, 
if  a  respectable  foreigner  were  to  go  about  the  streets  and  pub- 
lic places  to  disseminate  a  new  religion.     Generally  the  audi- 


lapel  lias  been  built  in  the  corner  of  the  lot  in  front,  since  my  visit; 
and  beside  her  babes  now  sleeps  Mrs.  Jones,  who  died  of  cholera,  March  28, 
1838.  This  admirable  woman,  and  devoted  missionary,  is  an  unspeakable 
loss  to  the  mission. 


136  SIAM. 

ences  are  poor  people  ;  objections  are  raised,  and  disputes  often 
ensue;  sometimes  only  two  or  three  can  be  induced  to  give 
their  attention  ;  at  others,  a  little  crowd  gathers,  and  listens  with 
interest.  The  fruits  of  these  exertions  in  Bankok  do  not  yet 
appear ;  but  we  must  watch  unto  prayer.  As  the  time  has  now 
come,  to  make  efforts  for  a  permanent  congregation  on  the 
mission  premises,  happier  results  may  be  expected.  When  it  is 
recollected  that  we  have  only  Mr.  J.  who  can  preach  in  Siamese, 
and  that  Mr.  D.'s  engagements  in  the  printing-office  obstruct  his 
acquisition  of  the  language,  it  is  evidently  of  great  consequence 
to  reenforce  speedily  this  branch  of  the  mission.* 

Of  the  various  individuals  mentioned  as  encouraging,  in 
the  published  journals  of  Messrs.  Gutzlaff  and  Tomlins,  none 
have  continued  so.  None  attend  worship,  or  seem  particularly 
friendly  to  the  missionaries.  Bunty,  who  was  baptized  by  Mr. 
Jones,  in  1833,  and  who,  for  a  while,  seemed  a  true  disciple, 
grew  cold,  and  about  a  year  ago  left  the  ministry  to  go  into 
business,  not  without  bitter  feelings  against  the  missionaries. 
He  led  away  another  disciple,  who  has  now  fallen  into  the 
deadly  habit  of  opium-smoking.  Of  the  six  Chinese  who  have 
been  baptized,  three  have  died,  under  the  observation  of  the 
missionaries,  giving  full  evidence  of  triumphing  over  the  last 
enemy.  Of  the  two  who  remain,  one  is  an  intelligent,  but  poor 
old  man,  whose  three  sons  not  only  attend  the  public  service  on 
Sabbath,  and  unite  daily  with  their  father  in  family  worship,  but 
have  ceased  to  make  offerings  to  idols.  The  other  is  in  bad 
health,  but  exceedingly  useful  by  his  holy  example,  a  great 
comfort  to  Mr.  Dean,  and  a  cheering  token  of  future  in- 
gatherings. 

Both  the  Baptist  Board,  and  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners, make  this  a  station  for  efforts  upon  the  Chinese.  With 
a  population  of  this  description  in  and  near  the  city,  amounting 
to  half  a  million,  and  at  least  eight  or  nine  thousand  Chinese 
sailors,  arriving  annually  and  remaining  many  weeks,  there  can 
be  no  lack  of  scope.  The  whole  number  of  many  tribes,  who 
enjoy  strong  missionary  establishments,  is  not  half  so  great 
as  that  of  the  Chinese  in  this  region.  Nor  are  the  circumstances 
more  discouraging  than  in  average  cases. 

Mr.  Dean,  of  the  Baptist  Board,  gives  himself  to  the  Tay-chew 
dialect,  which  has  never  been  attempted  by  any  other.  He  is,  as 
yet,  of  course,  but  a  student  in  the  language,  but  has  attained 

*  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Slafter  left  Roston,  as  missionaries  to  the  Siamese,  in  1838. 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    BOOKS CHINESE.  137 

such  a  knowledge  of  it,  that,  with  the  help  of  his  teacher,  he 
conducts  worship  every  morning  for  the  benefit  of  the  block- 
printers,  and  others  on  the  premises,  and  on  Sundays  has  a  reg- 
ular audience  of  forty  to  fifty  persons.  He  has  considerable 
knowledge  of  medicine,  and  is  daily  engaged  in  practice.  About 
twenty  or  thirty  patients,  mostly  Chinese,  meet  daily  in  his  porch 
at  four  o'clock  —  chiefly  cases  of  ulcers  and  wounds.  Before 
opening  the  Dispensary,  he  holds  worship  with  them,  and  gives 
tracts.  Some  come  several  days'  journey,  and  remain  till  cured. 
When  the  junks  are  in  the  river,  his  number  is  often  much 
larger.  Mr.  Johnson,  of  the  American  Board,  pursues  the  study 
of  the  Hokeen  or  Fokien  dialect. 

The  distribution  of  Scriptures  and  tracts  may  be  carried  to 
almost  any  extent  in  Bankok,  both  to  Chinese  and  natives.  A 
very  small  proportion,  however,  can  read  intelligently.  Even  of 
this  small  number,  few  can  understand  more  than  the  plainest 
narratives. 

It  seems  of  little  use  to  give  books  profusely  without  abundant 
personal  preaching.  In  China,  where  missionaries  may  not  live, 
and  in  Burmah  proper,  or  other  countries,  from  whence  they 
may  at  any  moment  be  expelled,  a  liberal  dispensation  of  books 
seems  called  for.  But,  in  general,  the  direct  preaching  of  the 
gospel  cannot  be  advantageously  deferred,  after  books  have  so 
far  been  diffused  as  to  excite  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  missionary's  objects.  The  full  power  of  the 
press  will  be  best  seen  in  its  following  the  preacher.  The  peo- 
ple are  then  made  capable  of  understanding,  what  before  would 
be  as  unintelligible  to  them  as  the  book  of  Isaiah  was  to  the 
eunuch  before  Philip  instructed  him.  It  is  quite  evident,  too, 
that  the  apostles  proceeded  in  this  manner. 

No  place  is,  on  the  whole,  so  favorable  for  diffusing  Christian 
books  into  China  as  Bankok,  as  is  evident  from  the  statements  1 
have  made  touching  the  trade  by  junks.  It  is  important,  how- 
ever, to  make  the  publications  more  idiomatic  and  intelligible 
before  we  spend  heavy  sums  of  money  in  this  work. 

There  should  be  at  least  eight  Chinese  missionaries  in  Siam, 
without  reference  to  supplying  China  itself  hereafter.  Each  of 
the  four  principal  dialects,  viz.  Mandareen,  Canton,  Taychew,  and 
Hainan,  should  have  two  brethren,  that  a  single  death  may  not 
abolish  a  whole  department.  The  adjacent  villages,  and  even 
some  of  the  ports  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  would  engage  their  atten- 
tion in  part.  The  junks  would  not  only  supply  opportunities  for 
sending  into  China  any  number  of  tracts,  but  regular  congrega- 
12* 


138  SI  AM. 

tions,  for  several  months  together.  The  great  difficulty  in  multi- 
plying missionaries  at  this  point,  is  the  refusal  of  government 
to  allow  them  to  rent  or  purchase  land  for  residences. 

It  has  been  erroneously  supposed  that,  from  Bankok,  direct 
overland  intercourse  might  be  had  with  the  frontier  of  China. 
No  part  of  the  Siam  frontier  approaches  China  within  less  than 
about  three  hundred  miles.  The  intervening  space  is  inhabited 
by  various  tribes,  living  insulated  from  each  other,  and  is  trav- 
ersed by  mountains  probably  not  passable  by  caravans.  Zem- 
mai  is  the  nearest  point  to  Bankok,  from  whence  the  western 
borders  of  China  may  be  approached,  and  that  station  must 
necessarily  depend  upon  Maulmain,  in  Burmah,  both  for  epis- 
tolary intercourse  with  America,  and  supplies  of  clotbing, 
printing  paper,  &c. 

Deeming  it  important  to  form  the  brothers  and  sisters' of  this 
station  into  a  regular  church  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  I  con- 
vened them  in  council,  and,  after  full  consideration,  it  was  unani- 
mously resolved  upon.  After  devoting  a  day  to  fasting  and 
prayer,  and  drawing  out,  in  full,  the  platform  of  doctrine  and 
discipline,  I  proceeded,  on  the  following  Sabbath,  to  preach  and 
perform  the  appropriate  solemnities.  Nine  persons,*  of  whom 
two  were  the  Chinamen  already  mentioned,  formed  the  material 
of  the  church.  Li  the  after  part  of  the  day,  I  administered  the 
Lord's  supper  to  this  precious  band  of  pioneers.  The  text  was, 
"  From  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  have  we  heard  songs, 
even  glory  to  the  Righteous  One."  It  suggested  topics  of  joy 
and  hope,  in  the  contemplation  of  which,  all  our  hearts  over- 
flowed with  pleasure.  Most  of  the  brethren  and  sisters  were 
accomplished  singers,  and  our  voices  sounded  to  each  other 
like  almost  celestial  music.  The  strange  and  depressing 
sensations  of  being  at  the  utmost  possible  earthly  distance 
from  those  we  love,  gave  place  to  pleasure,  on  hearing  in  our 
own  language  the  praises  of  the  Lord.  The  sad  "  Farewell 
forever"  to  the  sacred  fraternities  of  home,  lost  half  its  bitter- 
ness while  partaking  of  church  privileges  and  communion, 
with  Christians  from  our  own  land,  and  of  our  own  persua- 
sion. The  promises  of  God,  touching  the  triumphs  of  his  truth, 
shone  with  tenfold  brightness,  amid  the  gloom  and  thick  dark- 


*  Two  of  these  are  already  gone  up  on  high  —  Rev.  Mr.  Reed  and  Mrs, 
Jones  ;  but  Messrs.  Slafter  and  Goddard,  who,  with  their  wives,  sailed  from 
Boston,  1838,  will  more  than  make  the  number  good. 


CONSTITUTION   OF    THE    FIRST   PROTESTANT    CHURCH.         139 

ness  of  a  pagan  land,  where  yet  hope  has  little  encouragement 
in  the  things  that  are  seen.  The  visible  encouragements  to 
faith  in  the  presence  of  two  Chinese,  gave  distinctness  and  glow 
to  our  visions  of  hope.  Our  souls  magnified  the  Lord,  and  our 
spirits  rejoiced  in  God  our  Savior. 

The  first  Lord's  day  in  July,  1837,  was,  by  this  solemn  event, 
rendered  memorable  in  the  history  of  Siam,  as  the  birth-day  of 
the  first  Protestant  church  of  Christ  in  the  kingdom.  It  was 
indeed  a  small  room,  and  a  small  company ;  but  an  occasion  full 
of  present  benediction  and  future  promise.  Hereafter  centen- 
nial jubilees  will  celebrate  the  event,  sacred  orators  dwell  on  it 
with  glowing  tongue,  and  unborn  generations  bless  the  auspicious 
hour.  The  "  little  one  will  become  a  thousand,"  and  the  day  of 
small  things  give  place  to  periods  of  power,  extension,  and 
triumph. 

I  was  happy  to  find  the  brethren  of  the  two  missions  in  Bankok 
living  not  only  in  Christian  unity  and  peace,  but  personal  friend- 
ship. Their  worship  in  English,  both  on  Lord's  days  and  week 
evenings,  are  held  together.  So  far  as  I  could  learn,  their  Chris- 
tian intercourse,  except  at  the  Lord's  supper,  is  like  attached 
members  of  the  same  church. 

The  same  is  happily  the  case  at  some  other  places  where 
missionaries  of  different  sects  labor  together.  Party  differences 
look  small,  to  those  who  stand  on  missionary  ground.  A  feeble 
laborer  on  the  field  of  paganism,  harbors  no  jealousy  lest  the 
wide  harvest  will  be  reaped  ere  he  can  snatch  his  sheaves. 
He  would  not  prefer  the  field  to  lie  waste,  if  those  of  his 
shibboleth  do  not  till  it.  He  would  not  lose  the  noblest  aim  of 
the  church  rather  than  have  it  attained  by  persuasions  not 
quite  so  pure  in  faith  or  practice  as  his  own.  In  the  advanced 
camp  of  the  Lord's  hosts,  there  will  be  the  same  preferences, 
and  conscientious  competitions,  which  exist  at  home.  But  as  yet, 
none  have  betrayed  the  cause  to  the  enemy,  by  allowing  sectarian 
preferences  to  engross  their  strength,  and  engage  them  in  con- 
tentions with  their  friends. 

The  Papal  church  has  maintained  missions  in  Siam  for  one 
hundred  and  seventy  years.  The  adherents,  in  the  whole  coun- 
try, amount  to  two  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty,  including 
about  eight  hundred  Cochin-Chinese,  recently  arrived.  There 
is  a  congregation  at  Ayuthia,  another  at  Chantabon,  and  three  at 
Bankok.  Many  of  these  are  descendants  of  Portuguese  who 
lived  witli  native  women,  and  some  few  are  converts  from  Boodh- 
ism.     In  civil  condition,  they  are  below  the  Siamese.     No  part 


140  SI  AM. 

of  the  population  of  Bankok  are  more  degraded.  Their  children 
are  not  taught ;  then  manners  are  not  improved ;  their  knowledge 
of  Christianity  is  veiy  small ;  and  as  a  body,  they  are  neither 
industrious,  cleanly,  nor  moral.  Processions,  guns,  drums,  bells, 
and  crackers  distinguish  their  holidays,  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner as  those  of  the  heathen  around  them.  During  my  stay  in 
Bankok,  a  priest,  newly  arrived  in  the  country,  died  at  some  days' 
distance,  on  a  journey.  His  body  was  brought  to  the  city,  and 
carried  in  processions,  first  at  one  of  then  places  of  worship,  and 
then  at  the  others,  with  nearly  such  ceremonies  as  mark  the 
burial  of  a  Boodhist  priest. 

The  entire  salary  of  a  Catholic  priest,  is  one  hundred  dollars 
per  annum;  not  only  here,  but  wherever  else  I  have  been  in 
India. 


141 


CHAPTER  V. 

Voyage  to  Canton  —  China  Sea  —  Mouth  of  Pearl  River  —  Outside  Pilots  — 
Lintin  —  Boccatigris  —  Whampoa  —  Innumerable  Boats  —  Evidences  of 
dense  Population  —  Dollar  Boat  —  River  Scenery  —  Population  of  Can- 
ton —  Foreign  Factories  or  Hongs  —  Walks  in  the  Suburbs  —  Streets  — 
Shops  —  Vacant  Spaces  —  Placards  —  Perambulatory  Trades  —  Booksellers 

—  Circulating  Libraries  —  Map  of  the  World  —  Beggars  —  Small-footed 
Women  —  Trades  —  Labor-saving   Machinery  —  Chinese  Piety  —  Tombs 

—  Visit  to  a  Hong  Merchant  —  Restrictions  on  Foreigners  —  Temples  — 
Priests  and  Nuns —  Pagodas  —  Chinese  Sects  —  Introduction  of  Boodhism 

—  Jos  —  State  of  Morals  in  the  Foreign  Society  —  Opium  Trade — Mis- 
sionaries—  Dr.  Parker's  Hospital  —  Macao  —  Appearance  from  Harbor  — 
In  a  State  of  Decline  —  Missionaries  —  Mr.  Gutzlaff — Voyages  along  the 
Coast  —  Interesting  School  —  How  far  China  is  open  to  Missionaries  — 
Dr.  Colledge's  Hospital. 

The  pain  of  frequently  parting  from  missionaries  and  other 
friends,  to  meet  no  more  on  earth,  has  been  no  small  part  of 
the  trials  of  this  long  and  wearisome  tour.  In  leaving  Bankok, 
the  case  was  peculiar.  Mr.  Jones  had  received  baptism  at  my 
hands ;  he  had  been  called  to  the  ministry  in  my  church  ;  and 
under  my  roof,  he  and  his  wife  had  their  last  home  in  the  United 
States.  Their  feeble  health  and  oppressive  labors  impressed 
on  me  the  conviction  that  their  labors  on  earth,  important  as  they 
are,  will  not  be  much  longer  enjoyed.  Two  of  the  others  and 
their  wives  had  been  my  fellow-passengers  from  the  United 
States.  To  part  with  them  cheerfully  was  a  duty  ;  but  the  lone- 
some hours  of  shipboard,  kept  fresh,  for  many  days,  the  sadness. 

A  long  and  tedious  passage  from  Bankok  to  Singapore  is  always 
expected  against  the  monsoon.  Some  ships  have  been  six  or  seven 
weeks.  One  vessel,  with  missionaries,  after  being  out  forty-two 
days,  was  obliged  to  return  and  wait  for  the  change  of  monsoon. 
I  was  favored  to  get  down  in  twenty-six  days  without  accident. 
Our  ship  also  staid  at  Bankok  a  month  less  than  is  usual ;  so  that 
I  saved,  in  the  whole  trip,  at  least  three  months.  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Robinson,  whom  I  left  at  Singapore,  anxious  to  return  to  Bankok, 
but  not  then  quite  ready,  was  still  there,  and  found  no  opportunity 
for  the  next  five  months. 

My  stay,  this  time,  in  Singapore,  amounted  to  but  few  days,  as 
1  availed  myself  of  the  first  vessel  for  Canton.     I  embarked  in 


142  VOYAGE    TO    CHINA. 

the  Jessie  Logan,  on  the  twenty-first  of  September,  1837,  with  a 
prospect  of  a  tedious  passage,  as  the  monsoon  was  changing. 
We  were  happily  disappointed,  and  reached  China  on  the 
sixteenth  of  October.  Rains  and  squalls,  however,  rendered  the 
voyage  comfortless,  and  my  want  of  an  amanuensis  rendered  it 
difficult  either  to  improve  or  beguile  the  tune. 

The  China  Sea  has  an  extraordinary  number  of  shoals  and 
petty  islands,  making  its  navigation  unpleasant  and  dangerous, 
except  when  the  monsoon  enables  a  vessel  to  proceed  through 
the  centre.  The  boundary  of  the  sea  on  the  eastward  is  a  succes- 
sion of  large  islands,  scarcely  known  by  name,  even  to  the  well- 
educated  in  our  country.  It  seems  reserved  for  missionary 
enterprise  to  bring  to  light  the  numbers  and  condition  of  man- 
kind in  Luconia,  Palawan,  the  Baihee,  Babuyanes,  and  Busvigan 
clusters,  Mindoro,  Balabac,  Banguey,  Borneo,  &c,  besides  the 
multitude  of  the  other  Philippines,  the  Moluccas,  the  Bandu, 
and  Aroo  archipelagoes,  &c.  O,  how  long  must  it  be  ere  the 
tardy  and  stinted  charities  of  God's  people  shall  spread  Christian 
teachers  over  all  these  seas  ? 

Approaching  the  coast  of  China  in  a  day  literally  cloudless, 
the  fine  headlands  of  the  vast  entrance  of  the  Choo-Keang,  or 
Pearl  River,  wore  their  best  attractions.  No  river  in  the  world,  it  is 
said,  is  so  easily  found  and  entered  as  this.  No  bar  obstructs  its 
entrance.  No  alluvial  deposits  spread  dangerous  flats  along  the 
shores.  Scores  of  small  but  lofty  islands  afford  at  once  distinct 
land-marks,  and  a  choice  of  channels.  The  entrance,  thus 
marked  and  defended,  extends  nearly  sixty  miles  along  the  coast 
from  east  to  west ;  and  for  nearly  forty  miles  toward  Canton,  the 
river  preserves  an  average  breadth  of  fifteen  miles.  At  that 
point,  called  by  Europeans  the  Bogue,  or  Bocca  Tigris,  the 
breadth  is  two  miles,  divided  in  the  centre  by  an  island.  This 
is  considered  by  the  Chinese  the  entrance  of  the  river,  and  is 
defended  by  several  forts  of  no  great  strength. 

We  were  boarded,  many  miles  from  land,  by  fishermen  offer- 
ing to  act  as  pilots,  and  by  one  of  them  was  conducted  to  our 
anchorage,  while  his  boat  went  to  Macao,  for  the  usual  permit 
to  proceed  up  the  river,  and  the  inner  pilot.  These  boats, 
though  outrt  to  us,  are  admirably  constructed,  of  pine,  decked, 
and  schooner-rigged.  Under  the  deck  they  keep  provisions, 
water,  &c,  and  sleep  in  bad  weather.  On  the  quarter,  they  put 
up,  in  fine  weather,  a  slight  house,  of  bamboo  and  mats.  The 
sight  of  these  men  was  not  novel  to  me,  as  I  had  already  mixed 
with  so  many  in  Burmah,  Singapore,  and  Siam.     Their  costume 


LINTIN  —  WHAMPOA BOATS.  143 

is  a  pair  of  very  wide  blue  nankeen  trousers,  reaching  but  little 
below  the  knee,  without  buttons  or  flaps.  Its  diameter  at  the 
waist  would  embrace  a  barrel,  so  that  they  take  a  turn  in  the 
waistband,  and  tuck  in  the  ends,  which  keeps  them  on.  Of  la- 
borers at  work,  this  is  the  whole  dress :  when  not  employed, 
they  add  a  glazed  cotton  jacket,  reaching  to  the  hips,  with  very 
wide  sleeves.  The  dress  of  the  genteel  classes  is  not  transcended, 
in  beauty,  costliness,  or  delicacy,  by  that  of  similar  classes  in 
any  country  upon  earth. 

Lintin  is  an  island,  about  in  the  centre  of  the  outer  harbor, 
and,  though  large,  has  few  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  only  as  the 
theatre  of  the  execrable  opium-smuggling.  Sheltered  by  its 
dreary  heights  lay  the  "receiving-ships,"  which  take  the  drug 
from  vessels  as  they  arrive,  and  get  rid  of  it  by  means  of  native 
fast  boats. 

At  the  extreme  western  side  of  the  entrance,  twenty  miles 
distant  from  Lintin,  is  the  city  of  Macao,  occupying  the  extreme 
south  point  of  Heangshan  Island.  From  thence  to  Canton  is  an 
inner  passage,  chiefly  used  by  native  boats. 

Fifteen  miles  below  Canton  is  Whampoa,  beyond  which 
foreign  ships  are  not  allowed  to  proceed.  The  anchorage 
extends  two  or  three  miles,  along  a  reach  of  the  river,  lying  east 
and  west.  In  ordinary  shipping  seasons,  one  hundred  or  more 
vessels  ride  here,  chiefly  English  and  American.  Owing  to  the 
recent  commercial  embarrassments,  there  were  at  this  time  but 
about  twenty-five.  Innumerable  sampans,  occupied  by  market- 
men,  fishermen,  fruiterers,  washerwomen,  &c,  with  the  ships' 
boats,  and  here  and  there  the  ornamented  barge  of  a  mandareen, 
or  a  huge,  crowded  passage-boat,  kept  the  scene  busy  and  cheer- 
ful. Whampoa  is  a  considerable  village,  on  an  island  of  the 
same  name.  Its  chief  business  is  connected  with  the  supply  of 
vessels,  and  the  smuggling  of  opium. 

Boats  lie  before  the  town,  literally  in  thousands  ;  and  almost 
every  one,  the  permanent  habitation  of  a  family.  The  occupancy 
of  these  boats  by  a  family,  so  far  from  preventing  active  employ- 
ment, seems  rather  a  qualification.  The  wile  steers,  while  the 
husband  rows,  aided  by  children  of  both  sexes,  if  they  have  any. 
Such  as  are  not  quite  old  enough  to  row,  play  about  the  boat 
with  a  great  gourd  fastened  to  their  waist  behind,  to  secure  them 
from  drowning,  in  case  they  fall  overboard.  Those  a  little 
younger  are  carefully  tethered,  so  that  they  have  the  entire  use 
of  the  deck,  but  cannot  pass  the  gunwale.  If  there  be  an  infant, 
it  is  fastened  on  the  mother's  back,  like  a  knapsack,  without 


144  CHINA. 

appearing  to  impede  her  motions,  or  be  annoyed  by  them.  See 
picture,  below.  Any  one  conversant  with  boatmen,  about  other 
seaports  in  the  East,  or  even  in  our  own  country,  cannot  fail 
to  be  struck  with  the  superiority  of  these.  Their  dress,  the 
structure  and  appointments  of  their  boats,  their  quiet,  order, 
industry,  and  good  manners,  are  worthy  of  all  imitation. 

The  published  accounts  of  the  populousness  of  China,  are 
strongly  brought  to  mind,  when  one  looks  around  on  these  boats, 
and  on  the  green  fields  and  barren  islands  which  make  up  the 
scene  from  the  deck  of  the  ship.  Every  level  spot  is  subdued  for 
paddy,  and  the  sides  of  every  desolate  island  exhibit  not  only 
patches  of  cultivation,  but  houses  and  even  villages.  The  same 
impression  is  created  by  a  host  of  fishing-smacks,  which  sweep 
the  waters  of  the  vast  harbor.  They  literally  swarm.  I  have 
stood  and  counted  two  hundred  at  a  time,  from  the  deck  of 
the  ship.  , 

From  Whampoa  to  Canton,  the  boats  of  foreign  ships  are 
allowed  to  pass  up  and  down,  without  examination  at  the  custom- 
houses. Passengers,  however,  generally  use  native  boats,  called 
"dollar  boats,"  as  affording  better  shelter,  and  more  con- 
veniences. 


I  found  mine  to  be  exceedingly  neat,  clean,  and  commodious  ; 
divided  into  three  compartments ;  the  centre  being  handsomely 
panelled  and  roofed,  so  as  to  form  a  nice  cabin,  with  lockers, 
windows,  &c.  Here  I  was  placed  with  such  of  my  trunks  as  I 
needed,  and,  though  long  since  hardened  to  the  sensations  of  a 
foreigner,  felt  a  little  more  foreign  than  usual.     In  one  corner  of 


DOLLAR   BOAT RIVER    SCENERY.  145 

my  cabin  was  "Jos,"  in  grim  dumbness,  pointing  upward  with 
his  finger,  and  looking  as  fat  and  contented  as  Falstaff.  Before 
him  smoked  tapers  of  sandal-wood  powder,  and  round  about 
were  inscriptions  on  red  paper.  His  little  closet  or  shrine  bad 
latticed  doors  to  keep  him  from  harm,  and  was  the  most  orna- 
mented part  of  the  boat.  Behind,  sheltered  by  a  roof  which, 
upon  occasion,  could  slide  over  that  of  the  cabin,  was  the  kitchen 
and  pantry.  Here  the  wife,  with  an  infant  on  her  back,  steered 
and  skulled ;  at  the  same  time  watching  her  dinner,  and  a 
youngster  or  two.  Forward  of  the  cabin,  a  flat  deck,  extending 
beyond  the  bows,  and  of  the  same  width  as  the  boat,  afforded 
ample  space  to  two  oarsmen,  who  sat  on  stools  about  six  inches 
high.  Between  them  and  the  cabin  was  a  small  veranda,  on 
one  side  of  which  stood  the  ever-steaming  tea-kettle  and  cups ; 
and  on  the  other  the  neatly  lackered  tray  of  jos-sticks  or  slow 
matches,  from  which  ever  and  anon  they  lighted  their  cheroots. 
The  men  were  stout,  though  short,  and  pulled  with  vigor,  shelter- 
ing their  naked  backs  with  a  broad  palm-leaf  hat.  We  passed 
hundreds  of  boats  built  and  manned  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner ;  and  as  they  constitute  a  very  prominent  item  of  the  scenery, 
and  I  was  lonesome,  the  foregoing  drawing  was  made,  which 
will  convey  the  idea  better  than  any  description. 

The  scenery  of  the  river,  though  monotonous,  is  attractive. 
On  each  side  are  rich  rice-fields,  with  villages  embosomed  among 
orange-trees,  lichis,  and  palms ;  while  the  rugged  hills  in  the 
rear,  irreclaimable  even  by  Chinese  industry,  are  dotted  with 
tombs.  Some  fine  pagodas  are  visible  most  of  the  way,  one  of 
which  is  given  on  page  156,  as  seen  at  a  distance.  The  dikes 
are  for  the  most  part  paved  with  excellent  stone  masonry,  and 
planted  with  oranges,  lichis,  and  bananas. 

Just  before  reaching  the  city  is  the  anchorage  of  junks  or 
native  vessels  trading  to  Canton,  and  of  an  imperial  fleet.  The 
latter  may  create  a  smile,  but  can  awaken  no  terror.  A  little 
further  on,  other  trading-boats  of  large  size  lie  in  hundreds. 
Then  come  long  rows  of  floating  houses,  and  these,  with  every 
sort  of  boat,  more  numerous  as  you  advance,  till  it  becomes  diffi- 
cult, and  even  dangerous,  to  thread  the  maze  with  a  row-boat. 

Arriving,  at  length,  opposite  Kwang-tung,  or,  as  we  call  it, 
Canton,  nothing  is  seen  of  the  city  except  the  river-suburbs,  and 
portions  of  the  wall.  Here  boats  of  every  description,  and  small 
junks,  are  so  crowded  together  that  the  utmost  skill  as  well  as 
caution  is  required,  in  order  to  avoid  disaster.  Cables  stretch  out 
from  a  hundred  junks ;  huge  tea-boats,  of  fifty  or  sixty  tons,  lie  side 
VOL.   II.  13 


146  CANTON. 

to  side,  scores  in  a  row.  Dwelling-houses  of  elegant  and  conve- 
nient construction,  built  on  scows,  are  disposed  in  regular  streets 
of  great  length.  Mandareen  boats,  with  gorgeous  and  beautiful 
ornaments,  and  fleet  as  the  wind,  move  slowly  round,  acting  as  a 
river  police.  Boats  from  the  European  ships,  floating  tradesmen, 
mechanics,  hucksters,  shopkeepers,  and  thousands  that  seem  to  be 
mere  dwellings,  are  multiplied  on  every  side ;  so  busy,  so  noisy, 
so  crowded,  so  strange,  that  it  seems  as  if  one  had  suddenly 
dropped  upon  another  planet ;  and  a  man  must  be  vain  indeed, 
who  does  not  feel  himself  an  insignificant  unit  among  such 
legions  of  busy  ones,  who  merely  regard  him  as  a  foreigner. 

It  is  computed  that  eighty-four  thousand  families  live  in  boats 
at  Canton  ;  and  that  the  whole  population  of  the  city  and  suburbs 
is  about  a  million. 

The  accurate  representation  of  a  Chinese  junk,  on  page  140, 
will  give  a  perfect  idea  of  their  naval  architecture.  The  sails  are 
of  mat  ;  three  little  cabins,  each  just  large  enough  to  contain  a 
man  at  his  length,  occupy  the  stern  ;  over  the  side  hang  the  hen- 
coops ;  a  great  eye  glares  upon  the  bow,  and  a  snake  beneath 
warns  you  of  the  "touch  me  not"  pugnacity  of  the  crew.  I  saw 
many  of  these  both  atBankok  and  Singapore;  and  off*  the  mouth 
of  the  Hoogly,  passed  several  which  had  ventured  even  to  that 
distance. 

In  all  other  parts  of  the  East,  Europeans  bear  themselves  so 
haughtily  before  the  natives,  and  so  transcend  them  in  wealth, 
luxury,  and  intellect,  that  the  contrast  at  Canton  is  most  nui^  g. 
Here  are  generally  about  three  hundred  foreigners,  permanently 
resident,  and  often  more,  kept  so  completely  under,  that  they 
may  neither  bring  their  wives,  nor  take  native  ladies,  nor  build, 
buy,  ride,  row,  or  walk,  without  restrictions ;  wholly  forbidden 
to  enter  the  gates  of  the  city,  and  cooped  up  in  a  spot  which 
would  be  considered  in  Calcutta  or  Madras  barely  large  enough 
for  one  good  dwelling  and  compound.  The  foreign  factories,  or 
hongs,  are  thirteen  in  number,  under  the  names  of  different  na- 
tions, but  occupied  somewhat  promiscuously  by  the  merchants 
and  shopkeepers.  They  form  a  close  front  along  the  river,  about 
three  hundred  yards  in  length,  with  an  open  space  toward  the 
water,  which  is  here  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide.  The 
buildings  extend  toward  the  rear  about  two  hundred  yards. 
Each  hong  is  divided  into  several  separate  portions,  entered  by  a 
narrow  alley,  which  passes  through  to  the  rear,  and  is  thus  mado 
to  consist  of  five  or  six  tenements,  generally  three  stories  high. 


HONGS WALKS SALUTATIONS.  147 

The  heat,  smoke,  noise,  and  dreariness  of  the  interior  of  this 
mass  of  buildings,  with  the  total  absence  of  female  society,  gives 
it,  in  no  small  degree,  the  aspect  of  a  prison.  The  front  rooms, 
however,  are  pleasant,  and  some  of  them  have  fine  promenades 
on  the  roof.  An  open  space  in  front,  about  one  hundred  yards 
long  and  fifty  wide,  serves  both  as  a  wharf  and  a  promenade.  But 
the  first  of  these  uses  obstructs  it  for  the  other;  to  say  nothing  of 
barbers,  cooks,  pedlers,  clothes-menders,  coolies,  and  boatmen, 
who  crowd  it  most  of  the  day. 

I  was  kindly  made  welcome  to  the  American  hong,  or,  as  the 
Chinese  call  it,  the  "hong  of  extensive  fountains,"  where,  at  the 
table  of  the  American  missionaries,  and  of  Messrs.  Oliphant  and 
Co.,  I  enjoyed,  for  several  weeks,  daily  opportunities  of  acquiring 
authentic  information,  on  all  the  points  which  concern  my 
agency. 

Fortunately  for  me,  there  existed,  during  my  stay  in  Canton, 
no  particular  jealousy  of  foreigners.  Accompanying  the  mis- 
sionaries and  other  gentlemen  in  their  daily  walks  for  exercise, 
I  was  enabled  to  ramble  not  only  over  all  the  suburbs,  but  among 
the  villages  and  fields  adjacent.  We  were  not  specially  ill  treated  ; 
but  I  have  nowhere  else  found  quite  so  much  scorn  and  rude- 
ness. Nearly  all  the  time,  some  of  the  youngsters  would  be 
calling  out,  as  we  passed,  "  Foreign  devils  !  "  "  barbarians !  "  "  red- 
bristled  devils !  "  often  adding  obscene  expressions,  and  some- 
times throwing  light  missiles ;  all  which  the  parents  seemed  to 
think  very  clever.  Often,  indeed,  they  would  direct  the  attention 
of  very  small  children  to  us,  and  teach  them  to  rail.  Our  clerical 
profession  seemed  known  to  many :  and  these  would  shout 
"  Story-telling  devils !  "  "  lie-preaching  devils !  "  In  streets  much 
frequented  by  foreigners,  these  things  rarely  occurred :  but  in 
others,  we  attracted  general  attention :  and  if  we  stopped  for  a 
few  moments,  a  crowd  would  immediately  choke  up  the  street 
Sometimes  Dr.  Parker's  patients  would  recognize  him,  and  we 
would  be  asked  to  sit  down ;  tea  and  pipes  would  be  offered, 
and  a  strong  sense  of  confidence  and  gratitude  manifested.  But 
the  crowd  would  soon  become  disagreeable,  and  we  were  glad 
to  pass  on  to  get  fresh  air,  and  to  exempt  our  friends  from 
annoyance. 

The  width  of  the  streets  is  seldom  more  than  four  or  five 
feet,  and  often  less.  The  houses  rarely  exceed  one  story  high ; 
and,  except  on  business  streets,  all  the  better  ones  are  invisible, 
being  built,  like  those  of  Paris,  within  a  walled  enclosure. 
The  streets  are  all  flagged  with  large  slabs  of  smooth  stone, 


148  CANTON. 

principally  granite.  The  breadth  excludes  wheel  carriages, 
of  course,  and  the  only  vehicles  are  sedan  chairs,  which  are 
constantly  gliding  along  at  a  very  rapid  rate  ;  those  for  ladies 
being  closed  with  blinds,  or  gauze,  but  not  so  as  to  prevent  the 
occupant  from  looking  through.  As  these  chairs,  or  loaded 
coolies,  come  rushing  along,  a  perpetual  shouting  is  kept  up,  to 
clear  the  way ;  and,  unless  you  jump  to  the  wall  or  into  a  shop, 
you  are  rudely  jostled ;  for,  though  they  are  polite  and  kind,  their 
headway  and  heavy  burden  render  it  impossihle  to  make  sudden 
pauses.  As  to  walking  arm  in  arm,  it  is  quite  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. I  saw  none  of  the  unbroken  ranges  of  piazza  spoken  of  by 
geographers  ;  but  in  some  places,  mats  are  spread  across  the 
street,  which  exclude  the  sun.  The  end  of  each  street  has  a 
strong  gate,  which  is  shut  up  at  night ;  chiefly  for  security  against 
thieves. 

The  shops  are  often  truly  beautiful ;  but  the  greater  number  are 
occupied  as  well  by  the  workmen  as  the  wares.  Such  minute 
subdivision  of  callings  I  have  seen  no  where  else.  Not  only  are 
trades  subdivided  into  the  most  minute  branches,  but  the  shops 
are  often  limited  to  one  or  two  species  of  goods.  Some  of  those 
which  I  entered  would  vie  with  those  of  London,  for  style  and 
amount  of  capital  invested.  In  each,  the  idol  has  a  handsome 
and  conspicuous  situation.  As  Chinese  is  read  perpendicularly, 
the  sign-boards  are  suspended  downward,  and  are  thus  well 
adapted  to  narrow  streets.  They  are  generally  beautifully  exe- 
cuted, and  often,  after  announcing  the  name  and  occupation, 
close  with  sage  sentences ;  such  as,  "  Gossipping  and  long  sitting 
injure  business;"  "No  credit  given  ;  former  customers  have  in- 
spired caution." 

The  vacant  places  present  a  mixture  of  incongruities  —  at- 
tractive, pitiable,  shocking,  and  ludicrous.  Here  is  a  doctor, 
surrounded  by  roots,  spreading  his  plaster  on  a  man's  shin  ; 
there  is  an  astrologer,  disclosing  fortunes.  Here  is  a  group  of 
happy  children,  purchasing  smoking  comfits;  and  there  is  a 
meat  stall,  surrounded  by  stout  fellows,  swallowing  pork 
stews.  Here  are  some  hungry  mendicants,  gloating  upon  the 
dainties ;  and  close  by  are  some  of  their  fraternity,  unable  any 
longer  even  to  ask  charity,  lying  unheeded,  to  die  of  hunger. 
Mountebanks,  e'othes-dealers,  musical  beggars,  petty  auctioneers, 
gamblers,  etc.,  make  up  the  discordant  aggregate. 

At  these  openings  and  other  conspicuous  places,  placards  cover 
the  walls ;  and  as  with  us,  quack  medicines,  government  proc- 
lamations, and  business  cards  were  the  principal.     Some  were 


PERAMBULATORY    TRADES  BOOKSELLERS.  149 

novel,  and  showed  the  want  of  newspapers,  viz.  lampoons  and 
criticisms  on  public  men.  Some  of  these  were  intrepid  and 
severe,  but  none  seemed  gross  and  libellous.  Alas,  that  our 
country  should  be  so  much  behind  China  in  the  treatment  of 
official  characters ! 

Many  trades  are  here  perambulatory,  which  are  so  nowhere 
else.  Among  these  moving  mechanics  I  noticed  barbers,  coopers, 
tinmen,  blacksmiths,  shoemakers,  and  tailors,  beside  a  medley 
of  fruiterers,  hucksters,  fishmongers,  confectioners,  pedlers,  rat- 
catchers, pastry-cooks,  butchers,  picture-men,  and  I  know  not 
what.  The  throng  and  confusion  of  these  narrow  streets  is  thus 
much  increased,  while  their  various  bells,  drums,  gongs,  and 
cries  keep  up  a  perpetual  din. 

In  these  walks  I  observed,  what  I  believe  is  not  to  be  seen  in 
any  part  of  India — regular  native  booksellers.  They  generally 
display  a  considerable  assortment  of  works,  at  astonishingly 
cheap  prices.  The  moral  tendency  of  these  works  is  said  to 
be  in  general  good ;  but  the  intellectual  benefit  is  small.  This 
was  often  illustrated  by  the  close  proximity  of  some  gray-bearded 
fortune-teller,  with  five  times  the  custom  of  his  literary  neighbor. 
1  was  often  amused  to  see  the  ludicrous  gravity  with  which  these 
men  of  destiny  drew  wonder  and  cash  from  their  gaping  patients; 
and  to  mark  the  diversified  countenances  of  those  who  retired. 
The  doleful,  drawmouth  visage,  or  the  arch  chuckle  and  rubbed 
hands,  plainly  told  which  had  received  "  dampers,"  and  which 
brought  off  animating  assurances.  As  usual,  these  worshippers 
of  fortune  seemed  to  be  those  she  had  hitherto  least  favored. 

Beside  the  bookstores  are  circulating  libraries,  in  the  literal 
sense  of  the  term ;  that  is,  the  librarian,  having  his  books  ar- 
ranged in  two  neat  cases,  bears  them  on  a  pole  across  his  shoul- 
der, from  customer  to  customer.  Some  of  these  have  several 
thousand  books ;  but  the  greater  part  being  in  the  hands  of  bor- 
rowers, his  burden  is  not  excessive 

A  tolerable  idea  of  Chinese  geography  may  be  gathered  from 
a  glance  at  their  maps.  Mr.  Gutzlaffwas  kind  enough  to  present 
me  with  one  of  the  world,  and  to  translate  many  of  the  names.  It 
is  two  feet  wide  by  three  and  a  half  high,  and  is  almost  covered 
with  China!  In  the  left  hand  corner,  at  the  top,  is  a  sea,  three 
inches  square,  in  which  are  delineated,  as  small  islands,  Europe, 
England,  France,  Holland,  Portugal,  and  Africa.  Holland  is  as 
large  as  all  the  rest,  and  Africa  is  not  so  big  as  the  end  of  one's 
little  finger  !     The  northern  frontier  is  Russia,  very  large. 

The  left  corner,  at  the  bottom,  is  occupied  by  "  the  western 
13* 


150  CANTON. 

ocean,"  as  it  is  called,  containing  the  Malay  peninsula,  pretty 
well  defined.  Along  the  bottom  are  Camboja,  Cochin-China, 
&c,  represented  as  moderate-sized  islands ;  and  on  the  right  is 
Formosa,  larger  than  all  the  rest  put  together.  Various  other 
countries  are  shown  as  small  islands.  I  should  have  given  an 
engraving  of  this  curious  map,  but  that  a  true  reduction  to  the 
size  of  a  page  would  have  left  out  most  of  these  countries  al- 
together! The  surrounding  ocean  is  represented  in  huge  waves, 
with  smooth  passages,  or  highways,  branching  ofFto  the  different 
countries,  or  islands,  as  they  represent  them.  They  suppose  that 
ships  which  keep  along  these  highways  go  safely;  but  if  they, 
through  ignorance  or  stress  of  weather,  diverge,  they  soon  get 
among  these  awful  billows,  and  are  lost ! 

The  beggars  are  very  numerous  and  pitiable.  They  are  seldom 
obtrusive  ;  but  a  donation  to  one  will  bring  several  upon  you,  and 
keep  you  annoyed  for  many  paces.  In  streets  so  narrow,  they 
cannot,  of  course,  be  allowed  to  sit  or  lie  down.  The  open 
spaces  near  temples  and  other  public  places  afford  the  only 
chance  for  them  to  rest ;  and  here  many  of  them,  utterly  house- 
less, lie  down  and  die.  In  one  of  these  openings,  not  fifty  feet 
square,  I  have  seen  six  or  eight  of  these  unhappy  beings  at  a 
time  breathing  their  last,  covered  only  with  an  old  mat,  such  as 
comes  round  goods.  Many,  who  walk  about,  have  merely  such 
a  mat,  fastened  round  their  loins  by  a  wooden  pin.  With  such 
shelter  only,  do  they  pass  the  night  upon  the  earth  or  pavement; 
and  always  after  a  cold  night,  some  are  found  dead.  There 
seems  to  be  no  particular  want  of  charity  among  those  who  are 
able  to  give ;  but  the  evil  lies  too  deep  for  casual  gifts  to  cure. 
Such  as  are  not  too  sick  to  go  about,  are  sure  of  something  daily ; 
for  custom  gives  them  a  right  to  enter  any  place,  and  makes  it 
disgraceful  to  send  them  away  empty.  They  are  obliged  to  de- 
part, however,  with  the  gift  even  of  a  single  cash,  and  are  of*en 
kept  waiting  a  long  time.  I  have  often,  as  I  passed,  admired  the 
patience  both  of  the  beggar  and  the  shopmen.  Many  of  them 
carry  small  cymbals,  or  two  pieces  of  bamboo,  with  which  they 
keep  time,  at  a  deafening  rate,  to  a  plaintive  drawl.  The  shop- 
man stands  the  racket  as  long  as  he  can,  or  till  a  customer  come 
in,  when  he  throws  them  the  cash,  and  they  are  bound  to  go.  If 
he  give  soon,  the  place  is  but  so  much  the  sooner  filled  by 
another. 

Distressing  as  are  the  sights  of  mendicity  in  Canton,  they  are 
less  so  than  I  have  seen  in  some  other  cities,  especially  Dublin, 


SMALL-FOOTED    WOMEN PLACE    OF    EXECUTION.  151 

and  Turin ;  and  almost  all  are  either  blind  or  evidently  sick,  which 
is  far  from  being  the  case  either  in  Ireland  or  Italy. 

I  had  supposed  that  small-footed  women,  being  of  the  genteel 
circles,  would  not  often  be  seen.  Instead  of  this,  large  numbers 
of  them,  evidently  poor,  and  often  extremely  so,  are  met  with  in 
every  street.  Many  of  these,  doubtless,  have  been  reduced  from 
competency ;  but  many  are  the  offspring  of  persons,  who,  from 
fondness  or  ambition,  had  brought  up  their  children  in  a  manner 
beyond  their  station  in  life.  The  smallest  shoes  and  models 
shown  in  America  are  no  exaggerations.  All,  indeed,  are  not 
equally  compressed,  but  often  the  foot  of  an  adult  does  not  ex- 
ceed four  inches  in  length  ;  and  from  a  breadth  of  two  and  a 
half  inches  at  the  heel,  tapers  to  a  perfect  point.  They  walk 
precisely  as  a  person  would  do  on  two  wooden  legs.  Other 
poor  women  often  go  barefoot,  but  these  never.  Either  the  ap- 
pearance of  such  a  foot  is  too  bad,  or  the  toes,  turned  under,  are 
too  tender.  Many  of  these  victims  of  a  false  pride  sit  in  open 
spaces,  as  public  menders  of  old  clothes.  A  passenger  can  thus 
get  a  patch  or  a  button  set  on,  while  he  waits  —  a  custom  which 
might  usefully  be  introduced  among  us. 

We  rail  at  the  Chinese  for  compressed  feet  with  little  reason, 
so  long  as  we  persist  in  compressing  the  waist.  Nor  are  we 
wholly  exempt  from  the  folly  of  crushing  the  feet  also.  Even 
our  easiest  shoes,  though  less  absurd  than  the  Chinese,  are  by 
no  means  patterned  from  nature. 

I  enjoyed,  in  walking  with  Mr.  Bridgman,  what  few  foreigners 
do  —  the  advantage  of  an  interpreter.  I  was  thus  enabled  to 
stop  at  many  places,  witnessing  various  Chinese  arts,  and  con- 
versing freely  with  the  operatives.  Many  of  these  occupations 
are  known  among  us ;  but  in  every  case,  they  seem  to  be  carried 
on  by  an  unique  method.  I  was  surprised  to  find  labor-saving 
machinery  employed  to  a  considerable  extent.  One  instance 
pleased  me  exceedingly ;  viz.,  a  bellows  for  blowing  glass, 
which  almost  entirely  saved  the  workman's  lungs.  In  every 
establishment,  whether  of  an  artist,  mechanic,  or  tradesman,  we 
were  received  with  great  civility,  and  generally  offered  some 
slight  refreshment. 

One  of  our  walks  was  to  the  place  of  execution,  which  in 
China  is  generally  done  by  beheading.  It  is  part  of  a  populous 
street,  thirty  or  forty  feet  wide  just  at  that  point,  and  a  common 
thoroughfare.  On  one  side  is  a  high  blank  wall,  and  on  the  other  is 
a  row  of  potteries.  The  drying  wares  are  spread  over  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  space,  bringing  strongly  to  mind  the  bloody 


152  CANTON. 

potter's  field  of  the  New  Testament.  A  narrow  shed,  twelve  or 
fifteen  feet  long,  stood  against  the  wall,  with  shelves  of  open 
bamboo.  Lilting-  up  an  old  mat  with  my  cane,  there  lay  a  row 
of  heads,  apparently  three  or  four  days  old.  On  the  ground  in  a 
corner  were  a  few  skulls,  nearly  bleached  by  time.  Executions 
occur  here  every  few  days,  and  with  very  little  notice  or  for- 
mality. The  poor  culprit  kneels  on  the  earth;  his  long  cue  is 
twisted  up  into  a  knot  upon  his  head ;  he  puts  his  palms  together, 
in  a  posture  of  obeisance  ;  and  leaning  forward,  one  stroke  severs 
his  head  from  his  body.  The  remains  are  generally  allowed  to 
be  removed  by  friends. 

The  Chinese,  bury  their  dead,  and  are  very  careful  of  the 
tombs  of  ancestors.  To  these  they  often  resort,  to  make  prayer 
and  offerings ;  and  so  long  as  there  are  male  descendants,  they 
are  kept  in  repair.  Their  mode  of  constructing  them  is  peculiar, 
invariable,  and  so  unlike  any  others  in  the  world,  that  ajheture 
alone  can  explain. 


Chinese  Tomb. 


They  cover  many  acres  of  ground  near  Singapore,  Malacca, 
and  other  cities  where  Chinamen  are  numerous,  and  land  plenty ; 
and  even  in  China  engross  much  space,  but  generally  only  rocky 
or  barren  spots,  incapable  of  other  uses. 

The  cheapness  and  frivolity,  as  well  as  the  universality,  of 
Chinese  piety,  was  every  evening  forced  upon  our  observation, 
whether  we  returned  on  foot  or  by  boat.  Not  a  family,  on  shore 
or  afloat,  is  without  its  little  altar  ;  nor  does  a  sun  set  without  each 
being  lighted  up  with  tapers  and  incensed  with  fragrant  matches. 


RESIDENCE    OP    A    MANDAREEN.  153 

Beside  the  gaudy  domestic  altar,  with  its  flaunting  mottos  and 
varied  tinsel,  nearly  every  house  has  a  little  niche  in  the  wall, 
near  the  ground,  inscribed  with  sacred  characters,  where  also 
tapers  and  jos-sticks  are  burned.  The  air  is  thus  loaded  every 
twilight  with  sandal-wood  smoke.  Here  and  there  you  see  men 
making  additional  offerings,  by  setting  on  fire  articles  of  gilded 
paper,  or  making  libations  before  the  shrine.  These  vespers 
being  finished,  the  Chinaman's  religion  is  complete  for  that  day ; 
and  he  retires  to  pleasure  or  repose,  with  the  full  comfort  of 
self- righteousness. 

It  is  so  unpopular  to  be  familiar  with  foreigners,  that  an  op- 
portunity of  visiting  the  private  houses  of  respectable  Chinese 
is  rarely  enjoyed,  by  transient  sojourners  in  Canton.  One  of  the 
principal  hong  merchants,  being  particularly  indebted  to  Dr.  P. 
for  removing  a  polypus,  and  at  the  same  time  a  man  of  uncom- 
mon independence,  I  was  glad  to  embrace  a  proposal  to  visit 
him.  Dr.  P.  having  announced  our  desire,  we  received  a  very 
cordial  invitation.  The  house  stands  in  a  crowded  suburb ; 
nothing  being  visible  from  the  street,  but  a  wall  of  the  ordinary 
height.  Passing  through  a  vestibule,  attended  by  porters,  we 
were  ushered  into  a  large  and  handsome  hall,  where  the  old 
gentleman  soon  joined  us.  His  dress  was  negligent,  but  costly, 
and  resembled  that  of  the  mandareen  figures  in  our  tea-shops. 
He  saluted  us  in  English,  and  the  conversation  was  so  main- 
tained. After  a  little,  he  invited  us  to  see  his  establishment, 
and  kindly  accompanied  us.  I  was  soon  bewildered  in  passing 
through  halls,  rooms,  and  passages ;  crossing  little  court-yards 
and  bridges ;  now  looking  at  scores  of  gold-fish  in  a  tank,  and 
now  sitting  in  a  rustic  summer-house  on  the  top  of  an  artificial 
cliff;  now  admiring  whole  beds  of  china  asters  in  full  bloom,  and 
now  engrossed  with  large  aviaries  or  grotesque  bee-hives.  Here 
were  miniature  grottos,  and  there  were  jets  of  water.  Here  were 
stunted  forest-trees  and  porcelain  beasts,  and  there  was  a  lake 
and  a  fancy  skiff!  Yet  the  whole  was  compressed  into  a  space 
not  larger  than  is  occupied  by  some  mansions  in  the  middle  of 
our  large  cities ! 

There  was  not  that  quaint  absurdity  about  all  this,  that  books 
and  pictures  had  led  me  to  suppose.  True,  it  was  exceedingly 
artificial,  and  thoroughly  Chinese  ;  but  there  were  taste  and  beauty 
in  it  all.  Why  should  we  break  down  all  tastes  to  one  stand- 
ard ?  He  that  can  only  be  pleased  in  a  given  way,  is  illy  fitted 
to  travel ;  and  I  am  sure  any  one  not  predetermined  to  contemn, 
would  admire  and  enjoy  the  grounds  of  Tinqua. 


154  CANTON. 

The  style  of  the  rooms  pleased  me  less.  They  were  numerous, 
but  all  furnished  in  the  same  manner,  and  most  of  them  small- 
Beside  gorgeous  Chinese  lanterns,  hung  Dutch,  English,  and 
Chinese  chandeliers,  of  every  size  and  pattern.  Italian  oil- 
paintings,  Chinese  hangings,  French  clocks,  Geneva  boxes, 
British  plate,  &c.  &c,  adorned  the  same  rooms,  strewed  with 
natural  curiosities,  wax  fruits,  models,  and  costly  trifles,  from 
every  part  of  the  world. 


Chinese  Temple. 


There  are  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  temples  in  Canton, 
beside  the  numerous  public  altars  seen  in  the  streets.  1  saw 
the  principal  ones  without  the  walls,  which  are  said  not  to  be 
inferior,  on  the  whole,  to  those  within.  They  strikingly  resemble 
the  monasteries  of  Europe.  The  handsomest  is  one  of  the 
Boodhists,  in  the  suburb  of  Honan,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river.  Being  accompanied  by  Messrs.  Bridgman,  Parker,  and 
Morrison,  who  were  acquainted  with  the  superior,  I  was  not  only 
shown  every  part  by  his  order,  but  had  the  pleasure  of  his 
society  for  an  hour.  Cloisters,  corridors,  court-yards,  chapels, 
image-houses,  and  various  oftices,  are  scattered,  with  little  regard 
to  order,  over  a  space  of  five  or  six  acres.  Priests,  with  shaven 
crowns  and  rosaries,  loitered  about ;  but  I  never  saw  common  peo- 
ple come  to  worship  either  at  this  or  other  establishments.  Some 
of  the  priests  occupied  small  and  mean  apartments  ;  but  those 
of  the  superior  are  spacious,  and  furnished  not  only  with  the  ordi- 
nary conveniences,  but  with  chandeliers,  mirrors,  pictures,  &c, 
and  with  an  extensive  library.  The  buildings  are  chiefly  of 
brick,  one   story  high,  the  walks  handsomely  flagged,  and  the 


TEMPLES PRIESTS EXPENSE    OF    RELIGION.  155 

court-yard  ornamented  with  large  trees,  or  beautiful  parterres 
of  flowers.  The  printing-office  contains  stereotype  blocks 
enough  to  load  a  small  vessel,  so  arranged  as  that  every  work  is 
readily  accessible.  The  principal  apartment  or  temple  is  about 
a  hundred  feet  square,  with  the  usual  images,  &c.  We  attended 
here,  to  witness  the  regular  evening  service.  It  seemed  to  create 
little  interest,  for  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  resident  priests, 
there  were  but  fifty  present ;  and  these  uttered  their  repetitions  with 
most  obvious  indifference.  Their  prayers  are  in  Pali,  ostensi- 
bly, but  I  am  told  not  truly,  as  their  mode  of  writing  renders  it 
utterly  unintelligible  to  any  one.  They  keep  time  by  striking  a 
wooden  drum,  and  occasionally  a  bell.  At  a  certain  stage  of  the 
process,  the  whole  company  formed  into  single  file,  and  marched 
round  the  hall,  without  ceasing  their  repetitions.  This  gave  us 
a  full  view  of  their  countenances ;  and  so  far  as  these  indicated, 
a  more  stupid  set  could  not  be  picked  out  in  all  Canton.  1  have 
already  remarked  this  characteristic  of  the  Boodhist  priesthood, 
in  other  countries;  and  am  confirmed  in  the  belief  of  its 
being  attributable  to  the  character  of  then  religion,  and  the 
nature  of  their  duties. 

Instead  of  the  humble  dress  of  Burman  and  Siam  priests, 
these  wear  as  handsome  as  they  can  get,  with  shoes  and  stock- 
ings. What  is  worse,  some  are  in  rags,  barefoot,  and  squalid 
with  apparent  poverty.  They  have,  however,  a  common  refec- 
tory, where  I  presume  all  fare  alike.  The  buildings  were  erected 
at  different  times  by  the  munificence  of  individuals,  and  by  the 
revenues  of  the  establishment,  which  amount  to  about  eight 
thousand  dollars  per  annum. 

While  we  walked  over  the  premises,  the  superior  had  pre- 
pared us  a  repast  of  sweetmeats  and  fruits,  to  which  he  sat  down 
with  us.  His  manners  were  easy  and  elegant,  his  dress  unosten- 
tatious, and  his  countenance  full  of  intelligence  and  mildness. 
His  age  is  but  thirty-eight.  We,  of  course,  endeavored  to  make 
the  visit  profitable  to  him.  My  heart  yearned  over  him ;  and 
when  he  assured  me  that  he  meant  to  visit  America  in  a  year  or 
two,  I  was  happy  to  promise  him  a  most  cordial  reception. 
Priests  may  leave  the  country,  and  return,  without  the  restraints 
which  make  it  dangerous  to  others. 

The  whole  number  of  priests  in  Canton  is  estimated  at  two 
thousand  ;  of  nuns,  one  thousand.  The  annual  expense  of  the 
hundred  and  twenty-four  temples  is  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars.  An  equal  sum  is  required  for  the  periodical 
festivals.    Half  a  million,  annually  paid  in  one  city  for  religion, 


156  CANTON. 

by  pagans !     And  the  whole  amount  which  all  Christendom 
gives  for  pagans  in  a  year,  is  but  six  times  as  much. 

I  saw  no  pagodas  at  any  of 
these  establishments.  They  gen- 
erally stand  on  some  hill,  alone. 
Unlike  the  cones  or  pyramids  of 
Burmah,  these  rise  like  shot- 
towers,  with  successive  stories, 
marked  by  a  cornice  or  narrow 
pent-house.  The  top  is  often  cov- 
ered deeply  with  earth,  from 
which  shrubs  shoot  up,  and  form 
a  romantic  finish ;  as  is  the  case 
with  that  here  represented.  There 
are  but  two  within  the  city.  One, 
called  Kwa-ta,  or  "adorned  pa- 
goda," has  nine  stories,  and  is  one 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  high, 
octagonal.*  The  other,  called 
Kwang-ta,  or  unadorned  pago- 
da, is  one  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  high.  The  first  was  built 
about  thirteen  hundred  years  ago ; 
the  latter  during  the  Tang  dy- 
nasty, which  closed  A.  D.  906.  I  believe  they  are  not  resorted 
to  for  devotional  purposes ;  at  least  not  commonly.  As  crosses 
are  planted,  in  some  countries,  to  mark  the  right  of  possession, 
so  these  huge  and  durable  monuments  seem  only  to  mark  a 
country  swayed  by  him  who  claims  "the  kingdoms  of  this 
world,  and  the  glory  of  them."  How  artfully,  in  ten  thousand 
forms,  does  he,  in  every  pagan  land,  confirm  and  perpetuate  his 
rule !     But  his  time  is  short. 

The  Chinese  are  divided  into  three  sects,  viz.  those  of  Ju-kea- 
su,  Taou,  and  Boodh. 

The  Jukeasuists  are  the  followers  of  Kong-foo-tze,  or,  as  the 
Jesuits  Latinize  it,  Confucius,  who  flourished  about  five  hundred 
and  sixty  years  before  Christ,  and  was  therefore  contemporary  with 


*  The  reader  may  compare,  at  his  leisure,  the  different  forms  of  the  pagoda, 
viz.  that  of  Seringham,  page  69  of  this  volume  ;  of  the  Peguans  and  Siamese, 
in  the  landscape  of  Tavoy ;  and  in  the  view  of  Boardman's  grave,  Vol.  1. 
p.  54 ;  of  the  interior  of  Burmah,  Vol.  I.  p.  142;  and  of  China  as  above. 


CHINESE    SECTS.  157 

Pythagoras.  He  was  of  royal  descent,  and  a  mandareen  ;  but  early 
resigned  official  life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literature,  morals, 
and  political  economy.  Reducing  the  maxims  of  former  sages 
to  order,  he  added  valuable  extracts  from  current  works,  and 
prudent  sayings  of  his  own,  and  produced  a  digest,  which  con- 
tinues to  be  the  ultima  thule  of  Chinese  piety.  Travelling  ex- 
tensively as  a  popular  lecturer,  and  sustained,  not  less  by  his 
high  birth  and  eloquent  address,  than  by  the  excellence  of  his 
doctrines,  he  soon  founded  a  sect  which  became  virtually  the 
state  religion.  It  is,  however,  much  less  intolerantly  maintained, 
than  either  Popery  or  Protestantism,  where  united  with  the  state. 
The  other  religions  are  allowed,  and  sometimes  fostered.  Great 
officers,  and  even  the  emperor  himself,  build  and  endow 
Boodhist  and  Taouist  temples. 

The  system  of  Confucius  is  highly  extolled  by  European 
writers,  and  most  extravagantly  by  Chinese.  As  accounts  of  it 
are  accessible  to  all  readers,  I  need  not  stop  to  describe  it.  He 
seems  to  have  regarded  religion  less  than  politics ;  and  the  bur- 
den of  his  works  relates  to  social  virtues,  civil  government,  and 
adherence  to  ancestral  habits. 

The  sect  of  Taou  (literally  reason)  was  founded  by  Laou-Keum, 
a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Confucius.  His  followers  may  be 
called  the  mystics  of  China.  They  profess  alchymy,  assume 
mysterious  airs,  read  destinies  on  the  palms,  and  make  great 
pretensions  to  deep  research  and  superior  light.  Their  practical 
works  contain,  in  general,  the  same  laudable  precepts  which 
distinguish  the  system  of  the  Jukeasu. 

The  third  sect  follow  Fo-e,  sometimes  spelled  Fohi.  Foe  is 
said  to  be  the  old  orthography  of  Fuh,  which  is  the  Chinese 
abbreviation  of  Fuh-ta,  or  Boodha.  The  Boodhism  of  China  is 
the  same  as  that  of  Burmah,  which  has  been  sufficiently  described. 
The  system  is  certainly  far  older  than  either  of  the  others.  It  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  about  A.  D.  70. 
Kempfer  dates  the  introduction  about  A.  D.  518,  when  "Darma, 
a  great  saint,  came  from  the  West,  and  laid  the  foundation,"  &c. 
Chinese  historians  agree  that  the  worship  of  Fohi  was  originally 
brought  from  India.  Sir  William  Jones  says,  confidently,  "  Boodh 
was  unquestionably  the  Foe  of  China." 

This  sect  probably  embraces  one  third  of  the  entire  population. 
The  government  acts  with  indecision  toward  it,  at  one  time  de- 
nouncing it  as  dangerous,  and  at  another  contributing  to  its 
support.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  saw,  at  Pooto,  some  placards  calling  on 
VOL.  II.  14 


158  SIAM. 

the  people,  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  to  repair  to  the  Boodh- 
ist  temple  of  that  place,  in  order  to  propitiate  Heaven  for  a 
fruitful  spring.  The  priests  are  numerous,  but  not  greatly  re- 
spected. I  saw  some  of  them  in  the  streets  daily.  A  few  were 
exceedingly  well  dressed ;  but  generally  they  were  both  shabby 
and  dirty,  sometimes  quite  ragged. 


The  Chinese  Boodh. 


The  idol  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  the  Burmans  and  Si- 
amese. The  above  is  an  exact  delineation  of  a  large  image  or 
Jos,  which  I  obtained  from  Mr.  Roberts  at  Macao,  and  is  now 
in  the  Baptist  Missionary  Rooms,  Boston. 


The  state  of  morals  among  the  English  and  other  foreigners 
here,  is  delightfully  superior  to  that  of  other  places  I  have 
seen  in  the  East.  A  particular  vice,  so  notorious  elsewhere,  is 
indeed  effectually   prevented  by   the   Chinese   police.    But  in 


SOCIETIES  —  OPIUM    TRADE.  159 

other  respects  the  superiority  is  manifest.  The  Sabbath  is  well 
observed  ;  and  sobriety,  temperance,  and  industry,  distinguish  a 
society,  which,  but  for  the  exclusion  of"  females,  would  be  ex- 
cellent. Of  course,  the  total  absence  of  mothers,  sisters,  wives, 
and  daughters,  prevents  any  man  from  feeling  at  home  in  Can- 
ton ;  and  few  stay  longer  than  they  can  help. 

The  British  and  American  gentlemen,  beside  supporting  the 
hospital,  have  formed  two  societies  for  the  good  of  China,  viz. 
the  "  Morrison  Education  Society,"  and  the  "  Society  for  the  Dif- 
fusion of  Useful  Knowledge."  Both  are  yet  in  incipient  stages. 
Their  designs  are  fully  described  in  the  Chinese  Repositoiy. 
Another  measure  is  gradually  ripening  for  execution,  viz.  the 
establishment  of  a  Medical  Missionary  Society  ;  which  promises 
effectually  to  try  an  experiment  on  which  the  hearts  of  many 
friends  of  China  are  strongly  set.  The  object  of  this  society  will 
be  to  encourage  medical  gentlemen  to  come  and  practise  gratu- 
itously among  the  Chinese.* 

The  great  blot  on  foreigners  at  Canton,  though  not  on  all,  is 
the  opium  trade.  That  men  of  correct  moral  sensibilities  and 
enlightened  minds  should  be  so  blinded  by  custom,  or  desire  of 
gain,  as  to  engage  in  this  business,  is  amazing.  A  smuggler  in 
Canton  is  no  more  honorable  than  a  smuggler  on  any  other 
coast ;  in  some  respects  less  so.  There  is  less  chivalry,  hardi- 
hood, fatigue,  exposure,  and  inducement,  than  in  the  case  of  a 
poor  man,  who  braves  both  the  war  of  elements  and  legal  penalty, 
to  obtain  subsistence  for  his  family.  Here,  among  a  peaceable 
and  perhaps  timid  people,  they  incur  no  personal  hazards,  and 
set  at  defiance  edicts  and  officers.  No  other  smuggling  intro- 
duces an  article  so  deadly  and  demoralizing.  The  victims  of  it 
daily  meet  the  smuggler's  eyes,  and  are  among  the  patients  re- 
sorting to  the  hospital  he  helps  to  support.  So  well  do  they 
know  the  moral  and  physical  evils  of  opium,  that  not  one  of 
them  ventures  on  the  habit  of  using  it  himself. 

*  A  Medical  Missionary  Societ}',  with  the  above  object,  was  formed  in 
Canton  early  in  1838.  It  does  not  purpose  to  pay  the  salary  of  medical  men, 
but  to  receive  such  as  may  be  sent  by  missionary  boards,  or  come  at  their  own 
cost;  and  to  furnish  them  with  hospitals,  medicines,  attendants,  &c.  It  will 
establish  libraries  and  museums,  and  take  every  proper  measure  to  spread  the 
benefits  of  rational  medicine  and  surgery  among'  the  Chinese;  in  the  hope  of 
thus  paving  the  way  for  the  relaxation  of  those  laws,  customs,  and  prejudices, 
which  now  exclude  the  Christian  missionary.  Of  this  society,  T.  R.  Colledge, 
Esq.  is  president.  The  society  has  already  received  cash  subscriptions  to 
the  amount  of  $9936  .  cmefly  from  tne  English  and  American  gentlemen  on 
the  spot. 


160  CANTON. 

In  this,  as  in  other  cases,  magnitude  gives  dignity  and 
sanction  to  the  operation.  No  other  smuggling  is  on  so  grand  a 
scale.  The  annual  sale  amounts  to  a  sum  equal  to  the  entire 
revenue  of  the  United  States,  and  to  the  whole  value  of  teas 
exported  to  England  and  America !  At  this  very  time,  though 
efforts  so  extraordinary  and  persevering  have  been  put  forth  by 
the  Chinese  government,  to  stop  this  infernal  traffic,  there  are 
twenty-four  opium  ships  on  the  coast.  We  have  little  reason  to 
wonder  at  the  reluctance  of  China  to  extend  her  intercourse 
with  foreigners.  Nearly  the  whole  of  such  intercourse  brings 
upon  her  pestilence,  poverty,  crime,  and  disturbance. 

No  person  can  describe  the  horrors  of  the  opium  trade.  The 
drug  is  produced  by  compulsion,  accompanied  with  miseries  to 
the  cultivators,  as  great  as  slaves  endure  in  any  part  of  the  earth. 
The  prices  paid  to  the  producer  scarcely  sustain  life,  and  are 
many  per  cent,  less  than  the  article  produces  in  Chinas  The 
whole  process  of  carrying  and  vending  is  an  enormous  infringe- 
ment of  the  laws  of  nations,  and  such  as  would  immediately 
produce  a  declaration  of  war  by  any  European  power  —  the 
grandest  and  grossest  smuggling  trade  on  the  globe  !  The  in- 
fluence of  the  drug  on  China  is  more  awful  and  extensive  than 
that  of  rum  in  any  countiy,  and  worse  to  its  victims  than  any 
outward  slavery.  That  the  government  of  British  India  should 
be  the  prime  abettors  of  this  abominable  traffic,  is  one  of  the 
grand  wonders  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  proud  escutcheon 
of  the  nation,  which  declaims  against  the  slave  trade,  is  thus 
made  to  bear  a  blot  broader  and  darker  than  any  other  in  the 
Christian  world. 

A  subsequent  chapter  on  missions  to  the  Chinese,  shows  what 
missionaries  have  labored  for  this  people,  at  different  points, 
and  who  are  now  thus  engaged.  It  is  sufficient,  therefore,  here 
to  notice  those  in  Canton;  viz.  Messrs.  Bridgman  and  Parker. 
Mr.  B.  has  not  yet  become  able  to  preach  in  Chinese,  but  is 
making  very  rapid  progress,  and  has  acquired  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  ivritten  language,  as  to  be  able  with  critical  ability  to 
assist  in  the  revision  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  now  in  progress  at 
Singapore.  He  also  has  some  promising  Chinese  boys  under 
his  daily  instruction.  His  other  engagements,  besides  the  study 
of  the  language,  are,  editing  the  Chinese  Repository,  and  preach- 
ing in  English. 

Dr.  P.  has  from  his  arrival  been  engrossed  with  medical  prac- 
tice, for  which  purpose  he  was  sent  out.     His  hospital  was  com- 


MISSIONARY    OPERATIONS.  161 

menced  in  November,  1835,  chiefly  for  diseases  of  the  eye. 
Resident  foreigners  wholly  support  the  establishment,  (except 
Dr.  P.'s  salary,)  at  an  expense  of  about  sixteen  hundred  dollars 
per  annum.  Not  only  do  crowds  of  patients,  with  diseased  eyes, 
resort  to  him,  but  many  others,  ouly  a  selection  of  which  can 
receive  his  attention. 

Up  to  the  present  period,  four  thousand  four  hundred  persons 
have  been  treated.  The  cases  are  described,  and  in  some  in- 
stances the  treatments  and  results,  in  Dr.  P.'s  regular  quarterly 
reports.  His  labors  are  severe,  but  his  health  and  spirits  good. 
A  satisfactory  proof  of  his  skill  is  found  in  the  friendship  and 
encomiums  of  seven  or  eight  English  physicians,  residing  at 
Canton  and  Macao  ;  some  of  whom  attend  him  on  every  opera- 
tion day,  rendering  valuable  aid,  and  highly  applauding  his 
operations  and  treatment.  He  has  three  native  students  of 
medicine,  who  receive  careful  instruction,  literary  as  well  as 
medical,  and  through  whom  incalculable  blessings  may  flow  to 
this  people. 

There  is  no  Chinese  convert  at  Canton,  nor  religious  services 
in  that  language,  nor  giving  of  tracts.  Even  conversation  with 
patients  in  the  hospital  is  ventured  upon  with  caution.  A  lin- 
guist is  stationed  there,  by  the  local  authorities,  who  narrowly 
watches  every  transaction.  The  missionaries  fully  believe  that 
frequency,  or  a  little  indiscretion,  would  at  once  break  up  the 
institution,  and  perhaps  cause  them  to  be  driven  away. 

How  far  the  labors  of  these  excellent  brethren  are  to  prepare 
the  way  for  Christianity,  or  for  future  missionaries,  is  not  clear. 
They  are  certainly  earning  for  themselves  the  confidence  and 
esteem  of  many  individuals.  But  can  they  transfer  these  to 
others?  If  successors  keep  equally  quiet,  in  respect  to  religion, 
they  will  remain  unmolested,  without  reference  to  the  present 
missionaries.  If  they  do  not,  these  will  furnish  no  precedent, 
and  their  character  no  protection  :  opposition  might  be  expected, 
as  heretofore,  and  the  work  must  be  commenced  in  fact  anew. 

Ten  days,  out  of  my  thirty  in  China,  were  consumed  in  a  visit 
to  Macao.  That  it  was  my  last  point  of  observation,  made  me 
acquainted  with  Guztlaff,  and  would  show  me  Popery  under  a 
new  phase,  gave  peculiar  interest  to  the  visit. 

The   sailing   distance   from  Canton   is   about   seventy   miles. 
Small  packet-boats,  with  a  deck,  ply  regularly  between  the  two 
places,  which  stop  a  few  minutes  at  Lintin,  and  consume  gen- 
erally about  twenty-four  hours  in  the  passage. 
14* 


162  MACAO. 

The  crowds  of  boats  and  junks  near  Canton,  the  long  line  of 
English  and  American  shipping  in  Whampoa  Reach,  the  forts, 
towers,  cultivation,  and  fishermen,  on  the  way  to  Lintin,  and  the 
romantic  islands  and  promontories  between  that  place  and 
Macao,  render  the  voyage,  under  favorable  circumstances,  in- 
structing and  pleasant. 

Macao,  seen  from  the  harbor,  wears  an  aspect  of  great  beauty 
and  dignity.  The  crescent  curve  of  the  shore,  unbroken  by  any 
wharf  or  jetty,  whitened  by  the  foamy  surf  and  sloping  sand ; 
the  front  range  of  well-built  houses  ;  the  town,  rising  behind  on 
different  hills ;  and  the  bold  ridges  on  either  side  —  make  a  scene 
rarely  surpassed.  But  the  shipping  lie  at  the  back  of  the  town  ; 
not  a  movement  of  commerce  is  to  be  seen ;  a  few  sepoys  seem 
to  be  the  only  moving  objects :  and  as  you  land  from  the  little 
sampan,  sensations  of  desolation  are  scarcely  to  be  suppressed. 
The  first  walk  through  the  town  dissipates  all  the  poetic  'antici- 
pations awakened  by  a  view  from  the  harbor.  Narrow  streets, 
ill-built  houses,  beggarly  shops,  and  the  total  absence  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  business,  create  a  strong  sense  of  desolation ;  and  a 
few  promenades  leave  you  nothing  new  to  see. 

Decline  seems  stamped  on  every  thing,  civil  and  religious. 
Instead  of  its  former  population  of  twenty  thousand  Portuguese 
and  other  foreigners,  it  has  now  but  four  thousand  three  hundred. 
Its  extensive  commerce  is  almost  annihilated.  Several  of  the 
large  churches  are  either  in  ruins,  or  used  for  barracks.  Few 
of  the  houses  are  kept  in  perfect  repair,  and  the  streets  are  no 
longer  thronged  with  busy  passengers.  The  churches  are  still 
numerous  and  noble ;  and  evidence  is  every  moment  present, 
that  you  are  in  a  Papal  town.  The  bells  ring  often  every  day  ; 
processions,  with  crucifixes  and  lighted  candles,  go  and  come ; 
and  priests,  with  black  frocks  and  cocked  hats,  are  seen  in  the 
streets. 

The  town  is  built  on  two  ridges,  forming  a  triangle,  of  which 
the  hypotenuse  is  the  secure  inner  harbor,  where  all  the  ship- 
ping lie ;  but  which  is  gradually  filling  up.  The  whole  site  is 
but  a  section  of  a  promontory  extending  to  the  southward,  from 
the  large  island  of  Heang-shan.  A  wall,  built  across  the 
entire  breadth,  only  seventeen  hundred  yards  from  the  ex- 
treme south  point,  effectually  restricts  foreigners  to  the  limits 
assigned  them,  and  enables  the  Chinese,  by  stopping  the  supply 
of  provisions,  always  to  bring  the  Portuguese  to  terms,  if  difficul- 
ties occur.  A  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  even  within  the 
Portuguese  limits,  are  Chinese.     They  have  their  bazar,  their 


MISSIONARIES PRINTING-OFFICE.  163 

temples,  their  commerce,  and  even  their  custom-house;  and 
seem  to  he  virtually  rulers  of  the  place. 

For  more  than  three  centuries  (that  is,  since  1537)  have  the 
Portuguese  occupied  Macao.  The  history  of  the  place,  during 
this  long  interval,  is  interesting  in  various  respects ;  but  I  can 
attempt  no  sketch  of  it  here.  It  forms  not  only  a  veritable  and 
practical  comment  on  Popery,  but  shows  it  up  in  an  important 
aspect;  viz.  as  having  both  power  and  prevalence,  in  the 
midst  of  a  pagan  land.  It  also  exhibits  political  and  commercial 
mistakes,  worthy  to  be  scanned  and  weighed  by  statesmen. 

I  of  course  found  the  Baptist  brethren,  Shuck  and  Roberts, 
only  students ;  so  that,  as  to  them,  there  was  neither  much  for 
me  to  arrange  or  learn.  But  though  they  have  so  recently  ar- 
rived, I  was  assured  by  a  competent  judge,  that  their  prog- 
ress in  the  language  was  very  honorable  to  themselves.  Mr. 
S.  studies  the  Mandareen  dialect,  preparatory  to  assuming  some 
post  on  the  western  frontier  of  China ;  and  Mr.  R.  that  of 
Macao,  intending  to  make  this  his  permanent  position.  I  was 
happy  to  make  arrangements  with  Mr.  Gutzlaffj  to  devote  a  few 
hours  a  week  to  their  instruction. 

Mr.  Williams,  a  printer  in  the  service  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  is  stationed  here.  He 
has  charge  of  the  Honorable  East  India  Company's  printing- 
office,  and  has  been  employed  on  Medhurst's  Dictionary,  &c. 
The  magistrates  totally  prohibit  the  printing  of  Bibles  and  tracts 
in  Macao ;  so  that  he  is  at  present,  left  to  prosecute  his  studies 
in  the  language.  This  office  contains  two  fonts  of  Chinese 
character,  and  some  English.  One  is  of  very  large  size,  each 
type  weighing  one  tael  and  two  mace,  or  about  an  ounce 
and  a  half  Each  type  was  engraved  by  itself,  and  cost,  for  cut- 
ting and  metal,  about  seven  cents.  The  font  has  but  one  type 
in  each  character  :  so  that  it  can  be  of  no  use,  unless  in  reprint- 
ing a  dictionary.  Seventeen  thousand  of  these  types  have  been 
lost,  and  twenty-seven  thousand  yet  remain.  The  font  was  made 
at  vast  expense,  by  the  East  India  Company,  for  printing 
Morrison's  great  Chinese  Dictionary. 

The  other  font  is  of  the  size  called  "  Columbian,"  and,  like  the 
first,  was  cut  upon  blank  faces,  and  not  cast.  It  contains  thirty 
thousand  characters,  averaging  but  two  types  for  each  ;  so  that, 
like  the  other,  it  cannot  be  used  in  printing  ordinary  books. 

With  Mr.  W.  is  residing  G.  T.  Lay,  Esq.,  an  agent  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  whose  recent  visits  to  Borneo, 
Celebes,  Ternate,  and  other  islands  in  these  seas,  enabled  him  to 


164  MACAO. 

give  me  light  on  several  subjects,  respecting  which  books  left 
me  in  the  dark.  Mr.  L.  is  distinguished  as  a  naturalist,  as  well 
as  for  an  extraordinary  facility  in  acquiring  languages ;  and  his 
researches  among  these  comparatively  unknown  tribes  cannot 
fail  to  benefit  both  science  and  religion. 

Mr.  Gutzlaff  welcomed  me  with  all  possible  cordiality ;  and 
our  previous  correspondence  paved  the  way  for  business,  with- 
out circumlocution  or  formality.  He  is  a  Prussian,  about  thirty- 
four  years  of  age,  small,  dark  hair  and  eyes,  in  fine  health, 
of  great  activity,  and  sprightly  in  all  his  motions.  His  office  of 
interpreter  to  the  superintendent  of  trade  seldom  makes  de- 
mands on  his  time,  while  its  ample  salary  furnishes  him  the 
means  of  much  good.  No  man  is  more  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
Christ,  and  iew  so  laborious,  as  his  ten  voyages  along  the  coast 
since  his  arrival  in  1831  amply  testify.  His  chief  employment, 
at  present,  is  the  preparation  of  tracts,  and  of  a  new  version  of 
the  Scriptures,  with  the  help  of  Marshman's  and  Morrison's 
versions. 

I  of  course  spent  many  hours  with  him,  listening,  note-book 
in  hand,  to  his  opinions,  observations,  difficulties,  desires,  and 
purposes;  and  his  comments  on  mine.  Without  the  least  ap- 
parent reserve,  and  with  exceeding  earnestness  and  animation, 
he  passed  on  from  subject  to  subject,  at  the  table,  in  the  garden, 
and  by  the  way-side.  All  was  of  China.  Not  an  inquiry  had 
he  to  make  of  where  I  had  been,  or  what  was  doing  elsewhere. 
Not  a  moment  did  common-place  matters  come  up.  His  mind, 
full  of  one  grand  theme,  seemed  to  spill  over  spontaneously 
every  moment.  Though  unable  to  adopt  his  judgment  on  many 
points,  I  could  but  admire  his  zeal,  piety,  diligence,  and  hope. 

His  darling  plan  is  the  multiplication  of  voyages  along  the 
coast,  for  the  distribution  of  tracts.  He  thinks  he  has  in  this 
way,  himself,  had  access  to  thirty  millions  of  people ;  and  cher- 
ishes the  most  animated  expectations  from  a  large  employment 
of  this  method.  But  after  listening  with  deep  attention  to  all 
his  remarks  on  this  important  theme,  I  could  not  adopt  his  con- 
clusions. The  distribution  of  tracts  can  only  be  of  use  on  a 
large  scale,  in  preparing  the  way  for  living  teachers.  This 
has  been  done  sufficiently,  so  far  as  regards  the  coast ;  and  we 
must  continue  to  do  occasionally  till  teachers  be  admitted  to  resi- 
dence. But  to  make  it  an  end,  instead  of  a  means ;  to  pour 
annually  millions  of  tracts  along  the  same  line  of  coast;  to  go 
in  face  of  prohibitory  edicts,  and  only  as  protected  by  cannon; 
and  to  be  at  the  expense  of  both  tracts  and  voyage,  while  so 


GUTZLAFF.  165 

many  of  the  books  are  yet  scarcely  intelligible,  is  at  best  but  a 
very  imperfect  mode  of  conducting  a  mission. 

Mrs.  G.  is  an  English  lady,  without  children  of  her  own,  and 
has  taken  twenty  little  pagan  girls  into  her  house,  where  they 
receive  every  advantage,  in  school  and  out.  They  are  allowed  to 
come  into  the  parlor,  and  are  in  all  respects  put  upon  the  toot- 
ing of  pupils  in  our  best  boarding-schools.  Among  them  are 
two  little  blind  girls,  of  good  parts.  As  1  caressed  the  poor 
little  orphans,  heard  their  hymns  and  portions  of  Scripture,  saw 
them  read  from  the  New  England  raised-letter  books,  and 
marked  the  deep  and  tender  interest  of  Mrs.  G.  on  their  behalf, 
my  heart  rejoiced  in  God.  O,  how  blessed  and  bright  would 
this  dark  world  become,  if  only  the  spirit  of  our  glorious  Re- 
deemer were  diffused  abroad !  What  sweet  intercourse  of 
sympathy,  generosity,  love,  and  gratitude,  would  gladden  life's 
roughest  passages ! 

There  is  no  body  of  native  Christians  in  Macao,  nor  any 
Protestant  convert  but  a  poor  gardener,  baptized  by  Mr.  Shuck 
not  long  since.  I  accompanied  Mr.  G.,  on  the  first  Sunday  in 
November,  to  the  houses  of  some  Chinamen,  with  whom  he 
conversed  in  a  manner  that  showed  he  was  no  stranger  to  their 
doors.  In  the  evening,  as  is  his  custom,  he  preached  in  English 
to  the  patients  of  the  Marine  Hospital,  and  a  few  friends ;  but  it 
was  evident  this  was  not  his  forte.  There  can  be  held  no  regu- 
lar meetings  for  Chinese,  nor  any  open  preaching,  and  only  a 
scanty  and  cautious  distribution  of  tracts.  Mr.  G.'s  usefulness, 
therefore,  can  extend  little  beyond  his  study  and  his  scholars, 
except  when  on  his  favorite  excursions  along  the  coast. 

The  next  evening,  was  the  concert  of  prayer,  held  at  the  house 
of  C.  W.  K.,  Esq.,  a  pious  American  of  the  firm  of  Oliphant 
&  Co.  We  numbered  but  eight;  yet  the  occasion,  the  place, 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  people  round  us,  gave  deep  interest 
to  a  meeting  always  dear  to  a  Christian.  Alas!  that  so  many 
churches  lose  the  pleasure  and  benefit  of  this  hallowed  evening; 
to  say  nothing  of  the  duty  of  praying,  "  Thy  kingdom  come." 

T.  R.  Colledge,  Esq.,  of  this  place,  an  eminent  and  humane 
surgeon  in  his  majesty's  service,  on  joining  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's establishment  in  1827,  immediately  began  a  system  of 
gratuitous  practice  for  the  Chinese,  particularly  in  diseases  of 
the  eye.  The  first  year,  his  own  resources  supplied  the  funds; 
but  in  the  next,  friends  contributed,  and  as  confidence  among  the 
Chinese  increased,  patients  multiplied,  and  a  regular  hospital 
was  opened,  where  patients  from  a  distance  were  accommodated. 


166  MACAO. 

Up  to  1833,  four  thousand  patients  were  relieved.  At  that  time, 
the  retirement  of  a  medical  officer  threw  upon  Dr.  C.  such  an 
increase  of  duty,  that  the  hospital  was  suspended.  The  insti- 
tution, however,  had  so  won  the  favor  of  all  classes,  that  a 
very  large  and  well-adapted  house  has  been  purchased  for  a 
permanent  establishment,  capable  of  accommodating  several 
hundred  persons. 

Mr.  G.'s  published  letters  have  widely  diffused  his  favorite  posi- 
tion, that "  China  is  open."  He  still  maintains  this  position,  though 
others  have  risen  to  controvert  it.  To  me  it  seems  that,  whether 
it  is  open  to  the  settlement  of  missionaries  is  a  matter  to  be  de- 
cided only  by  experiment ;  to  make  which,  there  are  not  more 
than  himself  and  three  other  missionaries  sufficiently  versed  in 
the  language.  Little  good  could  come  of  an  attempt  of  this 
kind,  made  by  a  man  unable  to  teach  the  people,  or  to  explain 
himself  before  a  magistrate.  The  worst  that  would  probably 
happen  to  a  proper  man,  making  the  trial,  would  be,  to  be  placed 
in  a  sedan  chair,  and  transmitted  to  Macao.  How  far  the  sea- 
board is  open  to  the  distribution  of  tracts,  is  ascertained;  that  is, 
they  may  be  given  away  in  any  quantity,  if  a  ship  be  at  hand  to 
protect  the  operation.  For  want  of  such  a  vessel,  a  hundred  and 
seventy  large  boxes  of  tracts  have  now  for  months  been  laying  in 
a  receiving  ship  at  Lintin,  and  which  dare  not  be  landed  either  at 
Canton  or  Macao. 

I  am  not  only  persuaded  that,  at  this  moment,  China  is  not 
open  to  the  settlement  of  Christian  teachers,  but  satisfied  that 
Protestants  are  far  from  being  ready  to  have  it  open.  With  three 
or  four  men  able  to  preach  in  Chinese,  what  could  Christendom 
do  ?  Nothing,  after  locating  these,  with  each  a  hundred  millions 
for  his  district,  but  what  she  can  do  now  —  set  apart  more  men 
to  study  the  language.  It  is  a  great  mercy  that  China  should  be 
shut,  at  present,  to  Christian  teachers.  Were  it  otherwise,  Prot- 
estants are  without  persons  to  send  ;  while  Popish  priests  abound 
in  the  East,  and  would  instantly  enter  in  great  numbers,  making 
the  field  worse  for  us,  if  possible,  than  now. 


Chinese  Shoe. 


167 


CHAPTER    VI. 

Embark  for  home  —  Straits  of  Gaspar  and  Sunda  —  Petty  Monsoon  —  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  —  Remarkable  Phenomenon  —  St.  Helena  —  False  Alarm 
—  Slave  Trade — Landing  at  Newport  —  Summary — Reflections. 

Besides  the  sweets  of  being  "  homeward  bound,"  the  voyage 
from  the  East  is,  in  many  respects,  pleasanter  than  the  outward, 
especially  when  we  embark  in  the  fall.  The  winds  are  almost 
all  fair ;  the  distance  is  much  less ;  the  repeated  sight  of  land 
breaks  up  the  dreary  monotony  of  four  or  five  months'  passage ; 
and  vessels  generally  touch  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or  St. 
Helena,  which  adds  a  large  amount  of  interesting  information, 
and  furnishes  refreshments  to  sustain  both  health  and  spirits. 

The  stagnation  of  trade  is  now  so  complete,  (November,  1837,) 
that  but  one  vessel  is  loading  at  Canton  for  the  United  States, 
and  no  other  expected  to  sail  for  six  or  eight  weeks,  if  so  soon. 
She  belongs  to  Messrs.  Brown  and  Ives  of  Providence,  and  in 
her  I  take  passage,  grateful  for  an  opportunity  to  depart,  when 
my  business  is  finished. 

Leaving  Macao  November  24th,  we  came  down  the  coast  of 
Cochin-China,  between  the  Natunna  and  Anamba  groups  of 
islands,  and  passing  in  sight  of  Middle  Island,  St.  Julien,  St. 
Esprit,  St.  Barbe,  &c,  reached  the  Straits  of  Gaspar  in  ten  days. 
Here  we  saw  Banca,  Pulo  Lat,  and  other  islands.  A  day  or  two 
more  brought  to  view  the  beautiful  heights  of  Sumatra,  along 
which  we  coasted  to  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  surrounded  by  noble 
scenery.  The  mountains  of  Java  and  Sumatra,  the  fine  peaks 
of  Cockatoa  and  Prince's  Islands,  the  numerous  minor  islands, 
the  quiet  seas,  and  the  glorious  skies,  make  it  one  of  the  most 
interesting  passages  I  know. 

Leaving  Java  head  December  7th,  we  took  the  petty  monsoon,* 
and  hauled  close  upon  it,  to  lat.  16°  south,  where  we  reached  the 

*  The  petty  monsoon  is  a  remarkable  intrusion  on  the  south-east  trade-wind. 
It  exists  six  months  in  the  year ;  viz.  from  November  to  May,  between  lat. 
2°  and  10°  south,  and  extending  from  Madagascar  to  Java.  It  is  sometimes 
broader.  We  had  it  as  far  as  lat.  16°.  It  generally  blows  fresh,  and  often 
in  squalls. 


168  VOYAGE    HOME. 

regular  south-east  trade,  and  rolled  before  it  more  than  four  thou- 
sand miles,  in  about  a  month.  On  the  17th  of  January,  1838,  we 
came  in  sight  of  Africa,  and  sailed  for  two  days  close  along  the 
sublime  outline  of  the  mountains  which  form  the  "  Cape  of 
Storms."  The  winds  here  are  almost  always  ahead  for  home- 
ward vessels,  which  therefore  hug  the  shore,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  westerly  current ;  but  we  were  favored  with  a  gentle  fair 
wind  all  the  way  round  to  Table  Bay. 

No  sooner  had  we  dropped  anchor  off  Cape  Town,  on  the 
morning  of  the  19th,  than  I  hastened  ashore  to  make  the  best  of 
the  time  the  ship  remained  to  fill  up  her  water,  and  procure 
stores.  Dr.  Phillips,  the  well-known  and  venerable  superintend- 
ent of  the  London  Missionary  Society's  stations  in  South  Africa, 
had  not  yet  returned  from  his  visit  to  England  ;  but  I  found  Mrs. 
P.  abundantly  able  to  supply  his  place.  Her  complete  knowl- 
edge of  the  details  of  every  station,  and  striking  energy  of  char- 
acter, charmed  me  exceedingly.  Making  me  welcome  to  her 
home,  she  patiently  suffered  herself  to  be  plied  with  questions, 
and,  on  my  retiring  for  the  night,  furnished  documents  to  read, 
calculated  to  be  highly  useful  to  me  as  a  manager  of  missionary 
operations. 

Rev.  Mr.  Locke,  Mr.  P.'s  substitute,  gave  me  his  time  when 
Mrs.  P.  could  not,  so  that,  whether  walking  or  sitting,  my  pencil 
had  no  rest.  Long  practice  has  served  to  stereotype  my  ques- 
tions, so  that  when  I  fall  among  such  as  can  inform,  the  work  of 
gathering  facts,  dates,  and  numbers,  is  plain,  if  not  easy. 

Few  places  can  be  more  beautifully  situated  than  Cape  Town. 
1  made  a  drawing  from  the  ship ;  but  the  expense  of  this  work  is 
already  so  great  as  to  forbid  its  being  engraved.  The  city  occu- 
pies a  gentle  acclivity,  on  the  east  side  of  the  bay ;  scattered 
villas  are  sprinkled  over  the  adjacent  shores ;  and  in  the  rear, 
upon  moderate  hills,  are  pleasant  country  seats,  embosomed 
among  vineyards  and  fruit-trees.  Behind  all,  distant  but  a  mile, 
is  the  steep  wall-like  front  of  Table  Mountain,  rising  nearly  four 
thousand  feet,  almost  perpendicularly,  without  a  tree,  or  scarcely 
a  shrub,  to  hide  the  frowning  rocks.  In  the  placid  bay  about 
twenty  vessels  were  lying  at  anchor,  of  which  no  less  than  eight 
were  American.  There  is  a  small  fort,  and  some  other  defences ; 
but  none  which  would  be  of  any  avail  against  an  enemy,  which 
might  land  elsewhere,  and  take  these  batteries  in  the  rear. 

The  streets  of  the  city  are  regularly  laid  out,  and  well  built, 
but  narrow.  The  population  is  about  twenty-five  thousand ;  the 
great  majority  of  which  are  negroes  and  mulattoes.  These 
swarm  about  the  town ;   their   wretched  trousers  and  jackets 


CAPE    OF    GOOD    HOPE.  169 

contrasting  very  disadvantageously  with  the  graceful  and  snow- 
white  drapery  of  servants  in  India. 

It  is  the  middle  of  January,  (1838,)  and  here,  the  height  of 
summer.  The  markets  abound  with  grapes,  peaches,  apricots, 
apples,  plums,  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  strawberries,  mulberries, 
melons,  &c,  at  very  low  rates.  Our  supply  of  oranges,  from 
China,  had  just  run  out ;  so  that  such  an  opportunity  of  repla- 
cing our  antiscorbutic  luxuries  was  most  welcome.  The  vine- 
yards are  not  trellised  like  the  Italian,  or  tied  to  stakes  like 
the  German,  but  suffered  to  grow  alone,  like  currant  bushes. 
This  plan  is  probably  necessary,  on  account  of  the  fierce  winds 
which  often  prevail,  but,  as  it  suffers  many  of  the  grapes  to  lie 
on  the  ground,  is  perhaps  the  cause  of  the  earthy  taste  of  the 
common  Cape  wines. 

There  are  at  Cape  Town  two  Episcopal  ministers,  four  Dutch, 
two  Lutheran,  one  Scotch,  two  Independent,  two  Methodist, 
one  supported  by  the  South  African  Missionary  Society,  and 
four  engaged  wholly  or  partially  in  schools  or  secular  business  ; 
making  eighteen.  The  following  list  of  charitable  and  religious 
institutions,  though  perhaps  incomplete,  will  show  that  Christians 
here  are  not  unmindful  of  the  calls  of  enlightened  philanthropy: 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  ;  South  African  Mis- 
sionary Society,  instituted  1799 ;  Auxiliary  London  Missionary 
Society;  Auxiliary  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society;  Bible  Union, 
instituted  1818  ;  Infant  School  Society,  with  three  schools  ;  three 
schools  on  the  British  system  ;  Ladies'  Benevolent  Society  ;  Tract 
and  Book  Society;  Orphan  Asylum;  Sick  and  Burial  Society; 
Widows'  and  Old  Women's  Society ;  School  of  Industry  for 
girls ;  and  ten  Sunday  schools  containing  about  fifteen  hundred 
scholars. 

Had  the  Dutch,  who  settled  this  colony  nearly  two  hundred 
years  ago,  been  as  zealous  for  the  conversion  of  the  natives,  as 
they  were  for  the  introduction  of  their  language,  there  would,  no 
doubt,  have  been  a  far  different  state  of  things  among  that  part 
of  the  population.  But  though  Dutch  is  now  the  vernacular  of  all 
the  negroes  in  this  part  of  the  continent,  Christianity  is  the  re- 
ligion of  comparatively  few  ;  while  more  than  nine  thousand 
have  adopted  the  faith  of  the  false  prophet.  Indeed,  it  is  af- 
firmed, that  they  rather  preferred  that  the  Hottentots  should 
become  Mussulmans ;  being  unwilling  that  their  slaves  should 
acquire  such  a  ground  of  familiarity  as  would  be  produced  by  a 
common  Christianity !  Even  now,  a  large  number  of  blacks 
annually  go  over  to  Mahometanism. 

VOL.   II.  15 


170  ST.    HELENA FALSE    ALARM. 

On  leaving  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  delightful  breeze  from  the 
south-east  brought  us  at  once  into  the  regular  trade-wind,  so  that 
we  scarcely  started  tack  or  sheet,  till  off'  St.  Helena,  on  the  31st 
of  January.  Squalls  and  calms,  produced  by  the  proximity  of 
this  lofty  island,  kept  us  near  it  for  twenty-fours ;  making  us 
familiar  with  its  gloomy  outline,  and  allowing  us  leisure  to  phi- 
losophize on  the  fate  of  bloody  men.  Heavy  clouds  lowered  on 
its  summits,  while  dreariness  and  solitude  seemed  the  only 
tenants  of  its  worthless  valleys.  May  ambitious  rulers  never 
forget  the  impressive  lesson  of  St.  Helena's  exiled  emperor! 
We  left  the  island  to  the  westward,  and,  catching  "the  trade" 
again,  reached  the  equator  in  about  twenty  days.  He  who 
most  dislikes  the  sea,  must  love  it  in  the  south-east  trade-wind. 
Such  skies,  such  air,  such  gentle  waters,  such  quiet  in  the  ship, 
such  glorious  nights,  such  security  from  all  shoals  and  coasts, 
and  such  steady  progress,  make  up  the  very  poetry  of  life  upon 
the  sea. 

The  north-east  trade  met  us  south  of  the  line,  blowing  with 
double  the  force  of  the  other.  Its  haziness  prevented  my  noticing 
at  what  latitude  the  Magellan  clouds  ceased  to  be  visible.  We 
however  saw  them  till  within  two  or  three  degrees  of  the 
equator.  They  appeared  then  about  15°  above  the  horizon. 
Since  leaving  the  Cape,  the  thermometer  has  ranged  about  80° 
to  85°  in  the  cabin. 

For  a  number  of  days  after  crossing  the  line,  we  noticed  fine 
yellowish  sand,  deposited  on  every  part  of  the  vessel  and  rigging. 
It  could  be  wiped  from  the  decks,  like  dust  from  a  table.  This, 
of  course,  was  from  the  coast  of  Africa,  above  a  thousand  miles 
distant!  I  am  told  this  phenomenon  is  not  uncommon,  but  do 
not  recollect  to  have  seen  it  noticed  in  books. 

In  the  latitude  of  the  West  Indies,  a  suspicious  looking 
schooner  came  in  sight,  and  leaving  her  course,  boarded  a  vessel 
a  few  miles  ahead.  Soon  after,  she  bore  for  another,  chang- 
ing her  course  again,  came  down  upon  us,  and  ranged  alongside 
at  musket-shot  distance.  She  earned  the  flag  of  Donna  Maria, 
was  of  the  fastest  model,  too  small  to  be  engaged  in  commerce, 
and  had  other  indications  of  being  a  pirate.  It  seemed  evident, 
too,  she  had  no  particular  course,  for  she  had  been  boxing  about 
since  day-light.  To  be  captured,  and  perhaps  murdered,  was 
now  a  reasonable  expectation ;  and  I  began  to  think  this  book 
would  never  see  the  light.  After  sailing  with  us  a  while  before 
the  wind,  keeping  us  in  constant  expectation  of  a  shot,  she  sheared 
to,  and  an  officer  in  half-uniform  hailed  us,  saying,  "With  your 


A    SLAVER.  171 

leave,  we  will  come  on  board."  Of  course,  it  was  of  no  use  to 
resist,  and  our  captain  sulkily  hauled  up  his  courses.  We  were 
somewhat  relieved  by  seeing  her  boat  shove  off  with  but  a  small 
crew.  Our  ladder  and  man-ropes  were  put  over  the  side,  and 
presently  a  ruffian-looking  man,  with  side  arms,  stood  upon  our 
deck.  We  stood  ready  to  learn  our  fate ;  but  he  seemed  in  no 
hurry  to  announce  it.  However,  after  looking  about  at  every 
thing,  and  asking  our  cargo,  destination,  &c,  he  settled  our  sur- 
mises by  saying  that  he  wished  merely  to  know  his  longitude  ! 

The  schooner  was  a  slaver,  recently  captured  off  Jamaica,  by 
a  British  cruiser;  and  this  personage  was  prize-master.  The 
slaves  had  been  apprenticed  on  the  island  by  government,  as  is 
the  custom  in  such  cases,  and  the  vessel  was  on  her  way  to 
Sierra  Leone,  to  be  condemned  ;  having  the  late  captain  and 
one  or  two  of  the  crew  on  board.  Being  destitute  of  a  chro- 
nometer, he  took  this  opportunity  to  ascertain  his  position,  by 
comparing  the  reckoning  of  the  vessels  in  sight.  The  vessel 
was  about  eighty  tons'  burden,  (not  so  large  as  many  of  our  river 
sloops,)  and  when  taken,  had  on  board  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  slaves!  Between  her  decks  was  but  two  feet  four  inches, 
so  that  the  unhappy  negroes  could  scarcely  sit  upright.  They 
were  stowed  in  a  solid  mass,  in  a  sitting  posture,  amidst  filth 
and  stench  so  horrid,  that  the  place  was  insupportable  for  days 
after  they  were  removed.  These  vessels  are  generally  fitted  out 
at  Havana,  and,  if  they  escape  capture  one  voyage  out  of  four,  the 
profits  are  abundant.  As  the  officers  and  crew  are  not  punished, 
much  less  the  merchant,  there  is  no  want  of  tools  for  this  infernal 
business.  As  soon  as  the  vessel  is  condemned  at  Sierra  Leone, 
she  is  sold  by  auction,  and,  not  being  wanted  there,  the  captain 
himself  becomes  the  purchaser,  and  with  all  his  irons,  gratings, 
and  other  apparatus,  already  on  board,  passes  down  the  coast, 
takes  in  another  cargo,  and  tries  his  chance  again. 

Lord  Brougham  has  affirmed,  in  a  late  speech  in  parliament, 
that  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  slave  vessels  were  fitted  out 
from  Havana  in  the  year  1835 ;  and  that  in  1836,  the  number  of 
slaves  imported  into  that  single  city,  exceeded  twenty-eight 
thousand!  In  the  month  of  December,  1836,  two  vessels  arrived 
at  Rio  Janeiro,  one  of  which  brought  five  hundred  slaves,  and 
the  other  seven  hundred  and  eighty !  The  average  import  of 
slaves  into  Rio  is  about  fifty-three  thousand!  In  1837,  there 
were  imported  into  one  city  of  Brazil  forty-five  thousand  slaves! 
It  has  been  recently  published,  without  contradiction,  that  nearly 
two  hundred   slave  voyages  are   made  from  Cuba  every  year, 


172  RETURN   TO    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  that  many  of  these  are  owned  by  Englishmen  and  Ameri- 
cans. It  is  to  be  feared  that  this  awful  business  is  now  con- 
ducted almost  as  extensively  as  at  any  former  period. 

On  the  25th  of  March,  1838,  the  shores  of  my  native  country 
once  more  received  me,  having  made  the  voyage  in  a  hundred 
and  twenty  days,  without  disaster.  I  have  abstained  from  speak- 
ing of  dangers,  escapes,  hardships,  and  inconveniences,  ex- 
cept where  they  might  make  the  reader  better  acquainted 
with  the  country  or  people  through  which  I  was  passing ;  but 
an  open  acknowledgment  is  now  due  to  the  Father  of  mercies, 
and  to  my  friends,  whose  prayers  were  not  intermitted.  In  the 
East,  opportunities  of  going  from  port  to  port  are  often  not  to 
be  had  for  months ;  yet  I  was  never  hurried  from  any  place  till 
my  work  was  done,  nor  in  a  single  instance  detained  uselessly. 
Dur;ng  an  absence  from  the  United  States  of  two  years  and 
a  half,  I  made  nineteen  voyages  by  sea,  (which  consumed  four 
hundred  and  sixty-four  days,)  fourteen  voyages  by  rivers,  and 
a  land  journey  of  five  hundred  miles,  besides  smaller  trips 
by  land  and  water.  The  whole  distance  travelled,  including 
actual  courses  at  sea,  is  somewhat  more  than  fifty -three  thousand 
miles.  In  all  these  wanderings,  often  in  dangerous  and  ill-fitted 
vessels,  and  regions  unhealthy,  or  infested  with  robbers,  I  was 
never  hurt  nor  molested ;  nor  was  any  person  hurt  or  taken  sick 
where  I  was.  In  one  of  these  journeys,  it  will  be  recollected,  1 
was  supposed  to  be  armed  with  a  pair  of  horse  pistols,  for  which 
I  afterward  found  I  had  no  bullets.  On  all  other  occasions,  I 
went  without  the  semblance  of  a  weapon,  except  a  cane. 

The  entire  expense  of  my  mission,  including  voyages  out  and 
home,  presents  to  chiefs,  purchase  of  curiosities  for  missionary 
rooms,  and  salary,  amounts  to  about  five  thousand  dollars  — 
scarcely  half  of  the  sum  I  had  supposed  would  be  requisite. 
Part  of  this  may  be  regarded  as  falling  within  the  usual  ex- 
penses of  the  Board,  as  on  all  occasions  I  acted  the  part  of  a 
missionary,  by  preaching  through  interpreters,  conducting  the 
services  of  native  assistants,  and  distributing  Christian  books. 
I  indulge  a  hope  that  the  profits  of  these  volumes  received  by 
the  Society  will  repay,  in  part,  the  cost  of  the  tour. 

The  wide  field  gone  over  in  my  weary  way  is  now  traced ; 
and  thousands  of  facts  concerning  it  are  fairly  spread  out.  Much 
more  remains  unsaid ;  but  nothing  is  kept  back,  which  would 
materially  alter  the  nature  of  the  reader's  impressions.     Deeply 


REMARKS.  173 

conscious  of  the  imperfections  which  have  attended  the  dis- 
charge of  this  engagement,  I  am,  nevertheless,  cheered  by  the 
fullest  conviction  that  such  an  agency  was  essential  to  the  welfare 
and  vigor  of  the  mission  ;  that  no  part  of  my  life  has  so  effectually 
promoted  the  blessed  cause  lor  which  alone  it  is  desirable  to 
live ;  and  that  the  divine  presence  and  aid  were  never  more 
manifestly  vouchsafed  upon  any  of  my  endeavors. 

It  only  remains  for  me  to  declare  my  deep  and  solemn  convic- 
tion that  the  missionary  enterprise  is  of  God.  All  I  have  seen, 
read,  and  heard,  has  served  to  impress  me  more  and  more  with 
the  rectitude,  practicability,  and  usefulness  of  the  work.  Our 
duty,  as  revealed  in  Scripture,  is  illustrated  and  urged  in  every 
part  of  the  field.  The  missionaries,  as  a  body,  are  holy  and  dili- 
gent men.  I  have  satisfied  myself  that  the  translations  are  con- 
tinually improving  ;  that  the  tracts  are  orthodox  and  scriptural ; 
and  that  a  large  part  of  them  are  intelligible  to  the  natives. 
Evidences  of  the  divine  favor  are  visible ;  and  are  numerated  iu 
a  subsequent  chapter,  though  not  completely,  yet  so  abundantly, 
as  that  unprejudiced  Christians  must  deem  them  encouraging. 

The  personal  examination  of  numerous  missionary  stations  in 
the  East,  (some  of  them  the  seat  of  several  distinct  bodies  of 
missionaries ;)  a  minute  knowledge  of  many  adjacent  ones ;  a  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  nearly  ninety  ordained  missionaries  — 
Episcopalian,  Lutheran,  Scotch,  Presbyterian,  Wesleyan,  Inde- 
pendent, Congregational,  and  Baptist,  beside  wives,  assistants, 
and  native  helpers;  visits  to  schools  and  the  houses  of  converts; 
seeing  many  heathen  in  their  native  state  ;  witnessing  much 
missionary  labor ;  attending  committees,  conferences,  prayer- 
meetings,  and  catechisings  ;  and  almost  confining  my  reading  to 
this  subject  for  three  years,  —  has  satisfied  me  that  the  measure 
of  missionary  success  is  equal  to  just  expectations.  The  partic- 
ular grounds  of  this  decision  will  be  found  briefly  spread  out  iu 
Chapter  III  Part  IV. 

Opportunities  of  usefulness  are  more  extended  than  ever 
before.  There  are  not  only  more  presses  and  more  missiona- 
ries, but  better  tracts ;  more  of  the  Scriptures  are  translated ; 
more  of  our  brethren  understand  the  languages  where  they  are ; 
the  native  assistants  know  more  of  the  plan  of  salvation ;  and  the 
schools  are  better  conducted. 

Our   incentives  to  increased  action   are   very  strong.     Many 

young  men  of  great  promise,  who  have  devoted  themselves  to 

missionary  work,  are  deterred  from   presenting  themselves  to 

the  societies,  because  of  the  uncertainty  when  they  can  be  sent 

15* 


174  RETURN   TO    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

out,  if  at  all.  This  ought  very  seriously  to  engage  the  attention 
of  the  churches.  Men  are  prepared  and  willing  to  go ;  and  the 
church  does  not  supply  the  means.  In  the  mean  time,  promising 
fields  remain  unoccupied ;  a  proper  division  of  labor  is  not  ef- 
fected at  existing  stations ;  and  at  some  points  the  whole  labor 
and  expense,  and  the  entire  services  of  some  missionaries,  are  in 
danger  of  being  lost,  for  want  of  men  to  take  the  place  of  those 
now  engaged,  in  case  of  sickness  or  death.  In  some  instances, 
there  are  for  a  whole  nation  but  one  missionary. 

Our  visible  encouragements  are  greater  than  at  any  former 
period.  The  number  of  converts  within  the  year  1837,  con- 
nected with  missions  from  the  United  States,  exceeds  the  whole 
number  of  converts,  during  the  first  twenty  years  of  the  existence 
of  missionary  operations  !  In  the  same  missions,  religious  truth 
is  now  being  printed  in  nearly  sixty  languages,  and  at  the  rate 
of  millions  of  pages  per  annum.  ' 

Reader,  could  you  have  stood  with  me  over  the  graves  of 
Swartz,  Carey,  Boardman,  or  Hebei',  or  could  you  stand  beside  the 
departing  ship,  where  weeping  parents  give  up  dear  children  to 
many  hardships,  and  to  be  seen  no  more,  how  would  your  sacri- 
fices appear  in  the  comparison  ?  What  are  you  doing  for  the 
spread  of  Christianity  which  compares  with  these ;  or  with  tire 
widow's  mite,  which  was  "all  her  living"?  O,  examine  this 
matter.  The  blood  of  the  heathen  may  be  on  your  soul.  Have 
you  properly  satisfied  yourself  that  it  is  not  your  duty  to  go  to  the 
heathenf  Are  you  sure  you  are  not  required  to  give  more  to  this 
cause  ?  If  it  be  the  duty  of  some  to  go  abroad,  and  of  others  to 
give  up  their  sons  and  daughters,  what  ought  you  to  do  ?  Must 
the  whole  body  of  Christians  do  their  duty  ?  or  will  the  services 
of  a  part  excuse  the  remainder  ?  Either  those  who  go  on  mis- 
sions are  egregiously  misled,  and  might  without  guilt  have  re- 
mained at  home,  enjoying  all  the  sweets  of  civilized  society, 
religious  privileges,  and  family  intercourse  ;  or  you  are  fatally 
deluded  in  supposing  that  you  acquit  yourselves  of  all  obligation 
by  paying  a  paltry  dollar  or  two,  per  annum  or  per  month.  What 
shall  be  said,  then,  of  those  who  do  not  contribute  towards  spread- 
ing the  knowledge  of  God  and  truth  among  the  nations,  so  much 
as  the  price  of  a  gewgaw,  or  a  ribbon,  in  a  whole  year  ?  O  Lord, 
lay  not  this  sin  to  thy  people's  charge !  Let  thy  church  arise 
and  shine,  that  the  Gentiles  may  come  to  her  light,  and  kings 
to  the  brightness  of  her  rising. 


Gram  printed  tracts 
f 

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I'lrsicin  , 

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l.<,i/,i,:«-  in    /.', ■111,111  Irllir.t  . 

Hawadhan  hua,  an    mam'ihor   a«'ot    hihonte 


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■JT  _—  i  two.  or  Oriaa . 


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W]mwwmMMjr\  (aniwiisiiui^iKi 


PART    IV. 
DISSERTATIONS,    TABLES,   &c 


CHAPTER  L 


MISSIONS  TO   THE   CHINESE. 

Stations  now  occupied  —  Sudiya  —  Mogoung  —  Bamoo  —  Umerapoora  — 
Zemmai  —  Pontiana  —  Sambas  —  Banca  —  Other  Bodies  of  Chinese  —  Ver- 
sions of  the  Holj'  Scriptures  —  Proportion  of  Chinese  who  can  read  — 
The  Importance  of  distributing  Tracts  and  Bibles  overrated  —  Comparison 
of  the  Modes  of  Printing  —  Difficulty  of  the  Language  —  Dictionaries, 
Grammars,  &c.  —  Present  Missionaries  to  the  Chinese  —  Other  Sino- 
logues —  Number  of  Converts  —  Best  Authors  on  China. 

The  accounts  given  of  Canton  and  Macao,  in  a  preceding 
chapter,  show  to  what  extent  those  cities  can  be  regarded  as 
missionary  stations  ;  and  how  little  prospect  there  is  of  an  early 
toleration  to  missionary  efforts  in  China  proper.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  establishing  missions  for  this  people  in  other  places, 
where  they  are  found  residing  in  large  numbers.  Stations  now 
exist  only  at  Canton,  Macao,  Malacca,  Singapore,  and  Bankok, 
of  which  I  have  detailed  the  facts ;  and  Batavia,  which  I  did 
not  visit.  Penang  has  been  occupied  by  Mr.  Dyer,  but  he  is  now 
of  Malacca.  The  general  and  deep  interest  felt  by  the  Christian 
public  on  behalf  of  the  Chinese,  induces  me  to  present,  at  one 
view,  the  other  points  which  seem  now  to  invite  missionaries. 
Others  have  been  named  which  I  know  to  be  unsuitable  ;  there 
may  be  some  of  which  I  know  nothing. 

By  placing  missionaries  at  these  places,  we  carry  the  gospel  to 
the  Chinese,  though  not  to  China.  Beside  the  numerous  body 
of  permanent  residents  are  thousands  who  return  to  their  own 
country  after  amassing  a  competency;  and  thousands  who  never 
cease  to  be  citizens  of  China,  come  and  return  annually,  in  the 
junks  and  caravans.     Tracts  may  be  sent  by  such  to  every  part 


176  MISSIONS    TO    THE    CHINESE. 

of  the  coast.  Converts  may  be  made  at  such  stations,  who  shall 
become  at  no  distant  period  the  best  of  missionaries,  to  their 
own  land ;  a  quiet  abode  is  secured  where  the  Holy  Scriptures 
may  be  translated;  schools  may  be  taught;  and  many  other 
services  rendered,  quite  as  important  as  any  which  could  be  per- 
formed in  China  itself. 

1.  Sudiya,  a  station  of  the  American  Baptist  Board  in  Upper 
Asam,  on  a  branch  of  the  Burampooter.  Several  missionaries 
and  a  printing  establishment  are  located  here,  prosecuting  labors 
among  the  tribes  of  the  vicinity. 

The  frontier  of  China  is  not  now  accessible  from  Sudiya. 
Some  rude  tribes  of  Singphoos  intervene,  who  preserve  their  in- 
dependence, and  render  travelling  by  this  route  highly  danger- 
ous. British  influence,  however,  seems  fast  extending  in  that 
direction,  and  a  free  intercourse  for  whites  may  ere  long  be 
secured. 

Some  of  the  chiefs,  for  an  established  compensation,  grant  a 
free  passage  and  escort  to  an  annual  caravan  of  Chinese  to  Thi- 
bet. It  generally  amounts  to  about  six  hundred  persons,  who 
collect  on  the  borders  of  Yunnan,  and  proceed  to  Lassa,  making 
the  journey  in  six  weeks.  Credible  natives  affirm  that  a  good 
road  extends  the  whole  distance  from  Lassa  to  Pekin,  and  that 
letters  are  carried  from  one  capital  to  the  other  in  twenty  days. 

We  may  hope  that  Christian  zeal  will  soon  make  this  road 
and  this  caravan  the  means  of  conveying  divine  truth  to  China. 
Perhaps  even  now,  the  caravan  might  sometimes  be  reached 
from  Sudiya,  for  the  distribution  of  tracts. 

2.  Mo-goong,  or  Mong-maorong,  is  a  large,  fortified  city,  on  a 
branch  of  the  Irrawaddy  River,  about  25°  20',  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Shyans,  Chinese,  and  Singphoos.  It  is  said  by  some  to  be  the 
ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Bong  ;  but  whether  there  ever 
was  such  a  kingdom,  is  not  clear.  It  is  more  probable  that  Mo- 
goung  was,  at  an  early  period,  a  part  of  the  Tai  or  Shyan  coun- 
try, and  the  metropolis  of  the  northern  section.  Good  roads,  for 
horses  or  bullocks,  extend  in  various  directions,  particularly  to 
Asam,  Yunnan,  and  Bamoo.  The  trade  to  China  is  almost  equal 
to  that  of  the  latter  city.  The  resident  Chinese  are  of  a  respect- 
able class.  The  contiguity  of  the  famous  amber  mines*  brings 
numerous  merchants  from  Yunnan,  Munipore,  and  other  adjacent 
countries.     The  traders  from  China  stay  some  weeks,  and  gen- 

*  The  price  of  the  best  kind,  on  the  spot,  is  about  three  shillings  sterling, 
or  seventy  cents  a  pound. 


MOGOONG BAMOO.  177 

erally  return  from  year  to  year  ;  so  that  successive  instructions 
might  be  given  them. 

Beesa,  called  by  the  Burmans  Beejanoung,  and  by  the  Shyans 
Hukung,  is  but  about  eighty  miles,  north  by  west,  from  Mogoung. 
This  is  one  of  the  principal  Singphoo  cities,  between  which 
and  Sudiya  there  is  constant  and  free  intercourse.  I  had  the 
pleasure  of  meeting,  at  Ava,  the  famous  Duffa  Gam,  prince  of 
the  Beesa  Singphoos,  who  assured  me  that  missionaries  to  his 
country  should  be  well  received  and  protected.  He  imparted 
many  of  the  facts  1  now  give,  respecting  that  part  of  Burmah  and 
its  various  tribes. 

3.  Bamoo.  This  city  (lat.  24°  17'  north,  long.  96°  55'  east,)  lies 
on  the  Irrawaddy  River,  near  the  junction  of  the  Tapan,  or 
Bamoo,  or  Pinlang  River,  which  comes  in  from  China.  It  is 
called  by  Hamilton  Bhanmo,  and  by  some  writers  Bamau.  The 
old  town  stood  on  this  branch,  but  the  modern  one  is  a  mile  below. 
The  present  population  is  fourteen  thousand,  of  whom  one  tenth 
are  Chinese.  Each  side  of  the  river,  for  miles  above  and  below, 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  continued  village  ;  and  the  surround- 
ing country  is  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and  populous  portions 
of  the  Burman  empire.  About  twenty-five  miles  to  the  south- 
ward, but  much  more  by  the  course  of  the  river,  is  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Lung-shun,  which  also  rises  in  China ;  and  which, 
as  well  as  the  Bamoo,  affords  a  boat  navigation  into  Yunnan 
during  the  rainy  season.  Boats  come  up  from  Ava  in  twelve 
days ;  and,  when  the  waters  are  high,  vessels  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  tons  may  proceed  a  hundred  and  thirty  miles  farther. 

A  great  trade  is  carried  on  from  Bamoo  to  China,  part  of 
it  en  route  to  Ava.  From  five  to  six  thousand  Chinamen  ar- 
rive every  cold  season  from  Yunnan,  causing  a  resort  at  the 
same  time  of  traders  from  all  parts  of  Burmah  and  Munipore. 
This  intercourse  was  found  existing  when  Europeans  first  visited 
the  country,  and  the  Portuguese  are  said  to  have  established 
factors  here  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

As  the  caravans  travel  in  the  dry  season,  they  proceed  by  land, 
crossing  several  ridges  of  mountains,  and  a  country  occupied  by 
Shyans,  to  Santa ;  from  whence  they  disperse.  Santa,  though  in 
China  proper,  is  peopled  principally  by  Shyans,  who  are  also 
numerous  in  most  other  parts  of  Yunnan.  They  spread  also 
over  all  the  country  eastward  of  Bamoo,  and  are  called  by  the 
Burmans,  Tarouh,  or  Chinese  Shyans.  A  large  part  of  them 
speak  Chinese. 

Bamoo  would  be  a  more  pleasant  location  than  either  Ran- 


178  MISSIONS    TO   THE    CHINESE. 

goon  or  Ava,  except  for  its  distance  from  the  seaboard.  The 
people  are  more  refined  than  in  most  parts  of  Burmah,  dress 
more  completely,  live  in  large  comfortable  houses,  have  peaceful 
habits,  and  seem  particularly  intelligent.  The  Chinese  occupy  a 
part  of  the  city  to  themselves,  chiefly  one  wide,  clean  street. 
They  have  about  a  hundred  shops,  built  of  blue  brick,  and  tiled  ; 
and  a  handsome  temple.  The  Shyan  quarter  contains  eight 
hundred  houses,  well  built,  chiefly  of  wood.  Most  of  the 
streets  are  paved,  and  all  have  fine  shade-trees.  The  vicinity  is 
highly  improved;  and  Mr.  Kincaid  speaks  of  an  iron  suspension 
bridge. 

Besides  its  reference  to  China,  this  is  obviously  an  important 
point  for  a  mission,  not  only  to  the  Burmans  and  Shyans,  but  the 
Kah-Kyens.  Large  numbers  also  of  Asamese,  Singphoos,  Mun- 
iporeans,  Yos,  and  others,  resorting  here  for  trade,  demand 
attention.  At  least  four  missionaries,  one  for  Chinese,  one  for 
Shyans,  one  for  Burmans,  and  one  for  the  Kah-Kyens,  are 
wanted  here  ;  or  more  properly  two  missionaries  to  each  of 
these  classes.  It  is  not  certain  that  operations,  or  even  a 
residence  there,  would  now  be  permitted;  but  every  day  in- 
creases the  probability. 

4.  Umerapoora,  six  miles  above  Ava,  and  formerly  the  me- 
tropolis of  Burmah,  has  a  population  of  about  ten  thousand 
Chinese,  mostly  married  to  Burman  females.  It  is  also  the 
resort  of  many  young  men  from  China,  who  remain  only  a  few 
years.  During  all  the  dry  season,  small  caravans  arrive  every  few 
weeks ;  amounting,  in  the  whole,  to  several  thousand  in  a  season. 
The  route  is  principally  through  Thennee,  in  about  lat.  22°  40', 
long.  98°  10',  said  by  natives  to  contain  three  thousand  houses, 
and  destined,  I  hope,  at  no  distant  period,  to  be  a  missionary 
station.  By  the  caravan,  a  regular  communication  with  Ava 
could  be  maintained.  Near  the  city  are  extensive  sugar  planta- 
tions, wrought  by  Chinese,  and  furnishing  a  considerable  quanti- 
ty for  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Many  considerations  invite  to  the  early  location  of  a  mission- 
ary at  this  city,  who  should  acquire  the  dialect  spoken  in  Yun- 
nan,* and  the  west  of  China;    and  be  prepared  to  cross  the 

*  The  province  of  Yunnan,  of  which  mention  is  made  so  often,  is  one  of 
the  fairest  and  most  populous  in  all  China,  and  forms  the  eastern  boundary 
of  Burmah.  Du  Halde  sets  down  its  population  at  eight  millions,  and  that  of 
Sechuen,  the  adjacent  province,  at  twenty-seven  millions.  GutzlarT,  from  the 
government  census,  gives  Yunnan  fifteen  millions,  and  Sechuen,  twenty-one 
millions. 


ZEMMAI.  179 

frontier  at  the  first  favorable  moment.  A  good  teacher,  if  not 
procurable  in  the  place,  might  probably  be  obtained  easily  from 
the  caravans.  Among  the  traders  are  educated  men,  who  would 
gladly  engage  for  two  or  three  years  at  the  usual  wages.  The 
city  itself  furnishes  ample  scope  for  the  labors  of  several  mis- 
sionaries to  the  Chinese,  and  the  government  would  not,  proba- 
bly, offer  obstructions ;  as  they  permit  all  foreigners  to  exercise 
what  religion  they  choose.  Mr.  Kincaid  has  several  times  been 
invited  to  accompany  the  caravan  to  China,  and  promised  every 
attention. 

5.  Zemmai,  about  four  hundred  miles  north  from  Bankok,  is 
called  by  the  natives  as  above,  by  the  Siamese  Changmai,  or 
Changmy,  by  Loubiere  Chame,  in  Modern  Universal  History 
Jangoma,  and  in  Malte  Brun's  atlas,  Shaimai.  It  contains  twenty- 
five  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  prince,  or 
Chobwaw  of  all  the  southern  Laos.  The  River  Meinam  is  navi- 
gable thus  far  for  boats. 

Part  of  what  is  now  Siam,  appears  to  have  formerly  belonged 
to  this  district,  and  formed  an  independent  kingdom ;  but  the 
period  of  the  dismemberment  and  reduction  of  their  country 
does  not  appear.  For  several  generations,  they  have  been  al- 
ternately tributary  to  Siam  and  Burmah.  At  present,  they  are 
virtually  independent,  but  pay  a  nominal  homage  to  both 
countries. 

Very  considerable  intercourse  is  kept  up  by  caravans  with 
China.  These  go  and  come  during  six  months  of  the  year,  in 
small  companies,  making  an  aggregate  of  several  thousand  men; 
each  trader  having  twelve  or  fifteen  loaded  mules,  or  ponies ;  and 
sometimes  elephants  are  employed.  A  large  male  elephant 
costs  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  and  carries  about  twelve 
hundred  pounds.  A  small  female  costs  about  forty  dollars, 
and  carries  one  third  the  weight.  The  route  is  over  mountains 
and  deserts,  and  is  performed  with  difficulty. 

Zemmai  has  the  advantage  of  regular  and  frequent  inter- 
course with  Ava,  Maulmain,  and  Bankok.  Standing  on  a  branch 
of  the  Meinam  River,  the  intercourse  with  the  latter  city  by 
boats  is  very  considerable.  The  flood-tide  not  being  felt  much 
above  Ayuthia,  the  voyage  up  occupies  twenty-five  days.  Boats 
come  down  in  less  than  half  the  time. 

Dr.  Richardson,  of  Maulmain,  has  several  times  visited  Zem- 
mai, and  has  made  valuable  communications,  respecting  the 
route  and  inhabitants,  to  the  supreme  government  of  India.  He 
met  with  no  difficulty,  and  performed  the  journey  in  twenty-five 


180  MISSIONS    TO    THE    CHINESE. 

days,  travelling,  as  caravans  generally  do  in  these  regions,  about 
ten  miles  per  day.  Droves  of  bullocks  have  been  several  times 
brought  hence  to  Maulmain  for  the  troops,  and  the  intercourse 
is  likely  to  increase. 

Merchants  from  Zemmai  visit  Ava  every  year ;  and  sometimes 
civil  and  military  officers.  They  reach  Mo-nay  or  Mong-ny 
(lat.  20°  40',  long.  97°  40')  in  twenty  days,  and  thence  to  Ava  in 
fifteen  more.  Monay  is  a  large  city,  and  the  seat  of  government 
for  another  division  of  Shyans.  I  met  the  governor,  or  Chob- 
vvaw,  in  Ava,  at  the  morning  levee  of  the  principal  Woongyee, 
who  encouraged  me  to  send  missionaries  to  his  people,  and 
made  many  kind  assurances. 

Besides  the  claims  of  Zemmai  as  a  station  for  the  Chinese,  it 
presents  still  more  in  relation  to  the  natives.  The  whole  country 
round  is  peopled  with  a  density  very  uncommon  in  Farther 
India.  Within  a  circle  of  fifty  miles  are  the  cities  of  Lagoung, 
Moungpai,  and  Moungnam,  each  with  twenty  thousand  inhab- 
itants ;  Labong,  with  fourteen  thousand ;  and  several  smaller 
cities.  The  people  are  mild,  humane,  intelligent,  and  prosper- 
ous. Opium-smoking  and  gambling  are  almost  unknown.  Al- 
most every  article  wanted  by  a  missionary  can  be  had  in  the 
bazars,  and  at  low  rates.    A  fat  cow  costs  but  one  dollar. 

The  tracts  in  course  of  publication  at  Sudiya  would  probably 
be  intelligible  to  the  people  of  Zemmai  and  vicinity.  Four  un- 
married men  are  urgently  needed  at  this  station ;  two  for  the 
Shyans,  and  two  for  the  Chinese. 

6.  Pontiana,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Island  of  Borneo,  stands 
on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  nearly  under  the  equator.  Being 
a  Dutch  settlement,  protection,  and  the  comforts  of  civilized  life, 
are  secured  to  the  missionary.  Its  distance  from  Batavia  is  four 
hundred  miles,  and  from  Singapore  three  hundred;  the  trade 
with  each  place  being  constant,  both  in  native  and  European 
vessels. 

The  city  contains  but  about  three  hundred  Chinese,  but  in  the 
interior  are  thirty  thousand,  engaged  in  working  the  gold  and 
other  mines.  There  were  formerly  Catholic  priests  here,  but 
they  have  left  no  proselytes.  This  station  is  salubrious,  safe,  ac- 
cessible, cheap,  and  every  way  promising.  Numerous  junks 
constantly  trade  from  here  to  different  ports  on  the  coast  of 
China,  by  which  any  quantity  of  tracts  may  be  distributed. 

7.  Sambas  stands  on  the  same  side  of  Borneo,  about  eighty 
miles  northward  of  Pontiana.  As  a  position  for  a  Chinese  mis- 
sionary, it  resembles  Pontiana  in  all  important  respects.    There 


SAMBAS  BANCA.  181 

are  about  fifty  Dutch  inhabitants,  and  many  Malays,  Dayas,  Bu- 
gis,  &c.  The  Chinese  in  the  city  do  not  exceed  two  hundred  ; 
but  there  is  another  body  of  forty  thousand  in  the  rear.  Like 
the  others,  they  are  nominally  subject  to  the  Dutch,  because 
lying  within  territory  claimed  by  them;  but  they  pay  no  tax, 
justice  is  administered  by  their  own  rulers,  and  they  are  in  fact 
independent.  They  hold  daily  intercourse,  by  an  inland  route, 
with  the  above  named  body  of  Chinese  on  the  Pontiana  River. 

The  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions 
have  stationed  here  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Arms  and  Robbins,  as 
missionaries  to  the  Dayas.*  They  commenced  the  study  of  that 
language,  but,  finding  the  Malay  would  be  more  useful,  have 
turned  to  that.  The  Daya  language  is  divided  into  some  thirty 
different  dialects,  none  of  which  are  reduced  to  writing  ;  and  is 
so  poor  in  words,  that  the  Scriptures  could  scarcely  be  made  in- 
telligible in  a  translation.  As  missionary  zeal  must  create  all 
the  readers,  it  has  been  thought  preferable  to  teach  Malay,  and 
give  them  a  literature  in  that  language.  I  am  satisfied  that  it 
would  be  better  to  make  English  their  learned  language,  rather 
than  Malay.  In  this  case,  so  soon  as  readers  were  raised  up, 
they  would  have  access  to  all  literature  and  works  of  piety.  In 
the  other,  ages  must  elapse  before  there  can  be  a  valuable 
literature  in  that  language.  The  teaching  to  read  is  but  a 
fraction  of  labor  compared  to  enriching  a  language  with  valuable 
books. 

8.  Banca  is  an  island  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles 
long,  and  thirty-five  broad,  lying  in  the  strait  of  the  same  name. 
The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  Chinese,  aboriginal  mountaineers, 
and  Orang  Louts.  The  Malays  are  not  very  numerous,  and 
prone  to  indolence.  The  tribes  of  the  interior  reside  in  a  state 
of  great  rudeness  and  poverty.  The  Orang  Louts,  or  "  men  of 
the  sea,"  reside  chiefly  in  little  prows,  along  the  coast ;  deriving 
their  precarious  subsistence  from  the  waters.  The  Chinese  are 
the  strength  of  the  colony,  carrying  on  almost  all  the  trades,  but 
especially  the  operations  of  mining  for  tin.  Their  exact  number 
is  not  ascertained ;  but  they  amount  to  many  thousands,  and  keep 
up  constant  intercourse  with  their  mother  country. 

This  island  is  not  deemed  particularly  unhealthy ;  and  being 
in  the  very  highway  of  commerce,  offers  many  facilities  for  a 
Chinese  mission. 

*  This  word  is  often  written  Dayak.  But  the  final  letter  is  a,  gutturally  and 
suddenly  pronounced.  The  same  is  the  case  with  Pontiana,  Batta,  and  all  that 
class  of  words. 

vol.  ii.  16 


182  MISSIONS    TO    THE    CHINESE. 

Of  Singapore  and  Bankok,  as  stations  for  missionaries  to 
Chinese,  I  have  spoken  elsewhere.  Penang  has  been  occupied  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  and  may  be  resumed.  It  had,  in 
1836,  nine  thousand  Chinese  inhabitants. 

There  are  other  large  bodies  of  Chinese,  with  some  of  whom 
missionaries  might  probably  be  stationed.  On  the  Island  of 
Java  are  probably  two  hundred  thousand,  thirty-two  thousand  of 
which  are  in  Batavia ;  on  Bintang,  seven  thousand ;  on  Sumatra, 
three  thousand.  Tringano,  Patani,  and  other  towns  on  the  east 
coast  of  Malaya,  have  each  several  hundred  or  more ;  but  offer 
no  encouragement  at  present  as  stations. 

The  facts  exhibited  in  this  sketch  seem  meagre,  but  comprise 
all  the  valuable  result  of  diligent  inquiries ;  omitting,  however, 
what  has  been  made  public  by  others,  or  mentioned  in  other 
parts  of  this  work. 

So  far  as  the  salvation  of  the  bulk  of  Chinese,  resident  hi 
foreign  countries,  is  concerned,  the  missionary  in  some  of  these 
places  need  not  acquire  their  language.  They  consist,  in  great 
part,  of  the  progeny  of  Chinamen  married  to  natives,  whose 
mother  tongue,  therefore,  is  the  local  language.  Many  of  them, 
wearing  the  full  Chinese  costume,  know  nothing  of  that  lan- 
guage. Most  of  them  learn  to  speak  it  on  common  subjects, 
and  some  few  are  taught  to  read  a  little;  but  they  could  not 
be  usefully  addressed  by  a  missionary  in  that  language. 

Perhaps  the  best  plan  would  be,  beside  stationing  missionaries, 
(two  or  three  in  a  place,  to  learn  the  language,  distribute  tracts, 
&c.,)  at  these  various  outposts,  to  collect  a  considerable  number 
at  some  eligible  point,  say  at  Malacca  or  Singapore,  where,  in 
classes,  and  under  competent  teachers,  native  and  others,  they 
might  pursue  their  studies  without  the  interruptions  incident 
to  the  occupancy  of  a  missionary  station.  Much  money  would 
thus  be  saved,  as  well  as  much  time  and  much  health.  The 
ladies,  not  keeping  house,  could  study  in  class  with  their  hus- 
bands. Persons  of  experience,  observation,  and  ability  in  the 
language  would  thus  be  raised  up,  qualified  to  assume  all  the 
practicable  stations,  in  China  or  out  of  it. 

There  are  two  entire  versions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
Chinese  —  Marshman's,  of  Serampore,  in  five  volumes  8vo. ; 
and  Morrison  and  Milne's,  in  twenty-one  volumes  8vo.  The 
former  was  commenced  about  a  year  before  Dr.  Morrison  ar- 
rived in  China ;  but  both  were  finished  and  printed  about  the 


VERSIONS    OF    SCRIPTURE TRACTS.  183 

same  time,  (1823)  and  have  been  largely  distributed,  in  successive 
editions.  Both  versions  are  verbal  and  literal :  so  much  so  as 
to  prove  objectionable  to  present  missionaries.  Though  not 
likely  to  be  reprinted,  they  are  eminently  valuable,  as  the  bases 
of  a  new  version. 

A  third  translation  is  in  progress,  by  Messrs.  Medhurst  and 
Gutzlaff.  The  New  Testament,  which  was  revised  in  concert 
with  J.  R.  Morrison,  Esq.,  and  Rev.  Mr.  Bridgman,  has  been 
printed  from  blocks,  at  Singapore,  and  lithographed  at  Butavia. 
It  is  in  process  of  revision  for  a  second  edition.  Genesis  and 
Exodus  are  also  in  press,  the  Pentateuch  ready,  and  the  rest  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  progress.  Objections  have  been  made  to 
this  version,  as  being  too  loose  and  paraphrastical.  The  trans- 
lators of  course  deny  the  charge,  but  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  have  as  yet  withheld  their  aid.  The  character 
and  attainments  of  the  translators,  and  the  immense  advantage 
of  having  two  distinct  and  independent  versions  before  them, 
seem  to  authorize  a  confidence  that  it  is  a  great  improvement. 

There  have  been  printed  in  this  language,  beside  the  above- 
named  editions  of  Scripture,  about  ninety-five  different  tracts, 
and  twenty-five  broad-sheets ;  amounting  in  all  to  about  two 
thousand  octavo  pages  of  reading  matter! 

The  number  of  portions  of  Scripture  and  tracts  already 
distributed  amounts  probably  to  millions  ;  but  the  exact  quantity 
cannot  be  ascertained. 

The  distribution  of  Scriptures  and  tracts  from  out-stations,  to 
be  borne  by  trading  junks  to  the  coasts  of  China,  is  not  unim- 
portant, but  has,  I  think,  been  overrated.  Christians  seem  dis- 
posed to  regard  our  duty  to  China  as  likely  to  be  accomplished 
cheaper  and  easier  than  it  really  is ;  and  to  hope  that  Bibles 
and  tracts,  with  merely  a  few  missionaries,  will  do  the  work.  We 
are  in  danger,  on  the  other  hand,  of  being  discouraged,  be- 
cause greater  fruits  have  not  resulted  from  all  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense bestowed  in  this  way.  Two  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind  — 
First,  that  few  Chinamen  can  read  understandingly  ;  and  secondly, 
that  our  books  and  tracts  have  been  for  the  most  part  so  imper- 
fect in  their  style,  as  to  be  far  less  likely  to  make  a  proper 
impression  than  a  tract  given  in  this  country. 

The  ability  to  pronounce  the  characters,  or  rather  some  two  or 
three  hundred  of  diem,  out  of  the  many  thousand,  is  very  gen- 
eral.    Hence  a  man  taking  a  tract,  will  proudly  begin  to  read  off 


184  MISSIONS    TO    THE    CHINESE. 

what  he  can,  that  is,  call  off  the  letters.  But  this  does  not 
prove  him  to  understand  one  word  of  what  he  reads,  as  I  have 
ascertained  many  times.  He  may  not  even  understand  a  word 
when  the  book  is  correctly  read  to  him.  The  written  language 
and  the  spoken,  are  in  fact  two  different  languages.  After 
having  questioned  well-educated  Chinese  in  various  places, 
heard  the  opinions  of  judicious  missionaries,  and  personally 
examined  many  through  an  interpreter,  I  am  deliberately  confi- 
dent that  not  more  than  one  Chinese  man  in  fifty  can  read  so 
as  to  understand  the  plainest  book,  and  scarcely  any  females, 
except  among  the  very  highest  classes. 

A  few  instances  of  the  difference  between  the  written  and 
spoken  language  will  make  this  plain.  In  the  Taychew  dialect, 
the  word  nang  means  "man;"  in  the  written  language  it  is 
chew.  E  means  "  chair ; "  it  is  written  Ke.  Leng  means  "  be- 
sides ; "  it  is  written  jong.  Toah  means  "  large  ; "  in  writing  it  is 
ty.  Aw  means  "  to  learn ; "  it  is  written  hack.  In  the  Hokeen 
dialect,  naw  lamg  means  "two  men;"  in  writing  it  is  ye  jeen. 
JYgeo  lay  means  "brother;"  in  writing  it  is  baiv.  Hence,  when 
the  Scriptures  are  read  in  Chinese  worship,  it  is  as  neces- 
sary to  go  over  it  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  as  it  was  to  the  Jews  to 
have  a  Chaldee  paraphrase  and  interpretation. 

It  will  naturally  be  asked,  Why  not  translate  the  Scriptures  and 
print  tracts  in  each  colloquial  dialect  ?  One  reason  is  enough  — 
There  are  no  characters  to  express  the  words.  Strange  as  it 
seems,  there  is  no  way  of  writing  a  multitude  of  words  used 
every  day,  by  every  body ! 

The  advantages  of  book  distribution  are  further  abridged  by 
the  imperfections  of  style  and  manner,  from  which  few  of  them 
are  free.  I  am  assured  by  missionaries,  by  Leang  Afa,  and  by 
private  Chinese  gentlemen,  that  neither  Marshman's  nor  Morn- 
son's  Bible  is  fully  intelligible,  much  less  attractive.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  many  of  the  tracts  ;  and  some  of  them  have  been 
found  wholly  unwortby  of  circulation.  Sufficient  time  has  not 
elapsed  to  make  the  books  accurate,  intelligible,  and  idiomatic. 
The  snatching  away  of  ship  loads  can  have  had  little  other  effect 
than  to  prepare  the  people  to  expect  efforts  to  propagate  Christian- 
ity, and  to  awaken  inquiry.  If  these  efforts  are  not  soon  made,  the 
effects  of  what  has  been  done  may  cease  to  be  useful,  and  even 
become  obstructive.  Exertions  therefore  should  at  once  be  made 
by  all  Christian  sects,  to  place  men  in  safe  and  advantageous 
places  to  study  the  Chinese  language. 


BLOCK-PRINTINU  —  METALLIC    TYPE.  185 

It  is  known  that  the  Chinese  print  on  wooden  blocks,  and  have 
possessed  the  art  for  eight  hundred  years.  Some  good  judges 
still  prefer  this  system  for  the  printing  of  the  Scriptures ;  and 
it  certainly  possesses  advantages  in  some  respects.  The  process 
is  to  write  the  words  on  thin  paper,  which  is  then  pasted  upon 
a  proper  block,  and  the  cutter  removes  with  chisels  all  but  the 
black  face  of  the  letter.  It  is  thus  a  safe  and  simple  mode  of 
stereotyping.  Alterations  are  made  by  cutting  out  the  error,  in- 
serting a  plug  of  wood,  and  engraving  again  the  proper  words. 
When  the  size  of  the  letter  is  not  very  small,  a  set  of  blocks  will 
give  twenty  thousand  perfect  impressions ;  it  may  then  be  re- 
touched at  an  expense  of  one  fifth  the  original  cost,  and  give  five 
thousand  copies  more.  A  small  table,  two  or  three  simple 
brushes,  and  a  little  China  or  Indian  ink,  form  all  the  apparatus 
necessary  for  printing  from  blocks.  A  set  of  blocks  for  the  new 
testament  may  be  cut  at  Singapore  for  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars.  The  expense  of  each  copy  complete,  including 
paper  and  binding,  is  about  fifty  cents. 

The  use  of  movable  metallic  type  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Lawson,  of  the  Serampore  mission,  many  years  ago ;  and  from 
such  were  Marshman's  Bible  and  some  other  works  printed. 
The  great  expense  of  cutting  punches  induced  the  Serampore 
printers  to  have  the  most  rare  letters  cut  on  the  face  of  blank 
types,  so  that  out  of  three  thousand  letters  only  fourteen  hundred 
were  cast  from  matrices.  The  work  of  completing  punches  for 
the  whole  has  been  lately  resumed,  and  they  will  soon  be  able 
to  cast  all  the  required  letters.  The  size  is  what  our  printers 
call  "  English,"  and  is  greatly  admired  by  the  natives. 

The  labors  of  Mr.  Dyer,  now  of  Malacca,  have  been  already 
mentioned  in  my  journal  of  the  visit  to  that  city ;  and  the  char- 
acter and  extent  of  the  fonts  at  Macao  have  been  stated  in 
the  last  chapter.  M.  Pauthier,  at  Paris,  has  cut  punches,  and 
cast  a  font  about  the  size  of  that  at  Serampore.  It  is  exceed- 
ingly beautiful,  but  somewhat  strange  to  a  Chinese  eye,  from  the 
use  of  different  punches  to  make  the  same  matrix.  It  extends  to 
about  nine  thousand  characters,  and  will,  no  doubt,  prove  an 
important  aid  to  missionary  operations. 

A  fair  statement  of  the  comparative  advantages  of  block  printing, 
lithography,  and  movable  type,  is  given  in  Vol.  III.  of  the  Chi- 
nese Repository.  Stereotyping  from  wooden  blocks,  has  been 
done  on  a  small  scale  in  Boston,  but  is  utterly  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. Many  years  must  elapse  before  any  version  of  Scripture, 
or  other  productions,  will  deserve  such  perpetuity.  Stereotyping 
16* 


186  MISSIONS    TO    THE    CHINESE. 

is  never  economical  except  where  frequent  and  small  editions 
of  the  same  work  are  required. 

Books  can  be  manufactured  by  the  Chinese  method,  at  a  cost 
not  exceeding  that  of  metallic  type  ;  beside  saving  the  salary  of 
an  American  or  European  printer. 

The  impression  very  generally  prevails,  that  almost  insuperable 
difficulties  lie  in  the  way  of  the  foreigner  who  attempts  to  learn 
Chinese.  But  the  contrary  opinion  is  maintained  by  various 
persons  with  whom  I  had  conversation.  The  late  superintendent 
of  British  trade,  who  resided  many  years  at  Canton,  acquired 
great  proficiency  in  the  language,  and  has  published  the  best 
general  account  of  China  now  extant,  says,  "  The  rumored  diffi- 
culties attendant  on  the  acquisition  of  Chinese,  from  the  great 
number  and  variety  of  the  characters,  are  the  mere  exaggerations 
of  ignorance.  The  roots,  or  original  characters,  or  what,  by  a 
species  of  analogy,  may  be  called  its  alphabet,  are  only  two  hun- 
dred and  fourteen  in  number ;  and  might  be  reduced  to  a  much 
smaller  amount  by  a  little  dissection  and  analysis.  To  assert 
that  there  are  so  many  thousand  characters  in  the  language,  is 
very  much  the  same  thing  as  to  say  that  there  are  so  many  thou- 
sand words  in  Johnson's  Dictionary.  Nor  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
whole  at  all  more  necessary,  for  every  practical  purpose,  than 
it  is  to  get  all  Johnson's  Dictionary  by  heart,  hi  order  to  read 
and  converse  in  English." 

This  opinion  seems  corroborated  by  several  facts.  In  printing 
the  entire  Bible,  only  about  three  thousand  five  hundred  charac- 
ters are  required.  Mr.  Dyer  in  ascertaining  the  most  important 
letters  to  be  cast,  caused  a  large  quantity  of  Chinese  histories, 
poems,  and  other  books,  to  be  examined ;  and  found  only  three 
thousand  two  hundred  characters  employed.  The  Chinese  penal 
code  contains  less  than  two  thousand  different  words.  The  New 
Testament  contains  less  than  three  thousand.  Of  the  forty  thou- 
sand characters  in  Morrison's  Dictionary,  more  than  half  are 
entirely  obsolete,  and  most  of  the  remainder  very  uncommon. 

To  gather  a  sufficient  number  of  words,  therefore,  for  all  the  or- 
dinary labors  of  the  missionary,  cannot  be  difficult.  To  master 
the  language  fully,  so  as  to  write  critically  in  it,  must  be  exceed- 
ingly difficult.  Dr.  Morrison,  who  probably  proceeded  farther 
in  the  acquisition  of  the  language  than  any  other  European, 
always  declared  himself  far  from  the  goal.  His  advice  to  stu- 
dents is,  not  to  undertake  Chinese  as  though  it  is  a  very  easy 
thing  to  acquire,  nor  be  discouraged  under  an  impression  that 


DIFFICULTY    OF    THE   LANGUAGE  —  HELPS.  187 

the  difficulty  is  next  to  insurmountable.  Medhurst  declares,  that 
"  the  formidable  obstacles  which  have  frightened  English  stu- 
dents, are  considerably  reduced  by  a  comparison  with  our  own 
language,  and  vanish  entirely  before  the  patient  assiduity  of  the 
determined  scholar."  And  Dr.  Marshman  affirms  that  "the 
Chinese  language  is  little  less  regular  in  its  formation,  and 
scarcely  more  difficult  of  acquisition  than  the  Sunscrit,  the  Greek, 
or  even  the  Latin." 

Helps  to  the  study  of  Chinese  are  now  somewhat  numerous, 
though  few  are  of  much  utility  to  a  beginner.  The  following 
list  is  nearly  or  quite  complete.  Scarcely  any  of  the  works  being 
procurable  in  the  East,  except  at  one  or  two  places,  missionaries 
should  collect  what  they  can  before  leaving  home. 

De  Guigne,  Diet.  Chinois,  1813.  French  and  Latin.  One 
large  folio  of  1200  pages :  contains  13,316  words. 

Morrison's  Chinese  and  English  Dictionary  6  vols,  quarto. 
Part  I.  follows  the  imperial  Chinese  Dictionary,  made  in  1714,  and 
contains  40,000  words.  Part  1L  is  a  selection  of  12,000  words, 
which  alone  are  now  used.  Part  III.  is  English  and  Chinese. 
This  great  work  was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, at  their  press  in  Macao,  and  cost  £12,000.  The  first  part 
was  issued  in  1816,  and  the  last  in  1823.  It  is  for  sale  in  Lon- 
don at  $60  per  copy.  One  half  of  the  edition,  say  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  copies,  remain  on  hand. 

Medhurst's  Dictionary  of  the  Hoke'en  or  Fuhkeen  dialect,  in  1 
vol.  4to.,  very  valuable.  The  printing  was  begun  at  Macao,  in 
1830,  and  finished  in  1836.  Three  hundred  copies  only  were 
printed,  many  of  which  are  on  hand.  The  cost  of  the  edition, 
not  including  types,  was  $6000.    It  is  sold  at  $10  per  copy. 

Goncalves,  a  learned  Catholic  of  Macao,  has  published  a  good 
Dictionary,  Chinese-Portuguese  and  Portuguese-Chinese. 

Premare,  Notitise  Ling.  Sinicse,  printed  at  Malacca,  is  valuable 
to  beginners,  though  very  imperfect. 

Remusat,  Elemens  de  la  Gram.  Chin.  Paris,  1822,  is  an  im- 
provement on  Premare ;  but  those  who  can  afford  it  will  do 
well  to  have  both. 

Marshman's  Chinese  Grammar  is  a  learned  and  very  practical 
treatise ;  valuable  both  to  the  beginner  and  the  advanced 
student. 

Morrison's  Chinese  Grammar  is  very  brief,  and  has  been 
superseded  by  the  preceding  works. 

Goncalves  Chinese  Grammar  is  written  in  Portuguese,  and  is 
valuable. 


188  MISSIONS    TO     THE    CHINESE. 

Klaproth,  Chrestomathie  Chinoise,  is  one  of  the  best  element- 
ary books  a  student  can  procure. 

Beside  missionaries,  there  are  other  gentlemen  prosecuting 
Chinese  literature,  whose  labors  cannot  fail  to  aid  our  holy  cause. 
The  list  is  not  long,  and  deserves  to  be  noted.  The  universities 
of  Munich,  Paris,  and  London,  have  each  a  professor  of 
Chinese.  F.  C.  Newman  fills  the  first,  M.  Julien  the  second, 
and  Rev.  S.  Kidd,  late  missionary  at  Malacca,  the  third.  M. 
Pauthier,  at  Paris,  has  furnished  several  translations.  There  are 
also  Huttman,  Manning,  Davis,  Staunton,  and  Thorns,  in  Eng- 
land ;  all  of  whom  have  published  translations  of  Chinese  works. 

Several  Chinese  works  have  been  published  with  translations, 
which  offer  great  assistance  to  the  student.  I  will  name  only 
such  as  can  be  readily  procured. 

M.  Julien  has  given,  in  French,  "  Mengsteen,  seu  Mencius  ; " 
"Blanche  et  Bleu  ;"  and  other  pieces  of  light  Chinese  literature. 

Remusat  has  published,  in  the  same  manner,  the  Chung-yung, 
one  of  "the  four  books"  entitled  "  L'Invariable  Milieu,"  also  the 
"  Two  Cousins,"  and  some  others. 

"The  four  books"  are  also  given  in  English  by  the  late  Mr. 
Collie  of  Malacca. 

"  The  Sacred  Edict,"  translated  by  Milne,  is  exceedingly 
useful ;  as  the  original,  instead  of  the  ancient  and  difficult 
style,  is  in  the  most  modern  colloquial  diction. 

The  "Study  for  Grown  Persons,"  a  very  famous  classic,  is 
published  in  English  by  Marshman  in  his  "  Clavis ; "  and  very 
lately  by  Pauthier  in  French. 

The  "  Life  and  Works  of  Confucius"  were  published  by  Marsh- 
man  at  Serampore  in  1809;  both  the  original  and  a  translation. 

The  "  Chinese  Dialogues,"  by  Morrison,  have  not  only  a  literal 
rendering  of  every  word,  but  a  general  rendering  of  each  sen- 
tence, and  the  pronunciation  given  in  Roman  letters,  according  to 
the  Mandareen  dialect.     They  are  an  invaluable  assistance. 

The   "Life   of  Mencius"   is   given   in   English   by   Milne. 

J.  F.  Davis,  Esq.  late  superintendent  of  British  trade  at  Canton, 
has  published  "  Chinese  Novels  and  Tales,"  "  The  Happy  Union," 
"  Moral  Maxims,"  and  some  smaller  pieces. 

J.  R.  Morrison,  Esq.  recommends  that  the  student,  after  mas- 
tering Remusat's  Grammar  and  Klaproth's  Chrestomathy,  should 
study  Marshman's  Grammar  and  Morrison's  Dialogues,  and,  after 
that,  any  of  the  rest  he  can  procure.  Davis's  Moral  Maxims,  are 
the  best  substitute  for  the  Dialogues. 

A  multitude  of  works  upon  China  are  extant,  both  in  Latin 


AUTHORS    ON    CHINA  —  REMARKS.  189 

and  several  of  the  languages  of  Europe.  Davis  gives  a  cata- 
logue of  about  sixty.  The  general  reader  will  find  the  best  and 
latest  information  in  Macartney's  Embassy,  by  Staunton  ;  Barrow's 
China ;  Morrison's  View ;  Abeel's  Narrative  ;  Ellis's  Journal ; 
and  superior  to  all,  Davis's  "  General  Description  of  the  Empire 
of  China."  A  large  amount  of  interesting  tacts  may  be  had, 
also,  from  the  Chinese  Gleaner,  printed  at  Malacca,  from  1817 
to  1821 ;  The  Royal  Asiatic  Society's  Transactions,  published 
at  London,  after  1823;  The  Asiatic  Society's  Journal,  printed 
at  Calcutta;  and  the  Chinese  Repository,  published  at  Can- 
ton, since  1822. 

No  heathen  nation  has  so  little  excuse  for  idolatry  as  China. 
Her  civilization  and  commerce  ought  to  set  her  above  it.  Her 
literature  is  far  from  contemptible,  and  stands  distinguished 
from  that  of  every  other  heathen  people,  in  not  being  wrought  up 
with  mythological  legends.  The  system  is  thus  left  to  itself. 
The  priesthood  has  less  influence  than  in  other  countries,  and  are 
in  many  cases  not  above  general  contempt.  There  are  diversities 
of  faith,  which  should  awaken  a  spirit  of  inquiry.  Her  learned 
men  are  fully  aware,  that  the  nations  who  interchange  com- 
modities with  her,  hold  to  the  Divine  Unity ;  and  they  should 
diligently  investigate  the  evidences  on  so  momentous  a  theme. 
But  much  more  is  she  deprived  of  excuse  by  the  fact,  that  from  the 
earliest  periods  of  the  church,  messengers  of  salvation  have  been 
freely  sent  to  her.  The  Tartar  provinces  were  taught  the  truth 
by  the  first  Nestorians.  There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing, 
that  up  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  the  Syrian  churches  con- 
tinued to  send  preachers  into  the  heart  of  China.  Under  Inno- 
cent IV.,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Monguls  were  made 
acquainted  with  Christianity.  When  Portugal  spread  her  power 
over  the  East,  her  ministers  every  where  carried  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God ;  and  every  Catholic  country  in  Europe  fur- 
nished missionaries  and  money.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the 
priests,  who  from  that  time  pressed  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  of  the  corruptions  they  mixed  with  it,  still  it  was  the 
glorious  doctrine  of  the  Divine  Unity.  The  true  God  was  set 
before  them.  Every  part  of  the  empire  was  pervaded  by  the 
discussion  of  the  new  faith.  Prime  ministers,  princesses,  queens, 
and  emperors,  became  converts  and  patrons.  Thousands  and 
tens  of  thousands  saw  and  acknowledged  the  truth.  Numerous 
distinguished  youth  were    taught   and  trained  by  a   body  of 


190  MISSIONS   AMONG  THE   CHINESE. 

priests  distinguished  in  all  ages  for  learning  and  science.  True, 
they  were  Jesuits ;  but  that  very  many  of  them  were  holy  and 
devoted  men,  is  proved  by  their  pure  lives,  severe  labors,  innu- 
merable privations,  and  serene  martyrdom.  The  youth  thus 
taught  formed  the  flower  of  the  country,  and  never  could  have 
divested  themselves  of  the  conviction  of  the  folly  of  Boodhism. 
It  was  not  till  the  comparatively  late  period  of  1722,  when  the  em- 
peror Yung  Ching  set  himself  furiously  to  the  work,  that  perse- 
cution became  wholly  destructive ;  nor  was  Christianity  wholly 
put  down,  and  the  places  of  worship  demolished,  till  the  reign  of 
Kea-king,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1795.  Even  now,  there 
are  Catholic  Christians  scattered  over  the  country.  Many  of 
their  priests  remain,  and  almost  every  year  fresh  ones  contrive 
to  enter ;  while  native  preachers  keep  together,  here  and  there, 
little  bodies  of  disciples.  Thus,  almost  without  cessation,  has 
China  been  summoned  to  forsake  her  abominations.  Yet  in  no 
country  is  there  a  more  universal  and  assiduous  addictedness 
to  the  frivolous  rites  of  their  worthless  superstition.  It  may 
be  most  truly  said  to  her,  in  the  language  of  Ezekiel,  "  Thou 
hast  built  unto  thee  eminent  places,  and  hast  made  thee  a  high- 
place  in  every  street." 


191 


CHAPTER  IL 


THE  MISSIONARY  FIELD  IN  AND  AROUND  BURMAH. 

Burmah      Proper  —  Peguans  —  Tenasserim     Provinces  —  Arracanese  — 
Karens  —  Shyans  —  Toungthoos  —  Tswahs  —  Kahs  —  Wahs  —  Selongs 

—  Karen-nees  —  Lowas  —  Eccabat-Kulas  —  Ques  —  Bongs  —  D'hanoos 

—  Kadoos  —  Yaws  —  Engyees  —  Kyens  —  Paloungs  —  Kah-kyens  — 
Singphoos  —  Phwoons  —  Kan  tees  —  Muniporeans  —  Kachars  — Jynteas 

—  Cossyas  —  Garrows  —  Tipperas  —  Lalongs  —  Nagas  —  Joomeas  — 
Chakmas  —  Rajbungsies  —  Arings  —  Kookies  —  Kumaons  —  Mroongs  — 
Kubos  —  Gorkas  —  Kirauts  —  Bijnees  —  Asamese  —  Meekirs  —  Abors  — 
Meerees  —  Bor- Abors  —  Ahoms  —  Kolitas  —  Mishmees  —  Kantees  —  Bor- 
Kantees  —  Singphoos  —  Kunungs  —  Muttucks  —  Lapchas  —  Duflas  — 
Akas  —  Kupa-chowas  —  Booteas  —  Tangkools  —  Kons  —  Anals  —  Poo- 
rums  —  Mueyols  —  Munsangs — Minings  —  Luhoppas  —  Runibos  — Joholes 

—  Jompoles  —  Gominchis  —  Oojongs  —  Serimenantis  —  Ulus  —  Calangs  — 
Jellaboos  —  Segamets  —  Komoungs  —  Udais  —  Sakkyes  —  Utans  —  Joc- 
coons  —  Semangs — Oodees  —  Sakais  — Reyots  — Simongs  —  Reegas  — 
Pasees  —  Mizongs  —  Bibors  —  Barkans  —  Uniyas  —  Marchas  —  Jovvaries 

—  Suryabans  —  Koiboos  —  Longphoos  —  Champungs  —  Kapwis  — 
Korengs. 

To  complete  the  foregoing  notes  on  Burmah,  and  to  show  the 
extent  and  character  of  the  missionary  field,  in  and  adjacent  to 
this  empire,  the  following  sketch  is  suhmitted.  With  some  ex- 
ceptions, these  trihes  have  been  hitherto  unknown ;  neither 
geographers  nor  missionaries  having  so  much  as  given  their 
names.  My  extended  journeys  brought  me  into  contact  either 
with  the  people  themselves,  or  with  persons  who  knew  them,  be- 
ing neighbors ;  and  constant  inquiry  has  produced  the  follow- 
ing catalogue,  which  surprised  the  best  informed  persons  in 
India,  to  whom  it  was  submitted.  That  a  document,  compiled, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  from  natives  unacquainted  with  geogra- 
phy, and  unaccustomed  to  minute  investigations,  should  be  im- 
perfect, is  unavoidable.  My  object  is  to  show  the  extent  of  the 
field  and  the  necessity  of  more  vigorous  exertions  ;  and  this  no 
mistake  in  detail  can  effect.  My  memorandums  would  furnish  a 
much  greater  amount  of  information  respecting  the  manners  of 
several  of  these  tribes ;  but  the  present  purpose  does  not  require 
further  details. 


192  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

1.  Burmah  proper  contains  about  3,000,000  of  inhabitants  to 
whom  the  language  is  vernacular.  Information  as  to  these  is  so 
amply  furnished  in  this  work  and  missionary  periodicals,  that 
nothing  need  here  be  said.  For  these,  there  are,  at  Ava,  Messrs. 
Kincaid  and  Simons,  and  at  Rangoon,  Messrs.  Webb  and  How- 
ard. Stations  might  be  formed  at  Sagaing,  Umerapoora,  Bamoo, 
Mogoung,  Prome,  Bassein,  and  other  important  places.  At  least 
ten  missionaries  are  now  needed  for  Burmah  proper. 

2.  The  Peguans,  called  by  Burmans  Talains,  or  Talings,  and 
by  themselves  Moons,  amount  to  more  than  70,000  souls.  Their 
language  has  been  very  much  superseded  by  the  Burman  ;  the 
men  speaking  it  in  all  their  business,  and  most  of  such  as  learn 
to  read,  doing  so  in  Burman.  It  will  not  be  proper  to  expend 
missionary  time  and  money  in  preserving  it  from  extinction ;  but, 
as  many  of  the  females  speak  only  Peguan,  and  all  can  under- 
stand it  better  than  Burman,  it  will  be  necessary  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  their  language,  and  perhaps  print  a  few  books.  At  least 
one  missionary,  therefore,  is  wanted  to  sustain  and  succeed  Mr 
Haswell,  who  now  occupies  this  department,  and  is  located  at 
Amherst. 

3.  The  Tenasserim  provinces  (as  the  British  possessions 
south  of  Rangoon  are  called)  contain  about  100,000  souls.  For 
the  Burman  part  of  these,  the  laborers  are  Messrs.  Judson,  Os- 
good, Hancock,  and  Bennett.  Mr.  J.  is  wholly  engrossed  with 
translations  and  tracts,  and  in  the  pastorship  of  the  native  church ; 
Messrs.  O.  and  H.  are  printers ;  and  Mr.  B.  has  full  employ  in 
the  government  school.  There  is,  therefore,  not  a  single  effec- 
tive out-door  missionary  to  this  whole  people,  nor  one  on  the 
ground  preparing  to  become  so !  Maulmain,  Tavoy,  and  Mergui 
should  each  immediately  have  a  missionary  devoted  to  public 
services. 

4.  In  Arracan,  containing  300,000,  there  is  only  Mr.  Corn- 
stock,  stationed  at  Kyouk  Phyoo.  The  population  is  twice  that 
of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Ramree  and  Sandoway  ought  at  once 
to  be  occupied.  These  stations  should  at  least  have  two  mis- 
sionaries each.     Rev.  Mr.  Ingalls  is  designated  to  one  of  them. 

5.  The  Ka-rens  inhabit  all  the  mountain  regions  of  the 
southern  and  eastern  portions  of  Burmah  proper,  and  all  parts 
of  the  Tenasserim  provinces,  extending  into  the  western  por- 
tions of  Siam,  and  thence  northward  among  the  Shyans.  It  is 
impossible  to  form  a  satisfactory  estimate  of  their  numbers.  In 
the  province  of  Tavoy,  a  British  census  makes  the  number  2500. 
Around  Maulmain  and  Rangoon,  there  are  perhaps  20,000  more. 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  193 

In  Siam  and  Lao  there  are  probably  10,000  ;  making  in  all  about 

a%ooo. 

There  are  known  to  be  at  least  two  different  tribes,  speaking 
diverse  dialects,  viz.  the  Sgaus,  or  Chegaws  and  the  Pos,  or  Pgwos. 
The  former  reside  chiefly  in  the  Tenasseriin  provinces,  and  are 
called  by  the  Burmans  Myet-ho.  Their  language  has  been  re- 
duced to  writing,  in  the  Burman  character,  by  Mr.  Wade.  Among 
this  tribe  have  occurred  those  triumphs  of  Christianity  which 
have  been  so  remarkable,  and  with  which  all  the  friends  of  mis- 
sions are  acquainted.  The  Po  tribe  (called  by  the  Burmans 
Myet-kyen)  reside  in  Pegu,  and  have  adopted  many  of  the  words 
and  habits  of  the  Talains.  With  this  tribe  Miss  Macomber 
has  commenced  labors. 

Missionaries  knew  nothing  more  of  these  people,  than  that 
there  were  such,  until  the  visit  of  the  sorcerer  in  April,  1828. 
The  heart  of  Boardman  was  immediately  touched  with  sym- 
pathy, and  his  judgment  convinced  that  Providence  pointed 
them  out  as  entitled  to  his  future  labors.  An  early  visit  to  their 
jungle  confirmed  him  in  this  decision;  and  thenceforth  his 
life  was  spent  in  their  cause.  On  his  second  tour,  he  was  called 
from  his  labor,  amid  those  touching  scenes  described  in  his 
memoir;  having  seen  nearly  seventy  persons  added  to  the 
church.  He  died  February  11,  1831.  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Mason 
had  joined  the  mission  in  the  preceding  Jan uary  ;  and  Mr.  and 
Mis.  Wade,  returning  from  America  with  Miss  Gardner,  were 
added  in  1835. 

The  Tavoy  station  has  hitherto  been  made  almost  wholly  sub- 
servient to  the  interests  of  this  people.  God  has  opened  among 
them  an  effectual  door  of  entrance,  and  granted  them  the  ser- 
vices of  as  devoted  missionaries  as  have  ever  blessed  a  people. 
In  July,  1836,  they  had  in  charge  five  Karen  churches,  embracing 
nearly  three  hundred  and  fifty  members,  more  than  twenty  na- 
tive assistants,  about  two  hundred  inquirers  connected  with  the 
several  congregations,  and  fifteen  schools.  An  account  of  the 
Tavoy  and  Karen  churches,  as  well  as  of  those  in  the  vicinity 
of  Maulmain,  is  given  in  the  first  volume.  Mr.  Abbott  is  now 
successfully  laboring  among  the  latter,  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Vinton. 

There  are  three  churches,  not  far  from  each  other,  about  forty 
miles  north  of  Rangoon ;  viz.  Mawbee,  Yea-tko,  or  Ray-tho,  and 
Poung-nen,  or  Ponan.  These  have  been  founded  wholly  by  na- 
tive assistants,  and  have  for  several  years  walked  steadfastly  in 
vol.  ii.  17 


194  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

the  truth.  They  have  endured  the  spoiling  of  their  goods,  and 
cruel  tortures ;  and  live  amid  continual  threats  of  violence  from 
the  Burrnan  officers ;  but  not  one,  among  several  hundreds,  has 
drawn  back  through  fear,  though  a  few  have  relapsed  into  sin, 
as  might  be  expected. 

We  have  been,  perhaps,  too  much  disposed  to  esteem  the  im- 
portance of  a  mission  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  population. 
We  ought  rather  to  regard  the  indications  of  Providence.  In 
this  aspect,  so  far  as  1  know,  no  other  mission  of  modern  times 
holds  out  such  encouragements. 

The  several  sections  of  Karens  have  each  some  peculiarities, 
but  such  general  similarity,  that  they  may  be  described  together. 
The  degree  of  attention  now  drawn  to  this  interesting  race  of 
people,  requires  that  I  should  add  a  few  particulars  in  addition 
to  the  religious  statistics  given  in  Part  I. 

Their  houses  are  like  the  Burmans',  only  much  higher  from 
the  ground ;  and  as  there  is  little  distinction  of  rich  or  poor,  the 
model,  dimensions,  and  materials,  differ  but  slightly.  They  cost 
only  a  few  days'  labor,  and  are  admirably  suited  to  the  climate. 
One  of  the  rooms  has  a  hearth  for  cooking,  made  by  laying  earth 
in  a  shallow  box.  Chimneys  are  unknown  ;  but  the  high  roof 
and  open  floor  prevent  all  inconvenience  on  account  of  smoke. 
Each  has  a  veranda,  or  porch,  raised  to  the  same  height  as  the 
floor  of  the  house,  where  much  of  the  laborious  work  is  done. 
The  loom,  agricultural  implements,  &c,  as  well  as  the  fowls  and 
pigs,  find  a  place  under  the  house. 

They  cultivate  the  ground  with  more  care  and  success  than 
Burmans,  and  furnish  no  small  part  of  the  rice  consumed  in  the 
country.  Their  instruments  of  tillage  are,  however,  particularly 
rude.  Having  no  plough,  they  are  unable  to  prepare  the  soil  for 
a  second  crop  on  account  of  its  baking  hard.  Their  custom  is, 
therefore,  to  clear  and  burn  over  a  new  spot  every  year ;  which, 
being  soft  and  light,  and  stimulated  by  the  ashes  left  upon  it,  yields 
largely.  Hence,  in  part,  arises  their  habit  of  roving  from  place 
to  place.  They  raise  hogs  and  poultry  in  abundance,  so  that 
with  honey,  (obtained  plentifully  from  wild  bees,)  fish,  esculents, 
and  indigenous  fruits,  they  have  no  want  of  the  necessaries  of 
life.  Many  of  them  are  expert  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  and 
shoot  guianas,  monkeys,  squirrels,  and  other  game,  common  in 
their  forests.  They  seem  to  exempt  nothing  from  their  catalogue 
of  meats.  Animals  which  have  died  of  themselves,  or  game 
killed  with  poisoned  arrows,  are  not  the  less  acceptable.    When 


MISSIONARY   FIELD. 


195 


I  have  expressed  disgust  at  the  swollen  and  revolting  condition 
of  such  meat,  they  seemed  to  wonder  what  could  be  the  nature 
of  my  objections. 

Their  dress  forms  a  more  complete  covering  to  the  body  than 
that  of  the  Burmans,  but  is  neither  so  graceful  nor  of  so  rich 
materials.  The  universal  robe,  for  both  sexes,  is  a  strong  cotton 
shirt,  made  loose,  without  sleeves,  and  de- 
scending a  little  below  the  knees.  Women 
wear  beneath  this  a  petticoat,  descending 
to  the  ankles ;  but  young  girls  and  old 
women  dispense  with  this  last  garment 
The  women  are  distinguishable  chiefly  by 
their  turban,  which  is  made  of  a  long,  nar- 
row, figured  scarf,  with  the  fringed  ends 
thrown  back,  and  falling  gracefully  on  the 
shoulders.  The  costume  will  be  better 
learned  from  the  accompanying  picture  of 
Naw  Moo  Klur,  whose  letter  to  me  is  given 
Karen  Gw.  on  P-  45  of  Vol.  I.     Her  standing  up  to  be 

drawn   afforded   great    amusement  to  her 
school-fellows,  who  had  never  seen  such  an  attempt  before. 

They  are  exceedingly  fond  of  ornaments,  and  wear  a  great 
variety  on  the  neck,  arms,  and  ankles.  Some  of  these  neck- 
laces are  made  of  the  hard,  dry  wing  of  a  magnificent  beetle, 
found  in  their  forests.  A  young  lady,  of  special  pretensions,  will 
sometimes  wear  ten  or  fifteen  necklaces  of  various  kinds,  often 
suspending  a  little  bell  to  the  longest,  so  that  she  has  "  music 
wherever  she  goes."  They  never  wear  silk,  and  seldom  any 
foreign  fabric,  except  book  muslin,  which  some  of  the  men  wear 
for  turbans,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Burmans.  Their  ears 
are  not  only  bored,  but  the  aperture  so  stretched  as  to  be- 
come, in  many  cases,  capable  of  containing  a  cylinder,  the  size 
of  a  dollar.  When  women  have  obtained  an  age  when  such 
ornaments  cease  to  be  valued,  this  great  empty  wrinkled  aper- 
ture has  a  disagreeable  aspect. 

Their  domestic  manners  are  less  exceptionable  than  those  of 
most  heathen.  Truth,  integrity,  and  hospitality,  are  universal. 
For  a  Karen  to  lie  or  cheat,  is  scarcely  known.  Females  are  in 
no  respect  degraded.  They  are  neither  secluded,  nor  kept  at  an 
unseemly  distance,  nor  required  to  perform  labor  beyond  their 
strength,  nor  treated  with  severity.  Polygamy,  though  allowed 
by  the  government  under  which  they  live,  is  accounted  dis- 


196  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

honorable,  and  seldom  occurs.  Their  distinguishing  vice  is 
intemperance.  Unrestrained  by  religious  prohibitions,  men, 
women,  and  children  use  strong  drink,  and  the  miserable 
consequences  are  seen  in  every  village.  The  Christians  are 
of  course  emancipated  from  this  baleful  practice. 

In  musical  taste  and  skill,  they  excel  all  the  other  Orientals 
with  which  I  became  acquainted ;  though  their  instruments  are 
few  and  rude.  Young  and  old  practise  vocal  music  on  all 
occasions ;  and  the  psalmody  of  the  disciples  is  truly  delightful. 
Every  word  in  the  language  ending  with  a  vowel,  renders  their 
versification  peculiarly  soft. 

Their  manufactures,  though  few,  comprehend  all  the  articles 
in  use  among  themselves.  Without  the  advantage  of  a  regular 
loom,  they  make  excellent  cotton  fabrics,  often  with  beautiful 
figures.  One  end  of  the  warp  is  fastened  to  a  post  of  the  house 
or  a  tree,  and  the  other  wrapped  round  the  waist.  A  neat  shuttle 
holds  the  woof,  but  the  figures  are  interwoven  with  the  fingers. 

None  of  the  tributaries  to  Burmah  have  been  so  oppressed  as 
this  inoffensive  people.  Their  regular  taxes  amount  to  twelve 
or  fifteen  rupees  annually,  for  each  family,  beside  which  their 
goods  are  taken,  without  restraint,  at  any  time  ;  and  where  pub- 
lic labor  is  to  be  done,  they  are  called  out  by  hundreds,  without 
compensation  or  provisions.  Many  die  of  fatigue  and  suffering 
on  these  occasions.  They  are,  however,  allowed  to  have  their 
own  head-men,  who  decide  minor  disputes,  and  may  inflict 
minor  punishments. 

As  to  religion,  the  Karens  may  be  almost  said  to  have  none. 
Individuals,  of  course,  will  have  religious  anxieties,  and  these 
make  prayer  and  offerings  to  the  Nao-pu-ee,  or  Nats.*  In  ordi- 
nary times,  they  make  offerings  to  these  of  a  little  boiled  rice 
laid  on  a  board  near  the  house.  In  periods  of  distress,  a  hog  is 
offered.  The  mode  of  doing  this  is  to  chase  him  round,  beating 
him  with  clubs  till  nearly  dead,  and  then  despatching  him  by 
thrusting  a  sharp  stick  down  his  throat.  Though  so  little  is  done 
to  propitiate  the  Nats,  the  fear  of  them  is  universal,  and  gives 
rise  to  a  multitude  of   such  stories  as  infest  our   nurseries. 


*  The  account  of  some  individuals  who  worshipped  a  book,  is  familiar  to 
the  readers  of  missionary  magazines  and  the  memoir  of  Boardman.  These 
were  but  a  few  families,  and  the  rest  of  the  Karens  remained  ignorant  of  such 
a  faith.        The  word  Karen  is  accented  on  the  last  syllable. 


MISSIONARY   FIELD.  197 

Through  fear  of  them,  most  Karens  "  are  all  their  lifetime  sub- 
ject to  bondage." 

Various  traditions  prevail  among  them  which  have  a  remark- 
able similarity  to  Scripture  facts.  The  following  is  a  specimen: 
"  Our  race  began  with  a  married  pair,  who  lived  in  happy  inno- 
cence and  abundance.  Mo-kaw-le,  or  the  devil,  attempted  to 
seduce  them  to  partake  of  certain  food  which  they  had  been  com- 
manded not  to  eat.  They  both  listened  and  argued  for  some 
time,  till  the  man,  indignant  and  out  of  patience,  would  hear  no 
more,  and  rising  up,  went  away.  The  woman  continued  to  listen. 
Mokawle  assured  her  that  if  she  would  take  his  advice,  she  should 
know  all  things,  and  be  endued  with  ability  to  fly  in  the  air,  or 
penetrate  into  the  depth  of  the  earth.  That  she  might  prove  the 
truth  of  what  he  said,  he  begged  her  just  to  taste  the  least  mor- 
sel, and  she  would  know  for  herself.  She  began  to  hesitate, 
and  said,  '  Shall  we  verily  be  able  to  fly  ? '  Upon  this,  Mokawle 
redoubled  his  protestations  of  ardent  good  will,  and  repeated  the 
most  flattering  assurances,  till  the  woman  ate.  Mokawle  then 
praised  and  cajoled  her,  till  she  was  induced  to  go  and  find  her 
husband.  He  yielded  reluctantly,  and  after  much  coaxing. 
They  realised  none  of  the  promised  advantages,  but  felt  no  dif- 
ference in  themselves  till  next  day,  when  God  came  and  cursed 
them,  saying,  '  You  shall  become  old ;  you  shall  be  sick ;  you 
shall  die.'" 

The  only  religious  teachers  are  a  sort  of  prophets  called  Boo- 
khoos,  who  predict  events,  and  are  greatly  venerated  by  the 
people.  They  are  always  bards,  singing  with  uncommon  skill, 
sometimes  extemporaneously,  verses  of  their  own  composition. 
The  uniform  burden  of  the  prophecies  is  the  coming  of  a  de- 
liverer, who  is  to  gather  their  scattered  tribes,  and  restore  them  to 
security  and  independence. 

Besides  these  is  a  set  of  wizards,  called  Wees ;  who  are  far 
less  respectable,  but  more  numerous,  and  rhore  dreaded.  Boo- 
khoos  frequently  become  Wees ;  but  there  are  many  Wees 
who  are  never  Bookhoos.  They  pretend  to  cure  diseases,  to 
know  men's  thoughts,  and  to  converse  with  the  spirits.  Their 
performances  are  fraught  with  awe  and  terror  to  a  superstitious 
people.  They  begin  with  solemn  and  mysterious  movements ; 
presently  their  eyes  roll  wildly ;  then  their  body  trembles ;  and 
at  length  every  muscle  is  agitated ;  while  with  frantic  looks  and 
foaming  mouth,  they  utter  oracles,  or  speak  to  a  man's  spirit  and 
declare  its  responses. 
17* 


198  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  rest  of  this  great  field,  in  no  part  of 
which,  except  at  Asam,  is  there  a  single  missionary  of  any 
persuasion ! 

6.  The  Shyan"s,  Shans,  or  Laos.  Geographers  and  historians 
know  little  of  this  numerous  people ;  not  even  the  number  and 
location  of  their  various  tribes.  The  accounts  of  La  Bissachere, 
Jarrie,  Westhoff,  Kempfer,  and  Marini,  are  rendered  worthless 
by  the  contradictoriness  of  their  statements,  the  confusion 
of  their  dissimilar  orthography,  and  the  changes  which  have 
occurred  since  their  day. 

No  modern  traveller  has  explored  the  country.  Dr.  Richard- 
son alone  has  seen  any  considerable  part  of  it.  He  communi- 
cated many  facts  respecting  the  Shyans  of  the  region  of  Zemmai ; 
but  his  whole  account  has  been  published  in  the  Asiatic  Journal, 
to  which,  if  the  reader  please,  be  may  refer.  I  spent  many  hours 
in  examining  intelligent  officers  and  traders,  whom  I  met  at 
different  places,  and  gathered  some  facts  from  the  Shyan  princes, 
to  whom  Colonel  Burney  introduced  me  at  Ava ;  but  as  memo- 
randums became  voluminous,  they  became  also  contradictory ; 
so  that,  instead  of  giving  an  entire  chapter  on  this  people,  as  1 
had  intended,  I  shall  venture  only  a  few  paragraphs. 

The  Shyan  or  Lao  country  is  bounded  by  Asam  on  the 
north,  China  on  the  east,  Siam  and  Camboja  on  the  south,  and 
Burmah  on  the  west.  The  entire  length  of  the  country  is  about 
nine  hundred  miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  about  four  hundred. 
The  population  is  probably  not  much  short  of  three  millions. 
iShyan  is  a  Burman  name,  and  Low,  or  Lao,  the  Chinese,  which 
is  adopted  by  the  Portuguese.  They  call  themselves  Tay,  (pro- 
nounced Tie,)  and  their  language  often  bears  that  name  in  books. 
They  seem  to  be  the  parent  stock  of  both  Asamese  and  Siamese. 
Indeed  the  name  shows  identity.  Bengalees  always  put  a 
vowel  before  every  word,  and  make  m  and  n  convertible  ;  so  that 
Shyan  becomes  with  them  Jl-syam,  which  the  English  further 
altered  to  Asam.  Syam,  or  Siam,  is  but  another  form  of  the  same 
word. 

The  Shyans  are  divided  into  many  tribes,  and  the  language 
has  a  corresponding  number  of  dialects.  They  have  no  alpha- 
betical characters  of  their  own ;  but  a  few  individuals  write  their 
language  in  the  Bengalee  or  Burman  letters.  The  Roman  letters 
have  been  wisely  adopted  by  the  missionaries  at  Sudiya.  Read- 
ers will  thus  be  more  easily  raised  up,  and  vast  expense  saved  to 
the  mission.    If  the  same  plan  be  pursued  in  giving  letters  to  the 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  199 

numerous  tribes  now  to  be  mentioned,  a  happy  uniformity  in 
proper  names,  &c.  will  pervade  all  this  region,  and  the  diffusion 
of  the  Word  hastened  by  many  years. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  the  different  tribes.  Their  chief 
designations  seem  to  be  from  the  regions  they  inhabit. 

The  Cassay  or  KatM  Shyans  occupy  a  country  sometimes  called 
Nora,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Kyendween.  The  northern 
Laos  inhabit  the  sources  of  the  Meinam  or  Siam  River.  Their 
principal  city  is  Kaintoun.  The  Mrelap  or  Myelop  Shyans 
occupy  the  region  between  the  upper  part  of  the  Irrawaddy  and 
China,  and  are  sometimes  called  Shyan  Waws.  Their  chief 
towns  are  Momeit,  Thennee,  and  Monay ;  from  each  of  which 
are  annual  caravans  to  Ava.  The  Tarouk  or  Chinese  Shyans  re- 
side chiefly  in  China.  They  are  sometimes  called  Ko-shyan-pye, 
or  the  "nine-tribe  Shyans."  The  Yunshyans  appear  to  be  the 
Jangomas  of  the  Modern  Universal  History.  Perhaps  they  are 
the  same  as  the  Tarouk  Shyans.  The  Zemmai  Shyans  occupy 
the  region  round  the  city  of  that  name,  and  are  less  connected 
with  Burmah  than  with  Siam.  Their  Chobwaw  is  in  reality 
monarch,  and  holds  a  very  dubious  fealty  to  his  more  powerful 
neighbor.  The  city  of  Zemmai  is  on  the  head  waters  of  the 
Meinam,  fifteen  days  from  Bankok  by  boat.  Dr.  Richardson 
speaks  highly  of  the  mildness,  intelligence,  and  purity  of  the 
people,  and  of  the  preeminent  salubrity  of  the  climate.  The 
Lowa  Shyans  are  numerously  scattered  over  the  southern  portion 
of  the  Lao  country,  and  stand  high  for  intelligence  and  prosper- 
ity. One  of  the  Woongyees  at  Ava  assured  me  there  were  no 
Lowa  Shyans,  but  that  the  people  so  called  are  only  Lowas, 
scattered  among  Shyans  ;  but  I  am  led  to  believe  he  was  mistaken. 
I  saw  at  Maulmain  some  very  intelligent  traders  who  called 
themselves  Lowa  Shyans,  and  gave  me  a  list  of  twelve  or  fif- 
teen of  their  principal  towns.  The  Lenzens,  or  Southern  Shy- 
ans, border  on  Siam  and  Camboja,  and  seem  to  be  the  people 
called  by  old  waiters  Langchan  or  Vinchang.  They  were  con- 
quered, in  1829,  by  the  Siamese,  and  their  king  carried  in  chains 
to  Bankok.     Their  chief  town  is  Sandapuri. 

The  Shyans  are,  in  some  respects,  a  more  interesting  people, 
and  more  civilized  than  the  Burmans.  Such  of  their  manufac- 
tures as  I  saw  were  greatly  superior,  and  the  common  dress  is  much 
more  artificial  and  convenient.  They  wear  round  jackets,  short 
full  trousers,  and  broad-brimmed  hats ;  dressing,  in  fact,  much 
like  the  Chinese.  Though  occasionally  reduced  and  overrun  by 
their  neighbors,  they  have  as  yet  maintained  a  virtual  indepen- 


200  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

dence,  and  have  to  a  great  degree  avoided  those  internal  wars 
which  have  reduced  the  North  American  Indians  to  such  weak- 
ness and  diminution.  Some  of  the  tribes  adhere  to  the  ancient 
demon  worship,  but  most  of  them  have  embraced  Boodhism. 
Eight  or  ten  missionaries  might  at  once  be  settled  advantageously 
in  large  cities,  and  would  form  an  important  advance  upon 
China,  One  should  be  stationed  at  Ava,  or  Umerapoora,  where 
he  would  have  access  to  very  large  numbers,  and  where  his  oper- 
ations would  probably  create  no  displeasure  on  the  part  of  the 
government 

7.  The  Toung-thoos  are  sometimes  called  Tampees.  A  few 
reside  in  scattered  villages,  on  the  Salwen  River,  near  Maulmain  ; 
but  most  of  them  to  the  northward.  They  amount  probably  to 
twenty  thousand.  The  northern  portions  are  said  to  have  a  writ- 
ten language,  and  books  in  the  Burman  character.  The  southern 
portion  seem  wholly  ignorant  of  letters,  except  a  few,  who 
read  and  write  Burman.  Their  name,  which  signifies  "  southern 
people,"  was  probably  given  them  about  Ava.  The  name  they 
themselves  give  their  tribe  is  PaJio,  or  Pwo.  Thetong,  or 
Tethong,  seems  to  have  been  their  ancient  metropolis.  They 
resemble  Karens  in  migratory  habits,  dress,  habitations,  and 
customs ;  but  hold  themselves  to  be  of  a  higher  grade.  They 
are  given  to  trade,  and  travel  extensively  among  the  villages  in 
the  wilderness,  selling  ornaments  and  other  articles  of  luxury. 
The  upper  portions  of  the  tribe  cultivate  tea,  cotton,  and  indigo. 
They  raise  also  considerable  floss  silk,  feeding  the  worm  on  the 
plant  called  Puja. 

8.  The  Tswahs  reside  north-east  of  Maulmain,  and  are 
considerably  numerous.  They  are  somewhat  more  civilized 
than  Karens,  and  manufacture  many  articles  requiring  consid- 
erable skill. 

9.  The  Kahs  inhabit  the  Siamese  frontier,  and  are  addicted  to 
wandering,  like  the  Karens.  They  were  formerly  numerous  in 
Tavoy  province,  but  the  bulk  of  them  went  over  to  Siarn,  when  the 
English  took  the  country.  They  are  still  numerous.  Their  lan- 
guage is  unwritten.  Partial  vocabularies  of  the  languages  of 
the  Karens,  Lowas,  and  Kahs,  are  given  in  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches, on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Buchanan  Hamilton.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  this  is  the  tribe  called  Lowas,  or  possibly  the  people 
called  Loiva-kah,  found  between  Thennee  and  the  Camboja  River. 

10.  The  Wahs  are  another  wandering  tribe,  partly  in  the 
province  of  Mergui,  but  chiefly  in  Siam.  They  amount  to  about 
twelve  thousand. 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  5201 

11.  The  Se-longs,  or  Zaloungs,  inhabit  islands  of  the  Mergui 
archipelago,  chiefly  Dong,  Sulse,  and  Lampee.  On  each  island  is 
a  distinct  tribe, with  a  distinct  dialect;  but  the  language  is  essen- 
tially the  same,  and  resembles  the  Malay  more  than  any  other. 
Few  races  of  men  are  more  degraded  than  these.  Their  num- 
bers cannot  be  ascertained,  as  they  fly  into  the  mountains  when 
strangers  visit  their  shores.  Their  food  is  chiefly  fish  and  shell- 
fish. In  seeking  this,  they  put  up  their  wretched  huts  wherever 
they  find  a  temporary  supply,  and  spend  much  of  their  time  in 
canoes,  among  the  small  uninhabited  islands  contiguous.  A 
missionary  or  two  for  these  tribes  might  reside  at  Mergui,  and 
itinerate  among  them  in  the  dry  season.  Their  unsettled  resi- 
dences would  preclude  his  having  access  to  them  at  any  one 
place,  till  converts  were  made  and  some  village  established. 

12.  The  Karen-nes,  or  "Red  Karens"  occupy  the  region  di- 
rectly east  of  Maul  main.  They  are  more  fair  than  Burmans, 
and  their  eyes  generally  light  colored ;  which  is  very  rare  in  the 
East.  They  are  not  a  tribe  of  Karens,  as  the  name  implies,  but 
seem  to  be  descended  from  the  Shyans.  The  latter  universally 
wear  trousers  of  blue  cotton  :  these  wear  the  same  garment,  but 
always  of  a  red  color;  hence  the  name,  probably  given  by 
some  one  who  supposed  them  to  be  Karens.  Their  language 
contains  a  large  mixture  of  Peguan  words.  They  are  remark- 
able for  living  in  houses  connected  together,  like  a  long  shed. 
Sometimes  a  hundred  live  under  one  roof.  They  are  without 
large  cities,  but  have  several  villages  of  considerable  size,  and 
practise  various  mechanic  arts  with  respectable  success. 

They  are  represented  to  be  zealous  Boodhists,  and  exceedingly 
savage.  This  character,  however,  is  probably  given  them  princi- 
pally from  their  being  addicted  to  man-stealing.  Their  practice 
is  to  seize  defenceless  Siamese,  and  sell  them  to  the  Burmans ; 
and  defenceless  Burmans,  and  sell  them  to  the  Siamese.  This 
trade  is  not  now  so  earnestly  pursued  as  formerly. 

13.  The  La  was  are  in  the  extreme  south-east,  bordering  on 
China  and  Siam.  Whether  they  have  a  separate  country  is  un- 
certain. There  are  several  large  tribes  of  these  ;  some  tributary 
to  Burmah,  and  some  to  Siam.  Their  entire  number  probably 
exceeds  that  of  the  Karens.  It  is  probable  they  live  among  the 
Shyans  as  the  Karens  do  among  the  Burmans  ;  but  their  laws, 
religion,  and  customs  are  wholly  different.  They  are  not 
Boodhists,  but  worship  Nats,  and  offer  bloody  sacrifices.  They 
not  only  use  no  idols,  but  reject  them  with  great  abhorrence,  and 
break  them.    They  seem  to  have  no  large  cities.     Their  Ian- 


202  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

guage  seems  to  be  corrupt  Burman.     They  are  obviously  distin- 
guished from  the  Shyans,  as  an  inferior  and  less  civilized  race. 

14.  The  Ec-ca-bat  Ku-lahs  are  occasionally  called  Myadoes, 
from  Myadoo,  their  chief  city.  They  are  found  a  little  north  of 
Moke-so-bo,  or  Mon-cha-boo,  as  Symes  calls  it.  Some  of  them 
reside  in  the  British  territory,  and  are  called  Cachars.  They  are 
a  very  short  race,  nearly  as  black  as  Hindoos.  Among  them  are 
a  number  of  Peguan-Portuguese  Christians,  brought  there,  and 
colonized,  in  a  former  reign ;  most  of  whom  are  distinguished 
by  the  light  color  of  their  eyes.  The  tribe  is  famous  for  silk 
manufactures.  The  dialect  is  peculiar,  though  essentially  Bur- 
man.  Burman  books  would  answer  for  them  ;  but  few  or  none 
can  read. 

15.  The  Que,  or  Quays.  Some  of  this  people  reside  twelve 
or  eighteen  miles  east  of  Umerapoora,  and  two  clans  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Irrawaddy,  towards  the  Kyendween.  They  have 
been  a  warlike,  intelligent  people,  and  very  conspicuous  in 
Burman  history,  though  now  but  a  few  thousands.  Their  lan- 
guage is  essentially  Burman,  but  mixed  with  Peguan  and  Sia- 
mese. The  Scriptures,  as  already  printed,  might  probably  suffice, 
though  it  would  be  necessary  that  a  missionary  should  acquire 
their  colloquial  dialect.  The  chief  Woongyee  at  Ava  assured 
me  that  they  have  books  in  their  own  language,  written  as  he 
thought,  in  a  character  resembling  Chinese. 

16.  The  Bongs  are  a  considerable  race  north  of  Ava.  Their 
language  and  customs  are  peculiar ;  but  neither  their  boundaries 
nor  numbers  are  ascertained.  Nor  could  I  ascertain  whether 
these  are  the  remnants  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bong,  or 
whether  they  are  the  same  with  a  tribe  called  Phwoon.  It  is 
indeed  doubtful  whether  the  kingdom  of  Bong,  described  by 
Pemberton  and  others,  ever  existed  as  an  independent  nation. 

17.  The  D'iian-oos  are  found  from  one  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred miles  east  of  Ava.  They  have  villages,  but  no  distinct  ter- 
ritory. Though  not  numerous,  they  are  a  thrifty,  industrious 
people,  and  raise  much  of  the  tea  which  is  brought  to  Ava. 
Their  language  is  said  to  resemble  the  Tavoy  dialect. 

18.  The  Ka-doos  are  scattered  over  the  province  of  Mogoung, 
between  the  Irrawaddy  and  Kyendween  Rivers ;  chiefly  between 
24°  and  26°  of  north  latitude.  They  have  their  own  villages 
and  chiefs,  and  a  distinct  though  unwritten  language,  but  no 
separate  territory.  They  are  a  quiet,  industrious  race.  Their 
chief  town  is  Penjala-Namo. 

19.  The  Yaws  are  on  the  lower  waters  of  the  Kyendween,  not 


MISSIONARY   FIELD.  203 

far  from  Ava.  The  district  is  sometimes  called  Yo,  or  Jo.  The 
language  is  essentially  Burman,  but  spoken  with  a  dialect  intel- 
ligible only  to  themselves.  Unlike  the  Burmans,  they  suffer 
their  teeth  to  remain  white,  and  the  hair  to  flow  loose.  Most  of 
the  people  are  entirely  without  religion,  like  the  Karens ;  the 
rest  are  Boodhists.  They  are  an  agricultural  and  pastoral  peo- 
ple, enjoying  a  country  of  extreme  salubrity  and  fruitfulness. 
They  manufacture  sugar,  and  export  it  to  other  parts  of  the  em- 
pire ;  and  often  resort  to  Ava  for  the  purposes  of  trade. 

20.  En-gyee.  This  tribe  occupies  the  mountains  toward  Mun- 
ipore,  have  a  language  of  their  own,  unwritten,  and  are  some- 
what numerous. 

21.  The  Kyens*  are  sometimes  called  Boo-as,  and  sometimes 
JYa-gas,  and  by  the  Burmans  Chins.  They  occupy  part  of  the 
Arracan  and  Munipore  frontier,  chiefly  the  mountains  of  the 
district  of  Kubo,  and  amount  to  about  fifty  thousand,  divided 
into  various  tribes,  as  the  Cliangsel,  the  Konscju,  the  Chedoo,  the 
Kuporee,  &c.  Some  of  the  tribes  are  tributary  to  Burmah,  others 
to  the  East  India  Company,  and  some  are  completely  indepen- 
dent. Some  tribes  wear  no  other  clothing  than  a  thin  board,  fas- 
tened in  front  by  a  string  round  the  hips.  One  tribe  tattoo 
their  women's  faces  in  a  horrible  manner  ;  of  whom  I  have  seen 
a  number.  They  generally  call  themselves  Koloun.  Hamilton 
regards  them  as  one  of  the  original  tribes  of  Farther  India,  and 
that,  under  various  names,  such  as  Karens,  Kookies,  Cossyahs, 
&c,  and  in  various  stages  of  civilization,  they  are  spread,  more 
or  less,  over  this  whole  peninsula.  Within  the  limits  of  Arra- 
can are  about  fifteen  thousand,  who  might  be  reached  through 
Akyab  and  Kyonk  Phyoo.  A  considerable  village  of  these  peo- 
ple stands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Oo-tha-long  Nullah,  ten  days 
by  water  from  Akyab.  Many  of  them  live  in  the  intermediate 
space.  The  hill  tribes  are  fierce  and  dreaded  by  all  their  neigh- 
bors; but  the  lowlanders  cultivate  the  earth  peacefully,  and  have 
settled  habitations.  Those  under  Burman  authority  pay  their 
tribute  chiefly  in  ivory,  wax,  coarse  cottons,  ginger,  and  tur- 
meric. They  are  greatly  addicted  to  arrack  extracted  from  rice. 
I  have  seen  cloths  and  other  articles  made  by  them,  which  dis- 
play excellent  skill  and  taste.  Their  language  is  peculiar  and  un- 
written, and  the  dialects  of  the  different  tribes  vary  considerably. 

Of  religion  they  know  almost  nothing,  having  scarcely  any 
idea  of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  i'ew  superstitions  of  any  kind. 
Some  offer  bloody  sacrifices  before  a  certain  bush,  and  worship 

#  Pronounced  in  one  syllable. 


204  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

meteoric  stones,  talismans,  and  a  god  whom  they  call  A-po^ra-ihe. 
The  dead  are  burned,  the  bones,  &c.  of  poor  persons  remaining 
around  the  pyre  being  buried  on  the  spot,  while  those  of  the 
rich  are  carried  to  the  great  Kyoung-na-tine  mountain,  in  the 
Arracau  range.  The  father  is  expected  to  marry  the  widow  of 
his  son,  and  the  son  may  marry  any  of  his  father's  widows,  ex- 
cept his  own  mother.     Adultery  is  always  punished  with  death. 

22.  The  Pa-loungs,  or  Polongs,  a  numerous  and  intelligent 
race,  reside  between  Bamoo  and  the  Chinese  frontier,  having 
separate  towns  and  villages  among  the  Shyans,  but  with  little, 
if  any,  territory  exclusively  their  own.  Some  of  their  villages 
are  interspersed  among  the  Kah-kyens,  and  some  are  found 
almost  as  far  south  as  Ava.  They  are  a  highland  race,  and  find 
security  in  their  mountains,  both  from  Burmah  and  China,  pay- 
ing no  tribute  to  either.  They  cultivate  tea  extensively,  and 
export  it,  both  dry  and  pickled.  The  men  dress  in  Chinese 
fashion :  women  wear  trousers,  and  a  gown  reaching  to  the 
knees,  with  sleeves.  Their  own  language  is  unwritten,  but 
many  of  the  males  can  read  Shyan.  The  language  itself  seems 
to  be  Shyan  largely  intermingled  with  Chinese,  and  pronounced 
so  like  Chinese,  that  the  true  Shyans  do  not  understand  it. 

23.  The  Kah-kyens,  a  very  large  and  numerous  tribe,  of 
Singphoo  origin,  extend  from  the  Irrawaddy  to  China,  and 
from  Bamoo  to  Thibet.  It  is  not  certain  whether  they  have  a 
distinct  territory.  Many  of  them  reside  in  the  province  of 
Bamoo,  particularly  in  and  around  Mogoung,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  tattooing  the  space  between  their  eyes.  The  Sing- 
phoos  are  sometimes  called  Kahkyens,  but  always  resent  it. 
These  and  the  Lawas  seem  to  be  included  by  Du  Halde,  in  his 
map,  under  the  term  Lo-los.  Their  language  resembles  the  Bur- 
man  ;  but  as  a  people  they  are  remarkably  different  from  Chinese 
or  Burmans.  They  are  much  less  civilized  than  the  tribes  around 
them. 

24.  The  Sing-phoos,  or  Sinkphoos,  called  by  Burmans  Thtm- 
baw,  occupy  both  sides  of  the  higher  region  of  the  Irrawaddy, 
and  spread  from  the  Pat-koi  hills  to  China.  Duffer  Gam,  their 
principal  chief,  assured  me  that  they  amount  to  at  least  300,000 
souls.  They  are  divided  into  fifteen  or  twenty  tribes,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  are  the  Meerip,  Beesa,  Lutong,  Lapay,  and  Tesam. 
Some  tribes  are  under  English  authority,  but  more  under  Bur- 
man,  and  several  are  independent.  The  Burman  governor  re- 
sides at  Toovvah  ;  but  they  have  no  large  city.  They  trade  with 
the  Shyans  at  Mogoung,  and  the  Burmans  down  the  Kyend- 
ween,  but  chiefly  with  China.     Their  exports  are  gems,  amber, 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  205 

noble  serpentine,  small  dahs,  and  salt.  They  worship  Nats,  and 
cherish  a  great  hatred  to  Boodhism ;  but  considerable  numbers 
are  annually  proselyted  by  Brahmins  from  Bengal,  who  con- 
stantly make  strong  efforts  for  this  purpose,  and  unless  Christians 
act  with  vigor  and  promptitude,  annually  increasing  numbers 
will  go  over  to  that  dreadful  system.  Some  of  these  tribes  are 
among  the  finest  races  of  men  in  all  this  part  of  the  world.  The 
language  is  unwritten. 

25.  The  Phwoons,  or  Phwons,  occupy  parts  of  the  region 
round  Mogoung.  There  are  two  tribes  of  this  name,  distin- 
guished by  the  terms  great  and  small ;  whose  dialects  differ  from 
each  other  considerably,  and  from  adjacent  languages  totally. 
They  are  a  quiet,  industrious,  agricultural  people.  They  build 
their  houses,  not  like  the  Burmans  and  Shyans,  but  like  the 
people  of  the  Kubo  valley.  They  have  no  written  character. 
They  say  their  original  country  was  to  the  north-east. 

26.  Khan-tees,  spelled  variously  Kangtees,  Khantis,  Kamptis, 
and  Kantees,  are  found  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and 
are  a  numerous  race.  A  small  part  of  them  only  is  subject  to 
Burmah.  Their  language  bears  considerable  affinity  to  the 
Burman,  and  is  called  Tai. 

Adjacent  to  Burmah,  but  not  tributary  to  it,  are  — 

1.  The  Mun-i-poreans.  Their  country  has  been  so  variously 
designated  as  to  make  great  confusion  in  maps.  By  the  Bur- 
mans,  their  region  is  called  Kathay ;  by  the  Asamese,  Mekley ; 
by  the  Kacharese,  Moglie ;  and  by  the  Shyans,  Cassay.  Some 
authors  give  them  one  of  these  names,  and  some  another ;  and 
some  give  them  as  separate  countries.  They  hold  a  territory  of 
about  seven  thousand  square  miles ;  but  the  population,  though 
known  to  be  numerous,  is  not  ascertained.  It  is  at  least  seventy 
thousand.  The  great  valley  of  Mun-i-pore  is  twenty-five  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  eminently  salubrious. 

2.  The  Ka-chars,*  or  Cachars,  are  bounded  north  by  Asam, 
east  by  Munipore,  south  by  Tippera,  or  Tripura,  and  west  by 
Sylhet  and  Jynteah.  Their  language  is  peculiar.  They  came 
under  British  government  in  1832,  and  are  rapidly  improving  in 
their  civil  condition.  Surrounded,  on  three  sides,  by  high  mountain 
ranges,  the  rains,  during  the  south-west  monsoon,  are  very  vio- 
lent ;  and  the  inhabitants  are  subject  to  ague,  diarrhaea,  dysen- 

*  Ch  as  in  church. 

VOL.    II.  18 


206  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

tery,  and  fevers.  The  population  is  rated,  by  some  authors,  at 
five  hundred  thousand ;  and  by  others  different  numbers,  down 
to  eight  thousand.  The  principal  place  is  Silchar,*  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Barak  River. 

3.  Jyn-teah,  or  Gentea,  lies  between  Kachar  on  the  east,  Asam 
on  the  north,  and  the  Soormah  River  on  the  south,  containing 
a  population  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand,  of  whom  the  greater 
part  are  Mussulmans,  and  low  caste  Hindus  of  Bengal  origin. 
Most  of  this  territory  is  now  annexed  to  the  British  dominions. 

4.  Cos-st-as,  or  Khasias,  who  denominate  themselves  Khyees, 
occupy  the  mountains  of  Asam,  Cachar,  Sylhet,  and  the  Garrows. 
The  region  is  about  seventy  miles  long,  and  fifty  miles  wide, 
containing  three  thousand  five  hundred  square  miles.  They  are 
a  numerous  race,  divided  into  clans,  such  as  the  Kyrin,  the 
Churra,  tiie  Ramryee,  the  JVuspung,  the  Murioiv,  &c,  and  are 
distributed  in  considerable  numbers  among  each  of  the  tribes 
named  above.  The  language  in  all  is  essentially  the  same. 
They  retain  some  of  the  forms  of  independence,  but  are  under 
the  supervision  of  a  British  "agent  for  Cossya  affairs."  Some 
attempts  have  been  made  by  the  Serampore  missionaries  to  give 
them  a  written  language  in  the  Bengalee  character;  but  nothing 
of  consequence  has  yet  been  done.  Their  religion  is  impure 
Brahminism,  which  has  not  long  been  introduced. 

5.  The  Gar-rows,  or  Garos,  occupy  the  mountainous  region 
of  the  same  name,  bounded  north  and  west  by  the  valley  of  the 
Burampooter,  south  by  Sylhet,  and  east  by  Jynteah.  They  were 
formerly  numerous,  but  have  been  reduced  by  their  Avarlike 
habits.  The  skulls  of  enemies  are  highly  valued,  and  kept  as 
trophies.  Their  territory  is  about  a  hundred  and  thirty  miles 
long,  by  thirty  or  forty  broad.  They  raise  large  quantities  of 
cotton,  and  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  with  the  English  who 
now  inhabit  the  country.  Their  houses  are  very  comfortable, 
built  on  piles,  like  the  Burmans'.  Women  do  much  servile  work, 
but  have  a  voice  in  all  public  business,  and  possess  their  full 
share  of  influence.  The  language  is  stated  to  be  simple,  and 
easy  of  acquisition,  but  is  not  reduced  to  writing.  They  have  a 
religion  of  their  own,  but  no  priesthood.  They  worship  Sail 
Jung,  believe  in  transmigration,  and  make  offerings,  but  have  no 
temples.  Brahminical  doctrines  are  daily  spreading  amongst 
them,  especially  the  more  southern  tribes.  Polygamy  is  not 
practised.     Their  temper  is  said  to  be  mild  and  gay ;  but  they  are 

*  Ch  as  in  church. 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  207 

much  addicted  to  drunkenness.  A  mission  to  this  people  is 
earnestly  called  for  by  Captain  Jenkins,  and  some  other  of  our 
friends  residing  adjacent  to  them.  If  a  brother  were  to  engage 
on  their  behalf,  he  might  reside  for  a  year  or  two  at  Gowhatee, 
where  every  facility  would  be  at  hand  in  gaining  the  language. 
This  field,  however,  is  much  less  encouraging  in  its  present 
aspect  than  many  others  mentioned  in  this  paper. 

6.  The  Tip-pe-ras,  or  Tripuras.  Then  country  is  called  by 
Bengalese  Tura,  or  Teura,  lying  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Buram- 
pooter,  between  24°  and  27°  north  latitude.  On  the  north,  it 
has  Sylhet;  on  the  south,  Chittagong.  It  comprehends  seven 
thousand  square  miles,  and  now  forms  part  of  Bengal.  In  this 
country  are  made  the  well-known  cotton  goods  called  Baftas, 
exported  to  every  part  of  the  world.  They  are  a  comparatively 
civilized  people,  amounting  to  eight  hundred  thousand  souls,  a 
majority  of  whom  profess  Hinduism ;  the  rest  are  Mussulmans. 
They  build  their  houses  like  the  Burmans.  Some  parts  of  the 
country  are  covered  with  jungle,  and  abound  with  elephants; 
but  the  rest  is  fertile,  and  well  cultivated,  and  the  people  are  not 
only  attentive  to  agriculture,  but  to  manufactures  of  various 
kinds,  and  to  commerce.  They  are  divided  into  three  tribes, 
viz.  Tipperas,  properly  so  called,  on  the  banks  of  the  Gomuty ; 
Alinagar,  on  the  River  Phani,  or  Fenny ;  and  the  Reangon,  on 
the  River  Monu.  All  speak  the  same  language,  which  is  peculiar 
to  themselves. 

7.  The  La-longs  inhabit  the  low  hills  of  the  Jynteah  country, 
especially  a  tract  now  annexed  to  the  district  of  Noagong,  and 
are  estimated  at  over  twenty  thousand  souls.  They  resemble  the 
Meekeers  in  character,  have  no  written  language,  scarcely  any 
idea  of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  hardly  the  forms  of  any  religion. 
Their  region  is  very  unhealthy  to  foreigners,  six  months  in  a 
year ;  but  the  missionary  could  then  reside  at  the  adjacent  and 
very  healthy  city  of  Noagong,  where  much  of  his  work  for  them 
could  be  continued. 

8.  The  Nag-as  are  a  very  numerous  people  on  the  borders  of 
Cachar,  Munipore,  and  Asam.  Their  country  belongs  partly  to 
one,  and  partly  to  the  other  of  these  states.  They  are  called  Nagas 
(literally  "naked  people")  from  their  almost  total  want  of  dress. 
There  are  many  clans  or  tribes  of  them,  differing  greatly  in  their 
measure  of  civilization.  The  better  sort  dwell  in  compact  villages 
of  well-built  houses  on  high  hills,  and  are  reported  to  be  a  very 
handsome  and  athletic  race  ;  active,  both  in  agriculture  and  mer- 
chandise.    The  religion  of  the  more  intelligent  tribes  is  a  rude 


208  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

sort  of  demonology ;  but  they  have  no  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being, 
or  the  nature  of  the  soul.  Some  of  these  tribes  are  in  the  lowest 
state  of  humanity.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Rae,  of  the  Serampore  mis- 
sion, has  made  extensive  journeys  among  this  people  and  the 
Meekeers,  and  published  ample  and  interesting  details. 

9.  The  Joo-me-as  reside  chiefly  in  Chittagong,  on  a  range 
of  hilly  country,  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Kulladine,  between 
the  mountains  and  the  plains.  There  are  some  tribes  of  them 
in  Tippera,  and  some  in  Arracan.  They  cultivate  hill  rice  and 
cotton.  Their  language  is  wholly  unintelligible  both  to  Mugs 
and  Bengalees,  and  is  unwritten.  Their  religion  is  an  impure 
Boodhism.  They  remove  their  villages  every  year,  and  always 
cultivate  new  grounds.  They  pay  tribute  to  the  government  at 
Chittagong,  through  a  native  Zemindar ;  who  lives  in  considera- 
ble state  at  Bazileah,  eastward  of  Chittagong,  and  calls  himself 
raja. 

10.  The  Chak-ma  tribe  is  allied  to  the  Joomea,  and  practise  the 
same  religion.  They  are  wholly  confined  to  the  hilly  interior  of 
Chittagong,  and  are  supposed  to  amount  to  about  seventeen  thou- 
sand. They  are  considerably  civilized,  and  some  can  read  Benga- 
lee ;  but  generally  write  it  in  Burman  character.  A  dialect  of  Ben- 
galee is  the  common  language,  and  their  dress  is  quite  that  of  Hin- 
dus. These  and  the  Joomeas  are  a  hardy  and  industrious  people, 
and  cut  all  the  ship  and  furniture  timber  which  is  brought 
down  Chittagong  River.  They  are  remarked  also  for  intrepidity 
as  hunters,  and  for  general  gentleness  and  probity  of  manners. 

11.  The  Raj-bung-sies  amount  to  full  thirty  thousand  souls, 
scattered  in  every  direction  over  Chittagong,  and  occupying 
some  places  almost  exclusively,  such  as  Run-ga-heer  and  Sunka 
River.  They  are  mostly  Bengalee  Boodhists,  sprung  from  gov- 
erning families  of  Arracanese,  who  being  forced  to  abandon 
their  country  during  former  intestinal  commotions,  settled  in 
Chittagong,  and  became  naturalized.  Their  name  signifies  liter- 
ally "children  of  princes."  But  though  they  hold  themselves 
superior  to  Mugs,  they  are  a  very  poor  people,  and  many  of  them 
come  down  into  the  large  town  to  be  servants.  Their  language 
is  a  corrupt  Bengalee.  They  retain  the  Boodhist  faith,  and  have 
a  few  priests  and  kyoungs,  but  no  pagodas. 

12.  The  A-rings  are  a  tribe  wholly  independent.  They  oc- 
cupy spurs  of  the  Youmadou  Mountains  in  the  rear  of  the 
Kyens,  and  are  known  to  amount  to  at  least  thirty  thousand. 
They  reside  within  the  limits  of  Arracan,  but  are  not  enumer- 
ated in  the  census  of  that  province.     They  bring  into  the  plains 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  209 

cotton,  ivory,  and  a  little  cloth,  to  barter  for  salt  and  gnapee. 
They  are  exceedingly  addicted  to  intoxication.  The  liquor  for 
this  purpose  is  made  of  fermented  rice,  distilled  with  a  rude  ap- 
paratus of  earthen  ware.  Their  language  is  peculiar  and  un- 
written. They  are  not  Boodhists,  but  worship  Nats ;  paying, 
however,  little  attention  to  religious  forms,  and  only  when 
pressed  by  calamity. 

13.  The  Koo-kies,  or  Kunghis,  called  by  the  Burmans  Lan- 
geh,  and  by  Bengalese  Ldngta,  are  a  very  numerous  people, 
having  at  least  ten  thousand  men  capable  of  bearing  arms. 
They  occupy  the  region  of  the  Barak  and  Koomty  Rivers,  bor- 
dered, though  indistinctly,  by  Kachar  and  Tipperah  on  the  west, 
Chittagong  on  the  south-west,  and  Burmah  on  the  south-east. 
They  are  divided  into  at  least  ten  tribes,  bearing  different  names, 
but  generally  live  at  peace  with  each  other.  The  dialects  of 
these  tribes  are  said  to  be  so  various  as  to  be  unintelligible  to 
each  other.  They  have  no  caste,  and  eat  all  kinds  of  flesh. 
Some  of  the  tribes  go  nearly  naked.  In  general,  they  neglect 
agriculture,  and  depend  on  the  game  and  fruits  of  the  forest. 
By  consequence,  they  all  collect  into  villages,  some  of  which  are 
very  large,  and  which  they  remove  every  few  years.  They  be- 
lieve in  future  rewards  and  punishments,  and  worship  evil  genii, 
whom  they  desire  to  propitiate.  Some  are  found  also  in  Chitta- 
gong. They  are  exceedingly  savage  and  warlike :  strangers 
cannot  pass  safely  through  their  country,  their  heads  being  con- 
sidered a  great  prize.  No  young  man  can  marry  without  possess- 
ing one  of  these  trophies.     Some  houses  have  many  of  them.* 

14.  The  Kum-a-ons,  or  Kumoons,  occupy  an  area  of  about 
seven  thousand  square  miles  formerly  subject  to  the  Gorkhas, 
extending  from  Rohilcund  to  the  peaks  of  the  Ilimmalaya  —  a 
rugged  and  cold  district,  with  little  level  arable  land.  The  people 
are  in  a  very  rude  state,  laboring  just  enough  to  support  nature. 
Some  of  them  live  in  stone  houses.  The  religion  is  Hinduism, 
and  many  of  the  people  are  brahmins.  This  country  was  ac- 
quired by  the  British  in  1815,  and  Almora,  one  of  its  towns,  was 
made  a  sanitarium  for  the  Company's  servants  in  bad  health. 
A  good  road  extends  from  Rohilcund  to  Almora,  through  the 
Bamoury  pass ;  and  another  from  Hawellbaugh,  a  civil  station 
of  the  East  India  Company.  This  country  is  largely  described 
by  Fullarton,  Raper,  and  Dr.  F.  Buchanan. 

15.  The  Mroongs,  or  Mroos,  occupy  the  country  between  the 

*  See  Annals  of  Oriental  Literature,  Part  III. ;  Philosoph.  Journal,  Vol.  IV. 

14* 


210  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

Kyens  and  the  plains,  from  the  Cosi  to  the  Teesta,  north  of 
Rungpore  district,  and  formerly  belonging  to  Nepaul.  From  this 
region  great  quantities  of  timber  are  floated  to  Calcutta,  chiefly 
the  Saul  tree.  A  number  of  this  tribe,  supposed  to  amount  to 
five  thousand,  are  found  in  Arracan,  chiefly  in  the  district  of 
Akyab  ;  and  are  as  civilized  as  the  people  of  the  plains. 

17.  The  Kubos  are  of  Shyan  descent,  and  occupy  the  valley 
of  the  Munipore  River,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Kyendween. 

18.  The  Gor-kas  occupy  a  large  region  north  of  Nepaul,  but 
a  warmer  and  pleasanter  country.  It  has  many  fine  mountain 
streams,  most  of  which  combine  in  the  Trisoolgunga.  Gorkha 
the  former  capital,  (!at.  27°  50',  long.  84°  22',)  forty-one  miles 
west-north-west  from  Catmandoo,  contains  about  one  thou- 
sand houses,  and  Catmandoo,  the  present  capital,  twice  that 
number.  They  conquered  Nepaul  in  1768,  and  became  a  pow- 
erful people  ;  but  are  now  under  British  rule. 

19.  The  Kir-auts,  evidently  of  Tartar  origin,  occupy  a  space 
between  Nepaul  and  Bootan.  They  are  now  confined  to  the 
mountains,  but  formerly  governed  portions  of  Dinagepore  and 
Rungpore.  Their  religion  is  a  negligent  Boodhism ;  but  since 
their  subjection  to  the  Gorkas,  many  have  become  Brahminists. 
They  are  not  wholly  illiterate,  and  write  the  language  in  the 
Nagree  character.  Individuals  of  this  tribe  are  scattered  over 
Bengal  and  Bahar,  where  they  follow  the  life  of  gypsies,  and 
wander  about,  preaching  and  telling  fortunes.  These  are  called 
Kichacks. 

20.  The  Bij-^jees  occupy  a  province  east  of  Asam,  and  speak 
the  Bengalee  language.  They  occupy  both  sides  of  the  Buram- 
pooter,  part  of  them  being  subject  to  the  British,  and  part  inde- 
pendent. It  is  an  extensive,  and  much  of  it  a  beautiful  country. 
The  natives  depend  chiefly  on  agriculture,  and  have  therefore 
stationary  villages,  many  of  which  are  much  neater  than  those 
of  Bengal.  Some  idea  both  of  the  agriculture  and  population  of 
the  district  may  be  derived  from  the  fact  that,  in  1809,  taxes 
were  collected,  by  the  raja,  from  thirty-two  thousand  four  hun- 
dred ploughs.  Bijnee,  the  capital,  is  situated  twenty-five  miles 
east  from  Goalpara,  (lat.  26°  29'  long.  89°  47',)  and"  is  strongly 
fortified. 

21.  The  A-sam-ese  occupy  most  of  the  valleys  and  fertile  por- 
tions of  the  region  called  Asam,  while  other  tribes,  in  general 
less  civilized,  occupy  the  hills  and  mountains,  especially  on  the 
frontier.  Their  territory  became  a  part  of  Burmah  in  1821-2, 
but  is  now  wholly  under  British  control.     They  are  very  numer- 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  211 

ous,  estimated  by  some  authors  at  a  million  ;  and  are  so  far  civ- 
ilized as  to  secure  to  a  missionary  the  immediate  prospect  of 
usefulness. 

A  missionary  to  this  people  might  very  advantageously  be  at 
once  settled  at  Jurhath,  long  the  seat  of  the  Asamese  rajas, 
and  regarded  as  the  capital  of  Upper  Asam.  Another  is  wanted 
at  Gowhatte,  the  capital  of  Lower  Asam,  and  the  residence 
of  the  British  agent  for  this  region  —  a  station  now  held  by  Cap- 
tain Jenkins,  a  warm  philanthropist,  who  has  not  only  invited 
missionaries  to  this  region,  and  rendered  them  important  ser- 
vices, but  has  given  more  than  a  thousand  dollars  toward  the 
operations  of  the  American  Baptist  mission  at  Sudiya.  Noa- 
gong,  Gualpara,  &c,  are  now  ripe  for  missionary  labor. 

22.  The  Mee-keers,  or  AEkirs,  occupy  a  part  of  Asam,  south 
of  the  Burampooter,  and  amount  to  at  least  twenty  thousand. 
They  are  greatly  addicted  to  drunkenness,  but  are  simple,  hon- 
est, industrious,  and  inoffensive  Some  of  late  years  have  be- 
come Brahminists.  They  are  a  people  in  every  respect  prepared 
for  missionary  labor.  The  most  inviting  point  for  a  station 
is  No-a-gong.  The  Serampore  missionaries  were  very  anxious 
to  establish  a  mission  here,  but  relinquished  the  idea  for  want 
of  means. 

23.  The  A-bors  reside  along  the  south  side  of  the  Himma- 
laya  Mountains,  from  long.  93°  to  long.  95°.  A  very  numerous 
and  somewhat  civilized  race,  divided  into  various  tribes,  such  as 
the  Padows,  Saloos,  Meboos,  Golmars,  Mayings,  &c.  Their  coun- 
try is  cold,  and  manners  rude.  They  use,  both  in  war  and  in  the 
chase,  arrows  poisoned  with  Bisa.  The  article  is  prepared  from 
a  fibrous  root,  which  they  keep  secret,  and  is  sold  in  considerable 
quantities  to  neighboring  tribes.  They  regard  no  food  impure, 
but  beef;  and  are  addicted  to  strong  drink.  They  worship  a 
deity  called  Ap-hoom.  They  dress  well.  Some  of  them  annually 
visit  Sudiya.    No  written  character. 

24.  The  Mee-rees,  or  Miris,  adjoin  the  Abors,  and  are  wholly 
independent.  They  occupy  a  strip  of  level  land  extending  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Burampooter  from  Asam  to  the  Dihong 
River,  which  separates  them  from  the  Abors.  They  are  few  and 
degraded,  but  somewhat  industrious.  They  raise  some  opium, 
and  have  a  few  manufactures.  The  head  village  is  Mot-gaon. 
Their  language  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Abors.  The  mission- 
aries for  this  tribe  and  the  Duphlas  would  probably  reside  at 
Bishnath,  (lat.  26°  40',  long.  93°  12',)  a  British  station  on  the  Bur- 
ampooter, and  head  quarters  of  the  Asam  light  infant  v  ;  or  at 


212  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

Tizpore,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  same  river,  (lat.  26°  37',  long. 
92°  52',)  where  also  are  British  officers  and  sepoys.  The  coun- 
try between  these  stations  is  beautiful.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  Barelli  River,  which  passes  through  this  space,  is  a  settlement 
of  at  least  four  hundred  families  of  Meerees  ;  and  on  the  east  is 
the  densely  peopled  district  of  Noa-dwar. 

25.  The  Bor-Abors  ;  a  powerful  tribe  occupying  the  loftier 
ranges  between  Sudiya  and  the  Bonash  River,  extending  to 
Thibet.  The  word  Bor  means  great.  The  people  call  themselves 
Padam.  These  and  the  two  last-named  tribes  are  essentially 
one  people,  and  speak  the  same  language.  They  have  no  written 
characters  ;  but  the  language  is  fluent,  easy  of  pronunciation,  and 
readily  acquired  by  a  foreigner.  Missionaries  might  at  first  re- 
side with  the  Meerees,  either  at  the  station  mentioned  above,  or 
on  the  Burampooter,  opposite  to  Sudiya,  where  are  many  Meerees ; 
and  penetrate  among  the  Abors  and  Borabors,  as  prudence  might 
dictate. 

26.  The  A-homs  occupy  the  eastern  parts  of  Asam/and 
speak  the  language  of  Bengal.  Three  fourths  of  them  are  Brah- 
minists.  They  are  more  numerous  than  some  of  the  tribes  which 
have  been  named  above. 

27.  The  Kol-i-tas,  or  Kulitas,  are  scattered  through  the  Rung- 
pore  district,  and  part  of  Asam.  They  speak  Bengalee,  and  have 
adopted  that  religion.  They  are  called  by  Hamilton  a  powerful, 
independent,  and  civilized  nation. 

28.  The  Mish-mees  occupy  the  sources  of  the  Lohit  and 
Dibong  Rivers,  to  the  north-east  of  Sudiya  —  a  lofty  and  very  cold 
region.  They  are  a  very  extensive  race,  possessing  industrious 
habits,  and  more  gentleness  than  .mountaineers  in  general. 
Missionaries  would  be  quite  safe  among  them.  None  are  found 
on  the  plains  near  Sudiya,  but  a  constant  succession  of  them 
visit  that  city  for  purposes  of  trade. 

They  are  distinguished  for  hospitality.  When  a  man  kills  a 
bullock,  he  invites  his  friends  to  partake  ;  all  the  skulls  are  pre- 
served in  his  house,  as  a  proof  of  his  hospitality,  till  he  dies,  when 
they  are  piled  on  his  grave  as  an  honorable  monument.  One 
branch  of  the  Mishmees  are  a  good  deal  mixed  among  the  Abors. 

29.  The  Kan-tees,  descended  from  the  Bor  Kantees,  inhabit 
a  triangle  near  the  sources  of  the  Irrawaddy,  bounded  by  the 
rivers  Lohit  and  Dibong,  and  the  mountains  of  the  Mishmees. 
They  are  a  very  intelligent  and  numerous  race,  and  have  many 
large  towns,  among  which  Mun-long  and  Man-sai  are  the  princi- 
pal.   The  language  is  Shyan.     Rev.  Messrs.  Brown  and  Cutter 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  213 

are  now  laboring  at  Sudiya  for  this  tribe  and  others,  and  thus 
form  the  exception  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  this  article. 
Sudiya  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ku-nil,  orKundil  nullah, 
six  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Lohit,  and  lias  ten  thousand 
inhabitants.  It  is  the  advance  British  post  on  the  north-east 
frontier,  and  has  a  military  force  and  commissioner.  The  mis- 
sionaries have  reduced  the  language  to  writing,  in  the  Roman 
character,  and  printed  various  elementary  books. 

30.  The  Bor-Kantees  reside  between  the  eastern  portion  of 
Asam,  and  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy.  Their  capital  is  3Ian- 
chee,  twelve  days  from  Sudiya.  A  numerous  and  interesting 
people.     Language  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Shyan. 

31.  The  Sing-phoos.  Of  this  people  there  are  large  numbers 
under  British  sway,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sudiya.  They  are 
divided  from  the  Burman  Singphoos,  on  the  south,  by  the  Patkoi 
Hills,  and  from  the  Bor  Kantees,  on  the  east,  by  the  Langtan 
Mountains.  On  the  west,  they  are  bounded  by  a  line  extended 
from  Sudiya  to  the  Patkoi  range.  They  worship  idols,  and  seem 
to  have  a  religion  mixed  up  of  doctrines  from  their  neighbors. 
An  intelligent  and  enterprising  race.  No  written  character. 
The  Singphoos  are  likely  to  be  much  better  known,  from  the 
fact  that  the  tea-plant,  which  the  British  are  so  anxious  to  cultivate 
in  India,  flourishes  chiefly  in  their  territory.  A  very  inviting 
missionary  station  is  found  at  Ningru,  a  beautiful  village  on  the 
high  bank  of  the  Buri  Dihing,  three  days  south  of  Sudiya,  and  in 
the  midst  of  a  tea  country.  Missionaries  might,  however,  ad- 
vantageously remain  a  year  or  two  at  Sudiya,  where  are  many 
Singphoos,  and  where  advantages  for  acquiring  the  language 
would  be  greater  than  in  the  jungle.  The  language  is  said  to  be 
singularly  difficult,  and  full  of  combinations  of  consonants,  almost 
unmanageable  to  a  foreigner.* 

32.  The  Ku-ncngs  ;  a  wretched  race,  subject  to  the  Kantees, 
somewhat  numerous.  Language  not  written.  They  occupy  the 
mountains  to  the  northward  and  eastward  of  the  Hukung  Valley, 
toward  Asam. 

33.  The  Mut-tucks  ;  a  tribe  on  the  eastern  border  of  Asam, 
south  of  the  Burampooter,  numbering  twenty-five  thousand  men, 
beside  women  and  children.  Some  of  their  villages  contain  a 
thousand  houses  each.  It  is  probable  they  are  the  same  people 
sometimes   called    also   Moo-a-ma-ree-as,  Morams,   and  Morahs. 

*  Rev.  Mr  Brunson  left  America  in  1837,  to  labor  among'  this  people. 
He  has  also  interested  himself  for  the  Nagahs. 


214  MISSIONARY   FIELD. 

Though  occupying  a  region  rendered  cold  by  its  elevation,  they 
have  many  comforts,  and  are  a  highly  thrifty  and  intelligent 
people. 

34.  The  Lap-chas,  or  Sikhims,  are  separated  from  the  Chinese 
dominions  in  Thibet  by  the  Kha-wa  Karpola  ridge  of  the  Him- 
malaya.  The  eastern  branch  of  the  Teesta  River  separates  them 
from  the  Deb  Raja  of  Bootan  ;  and  to  the  west,  the  Konki 
River  divides  them  from  Nepaul.  The  length  of  the  district  is 
about  seventy  miles,  and  the  average  breadth  forty;  almost  all 
hilly.  The  proper  name  of  this  people  is  Lapcha;  the  term 
Sikhims  being  given  them  from  the  name  of  the  capital.  They 
are  one  of  the  most  important  tribes  of  the  Nepaul  Valley. 
They  generally  embrace  the  Boodhism  of  the  Grand  Lama;  but 
are  very  lax  in  their  observance  of  it,  killing  animals,  and  drink- 
ing to  excess.  They  are  intermixed  very  much  with  the  Booteas. 
The  unicorn,  so  long  deemed  fabulous,  is  said  certainly  to  exist 
in  this  country.  The  region  is  under  British  influence,  though 
virtually  independent.  The  raja  holds  an  intimate  interco'urse 
with  Lassa  and  China. 

35.  The  Duf-eas,  sometimes  spelled  Duphlas,  and  some- 
times Dupholas ;  an  independent  tribe  on  the  north  border  of 
Asam,  westward  of  Bootan.  They  are  a  powerful  tribe,  and 
inhabit  a  region  which,  though  hilly,  is  fruitful  both  in  produce 
and  game.  They  are  considerably  civilized,  and  carry  on  a 
brisk  traffic  with  their  neighbors. 

36.  The  A-kas  border  on  the  Duflas,  and  are  also  independent. 

37.  The  Ku-pa  Chow-as  occupy  a  hilly  range  contiguous  to 
the  Akas. 

38.  The  Boo-teas,  an  independent  tribe,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Akas  and  Duflas,  occupying  both  sides  of  the  great 
Himmalaya  range.  Those  on  this  side  are  tributary  to  the 
English,  and  those  on  the  other  side  to  some  tribes  of  Tartars. 
They  are  evidently  of  Thibet  origin  ;  and  the  province  was  prob- 
ably once  part  of  that  country.  Much  of  the  territory  is  above 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow.  The  villagers  migrate  to  the  val- 
leys in  October,  and  return  in  May.  Their  principal  subsistence 
is  derived  from  numerous  flocks  and  herds.  The  villages  are 
small  and  scattered.     The  religion  is  Lamaism. 

Beside  these  there  are  several  tribes  less  known,  such  as,  39. 
the  Tangkools;  40.  the  Kons ;  41.  the  Anals;  42.  the  Poorums; 
43.  Mueyols ;  44.  Munsangs;  45.  Minings;  and  46.  Luhoppas; 
all  found  on  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  eastward  of  Chitta- 
gong ;  47.  the  Rumbos ;  48.  Joholes ;  49.  Jompoles ;  50.  Gom- 


MISSIONARY    FIELD.  215 

inchis;  51.  Oojongs  ;  52.  Scrimenantis ;  53.  Ulus;  54.  Calangs;  55. 
Jellaboos ;  56.  Segamets ;  57.  Kemoungs ;  58.  Udais ;  59.  Sakkeys, 
60.  Utans  ;  61.  Joccoons ;  62.  Semangs ;  63.  Oodees  ;  64.  Sakais ; 
and,  65.  Rayots;  all  on  the  Malay  Peninsula,  having  different 
languages,  though  more  or  less  mixed  with  Malay ;  66.  the 
Simongs,  on  the  Yamunee  River ;  66.  the  Reegas ;  68.  Pasees ; 
69.  Mizongs ;  70.  Bibors ;  and  71.  Barkaus ;  all  on  the  northern 
edge  of  Asam,  toward  the  Lama  country;  72.  the  Uniyas; 
73.  Marchas;  74.  Jowaries;  and  75.  Suryabans;  on  the  margin 
of  the  Himmalaya,  in  the  region  of  Niti  Ghaut,  and  Sutuleje 
River ;  76.  the  Khoibus ;  77.  Longphus ;  78.  Charnpungs ;  79. 
Kapwis  ;  and  80.  Korengs ;  all  occupying  portions  of  the  region 
of  Asam. 

Here  then,  are  twenty-six  races  of  people  in  the  Burman  em- 
pire, and  eighty  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  making  a  hundred  and 
six.  The  subdivision  of  many  of  these  into  tribes  speaking 
different  dialects,  increases  the  number  of  distinct  missions 
which  demand  to  be  commenced  to  about  a  hundred  and  twenty. 
Further  investigations  in  these  regions  will  discover  other  tribes, 
equally  entitled  to  missionary  effort.  If  the  survey  were  ex- 
tended, so  as  to  include  the  territories  of  the  Grand  Lama,  where 
it  is  believed  there  is  no  missionary,  we  should  enrol  some  six- 
teen or  twenty  tribes  and  dialects  more. 

Supposing  the  Baptist  Board  to  be  bound  to  supply  only  the 
field  described  in  this  paper,  and  which  has  hitherto  been  left  to 
them,  together  with  British  and  proper  Burmah,  and  to  send 
only  two  missionaries  to  each  language,  what  a  mighty  effort  is 
required,  compared  to  their  present  operations !  Two  hundred 
and  forty  men  would  be  demanded  immediately ;  and  years 
must  elapse  before  they  could  acquire  their  respective  languages. 

Should  we  at  once  enter  upon  these  fields,  and  forestall  the 
introduction  of  Hindu  and  Burman  literature  and  superstition, 
we  should  gain  much  every  way.  As  regards  literature  alone, 
promptitude  is  important.  To  commence  this,  among  a  rude  but 
rising  people,  is  to  save  mountains  of  obstacles  in  future  efforts. 
Heathen  literature  is  every  where,  and  has  always  been,  the 
grand  prop  of  heathen  religions.  It  was  the  curse  of  Chaldea, 
of  Egypt,  of  Greece,  of  Rome,  of  Arabia.  It  is  the  curse  of 
India,  of  Burmah,  of  China.  The  absence  of  it  is  the  huge  ad- 
vantage of  the  Karens,  and  one  great  cans;',  under  God,  of 
missionary  success  with  that  people.  The  same  advantage  is 
now  offered,  in   relation  to  the  tribes   here   described ;  but  it 


216  MISSIONARY    FIELD. 

cannot  always  continue.  They  will  soon  have  Mahometan  or 
Hindu  legends  and  literature,  if  we  give  them  not  the  truth. 

These  remarks  are  not  at  variance  with  the  admitted  fact  that 
ignorance  is  a  principal  hinderance  of  Christianity.  The  edu- 
cated heathen  is  as  ignorant  as  the  uneducated :  nay,  his  requi- 
sitions make  him  worse  than  ignorant.  They  fill  him  with  error. 
They  oppress  him  with  stronger  superstitions.  They  inflate  him 
with  pride,  while  they  debase  and  harden  his  heart. 

To  give  any  people  a  written  language,  is  not  to  divert  the 
missionary  from  his  proper  work.  It  is  a  part  of  his  work,  and 
highly  important.  In  accomplishing  it,  he  gives  more  or  less 
literature  to  the  people ;  and  this  literature,  being  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  their  future  improvements,  and  based  not  on  false,  but 
on  true  philosophy,  must  even  prove  the  handmaid  to  religion, 
to  say  nothing  of  still  higher  benefits  gained  by  giving  a  people 
the  written  word  of  God.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  or  sixty  men  are 
wanted  this  moment  to  supply  these  new  fields,  and  to  reenforce 
the  present  missions  in  Burmah,  even  on  the  supposition  that 
native  preachers  will  be  raised  up  in  numbers  equal  to  nearly  all 
the  demand  for  preaching. 

Further  remarks  are  unnecessary.  The  facts  speak  with  suf- 
ficient eloquence.  Where  are  the  thousand  young  men  in  our 
churches  ?  Will  they  all  go  to  the  law,  to  physic,  to  merchan- 
dise, to  mechanics,  or  to  the  field,  without  once  questioning  the 
propriety  of  giving  themselves  to  the  holy  ministry  ?  Shall  the 
heathen,  the  Jew,  the  Mussulman,  and  the  Papist,  have  none  of 
their  sympathies  ?  Must  every  view  of  a  perishing  world  be 
shut  from  their  eyes,  while,  in  their  own  land,  and  for  their  own 
ends,  they  seek  domestic  comforts,  or  amass  property,  or  squab- 
ble in  politics  ? 

May  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  embark  in  this  blessed  en- 
terprise hear  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  saying,  "Whom  shall  I  send, 
and  who  will  go  for  us?"  and  without  delay  respond,  "Here 
am  I :  send  me." 


217 


CHAPTER  EL 

ON  THE  MEASURE  OF    SUCCESS    WHICH    HAS    ATTENDED 
MODERN   MISSIONS. 

Introduction.  —  I.  The  Number  of  Missionaries.  —  II.  The  Kind  of  Labor 
performed  :  Preparatory  ;  Collateral ;  Additional ;  Erroneous.  —  III.  Dis- 
advantages of  Modern  Missionaries  :  Imperfect  Knowledge  of  the  Lan- 
guage ;  Poverty  of  the  Languages  themselves ;  Want  of  Familiarity  with 
the  Religion  and  People ;  Degraded  State  of  the  Natives  ;  Inability  to  live 
as  they  live;  Being  Foreigners;  The  Structure  of  Society;  The  prevailing 
Philosophy  ;  The  Presence  of  nominal  Christians  ;  Popery.  —  IV.  Efforts 
which  do  not  reach  the  Field.  —  V.  The  Amount  accomplished :  A  large 
Force  in  the  Field  ;  Impediments  removed  ;  Translations  made  ;  Lan- 
guages reduced  to  Writing;  General  Literature  imparted;  Tracts  written; 
Grammars.  Dictionaries,  and  other  Helps  prepared  ;  Immense  Distribution 
of  Bibles  and  Tracts  ;  Mechanical  Facilities  created  ;  Schools  established, 
and  Youth  already  educated ;  Blessings  of  Christian  3Iorality  diffused ; 
Idolatry  in  some  Places  shaken  ;  Effects  on  Europeans  abroad ;  Actual 
Conversions.  —  VI.  Effects  on  the  Churches  at  Home  —  Remarks. 

Many  of  the  best  friends  of  missions  avow  feelings  of  disap- 
pointment, in  regard  to  the  measure  of  success  which  has  at- 
tended the  enterprise.  Considering  the  great  efforts  which  have 
been  made,  they  are  ready  to  infer  either  that  there  is  some  radi- 
cal error  in  the  mode  of  operation,  or  that  "  the  set  time"  to 
bring  in  the  heathen,  has  not  yet  come.  At  this  we  can  scarcely 
wonder,  when  we  consider  the  misstatements  which  are  current, 
and  the  prevalent  deficiency  of  information  on  this  subject,  even 
among  religious  persons,  for  want  of  reading  missionary  peri- 
odicals. 

Those  who  stand  aloof  from  the  work,  are  still  more  disposed 
to  regard  it  as  a  failure.  Some  are  not  backward  to  charge  those 
who  persist,  with  fanaticism  and  folly ;  and  a  few  go  so  far  as  to 
brand  them  with  chicanery  and  corruption,  and  to  declare  their 
belief  that  most  of  the  funds  contributed  for  missions,  are  re- 
tained by  the  hands  through  which  they  pass. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  those  who  dwell  always  on  ani- 
mating prognostics  and  local  successes.  Reluctant  to  contem- 
plate discouraging  circumstances,  they  anxiously  exclude  such 
vol.  II.  19 


218  MEASURE    OF  MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

details  from  what  they  say  or  publish,  and  at  monthly  concerts 
of  prayer,  or  other  public  meetings,  create  an  impression  that  the 
work  is  well  nigh  done,  at  least  in  some  places.  There  is  thus 
a  danger  of  making  contributions  to  missions  the  fruit  rather  of 
temporary  emotion  than  habitual  principle,  and  of  graduating 
the  measure  of  our  duty  more  by  the  amount  of  success  than 
the  distinctness  of  injunction.  And  when,  in  a  course  of  years, 
the  expected  results  are  not  realized,  there  is  a  proneness  to 
dejection  and  lassitude. 

The  writer  cannot  join  with  those  whose  tone  is  chiefly  that 
of  exultation.  But  he  is  persuaded  that  missions  have  succeeded, 
to  a  degree  fully  equal  to  the  amount  and  kind  of  labor  bestowed, 
and  presents  the  following  considerations  to  sustain  this  opinion. 

Before  proceeding  to  measure  the  absolute  magnitude  of  what 
has  been  accomplished,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  true 
amount  of  means  employed,  and  the  exact  manner  in  which, they 
have  been  applied. 

I.  The  number  of  missionaries,  and  the  amount  of  time  and  energy 
they  have  had  to  bestoiv  on  their  ivork. 

1.  The  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society  was  formed  in  1792 ; 
the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1795 ;  the  Scotch  Missionary 
Society  in  179G;  the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  1800;  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  in 
1810  ;  the  Baptist  Board  in  1814 ;  the  Episcopal  and  the  Meth- 
odist Missionary  Societies  in  1820. 

Of  course,  the  first  years  in  each  of  these  societies  produced 
very  few  missionaries.  By  a  careful  analysis  of  all  the  mission- 
ary statistics  within  reach,  it  appears  that  in  1810,  the  whole 
number  of  stations  was  twenty-nine ;  in  1820,  fifty-seven  ;  and 
at  the  present  time,  about  four  hundred.  If  we  allow  two  mis- 
sionaries to  a  station,  it  gives  us,  in  1810,  fifty-eight ;  in  1820,  a 
hundred  and  fourteen ;  and  at  the  present  time  eight  hundred. 
We  thus  perceive  that  we  have  proceeded  but  slowly  to  the 
present  magnitude  of  our  operations.  One  half  of  the  present 
number  of  missionaries  have  gone  out  within  so  recent  a  period, 
as  not  yet  to  have  acquired  the  languages  of  their  people. 

2.  The  lives  of  missionaries  are  shorter  than  those  of  ministers 
at  home ;  not  exceeding,  probably,  on  an  average,  more  than  eight 
or  nine  years. 

3.  As  the  highest  instances  of  longevity  are  found  among  those 
who  gave  themselves  chiefly  to  translations  and  English  preach- 
ing, the  average  life  of  such  as  were  devoted  to  the  immediate 
conversion  of  natives  is  still  farther  lessened. 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  219 

4.  All  those  who  died  before  they  had  been  in  the  field  four 
years,  are  to  be  presumed  not  to  have  become  efficient  preachers. 

5.  Three  or  four  years  are  to  be  deducted  from  the  brief  span 
of  all  missionaries,  as  time  spent  chiefly  in  study. 

6.  Most  missions  have  been  carried  lbrvvard  in  regions  where 
the  missionaries  were  robbed  of  one  fourth  of  their  effective 
energy  by  climate.  Combine  all  these  considerations,  and  the 
absolute  amount  of  direct  efforts  for  the  conversion  of  heathen 
is  reduced  to  a  very  paltry  sum. 

Again  :  The  calculations  which  have  been  made  on  the  labors 
of  the  wives  of  missionaries,  are  for  the  most  part,  much  too 
large.  Speeches,  essays,  and  sermons  have  described  the  public 
usefulness  of  females  in  glowing  terms.  It  has  even  been  declared 
that  on  this  account,  "  almost  all  missionaries  of  the  Protes- 
tant churches  may  count  for  two."  The  seclusion  of  women  in 
certain  countries,  has  principally  given  rise  to  this  opinion,  as 
they  can  find  access  to  their  own  sex  in  a  manner  not  practicable 
to  their  husbands.  But  it  must  be  considered  that  only  in  a 
part  of  the  field  are  females  rigidly  secluded,  and  then  only  the 
higher  classes,  with  which  few  missions  have  much  to  do.  Few 
missionaries'  wives  have  acquired  the  language  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  enable  them  to  be  useful  in  this  way.  Their  opportunities 
for  learning  are  by  no  means  so  good  as  those  of  their  husbands. 
Household  duties  demand  some  time  ;  their  minds  have  been 
less  trained  to  the  acquisition  of  language  ;  and  such  as  have 
children  are  greatly  put  back  in  their  studies,  and  hindered  from 
missionary  work,  if  ever  so  familiar  with  the  language.  Among 
ourselves,  we  do  not  reckon  ministers'  wives  as  so  many  evange- 
lists, when  we  compute  the  degree  to  which  a  state  or  county  is 
supplied  with  the  means  of  grace.  Much  less  can  we  calculate 
upon  the  wives  of  missionaries.  The  helps  and  facilities  enjoyed 
by  a  woman  at  home,  who  essays  to  do  public  good,  are  not  found 
among  the  heathen.  There,  few  nurses  or  servants  can  be 
trusted  alone  with  children,  even  for  an  hour;  the  elder  ones  are 
not  safe  away  at  school,  but  must  be  about  the  mother,  and 
taught  wholly  by  her  —  itself  a  great  task,  which  few  mothers  in 
America  could  add  to  their  other  cares.  In  sickness,  she  is  not 
aided  by  a  circle  of  kind  friends,  but  must  nurse  her  husband, 
her  child,  or  her  scholar,  day  by  day,  alone  ;  destitute  even  of  the 
aid  which  servants  might  render,  could  they  fully  understand  her 
commands  or  customs.  At  home,  a  minister's  wife  does  good 
chiefly  through  others,  by  setting  in  motion  and  keeping  up  plans 
which  they  can  execute.    But  not  so  with  the  missionary's  wife. 


220  MEASURE    OF   MISSIONARY   SUCCESS. 

She  has  around  her  no  circle  of  active  and  unencumbered  sis- 
ters, to  teach  Sabbath  schools,  to  form  Bible  classes,  or  to  consti- 
tute societies  for  good  objects.  All  she  does  must  be  carried 
on,  from  beginning  to  end,  by  her  own  individual  unassisted 
energies.  She  must  find  her  principal  sphere  of  usefulness  in 
keeping  her  husband  whole-hearted  and  happy  ;  in  being  a  good 
housewife ;  sustaining  all  the  domestic  cares ;  training  up  her 
children  well ;  furnishing  her  husband  prudent  counsel  and  af- 
fectionate support;  and  setting  before  the  heathen  the  sweet  and 
impressive  example  of  a  well-ordered  Christian  family,  and  the 
elevated  and  purifying  character  of  conjugal  life,  as  regulated  by 
the  New  Testament.  As  time  and  opportunity  offer,  she  should 
diligently  and  thoroughly  study  the  language.  Then  let  her 
take  every  opportunity  of  conversing  with  such  as  dome  to  the 
house,  form  a  circle  of  acquaintance  among  the  native  females, 
and  faithfully  visit  among  them  as  a  Christian  teacher. 

Unmarried  females,  and  such  as  have  no  children,  may  gen- 
erally be  regarded  as  missionaries  in  the  fullest  sense.  Some  of 
these  have  maintained  for  years  a  course  of  public  usefulness 
not  inferior  to  their  masculine  fellow-laborers. 

II.  The  kind  of  labor  ivhich  has  been  performed. 

1.  Up  to  the  present  period,  the  principal  portion  of  missiona- 
ry labor  has  been  preparatory. 

He  who  views  the  lofty  column  is  apt  to  forget  how  great  have 
been  the  labors  of  the  architect  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  how  widely  the  hidden  foundations  spread  round  beneath 
his  feet  So  when  we  survey  the  results  of  missions ;  most  of 
the  labor,  though  indispensable,  is  not  now  seen.  Nor  can  any 
inspection  of  their  present  condition  disclose  the  extent  and 
variety  of  past  labors. 

We  need  not  here  stop  to  inquire  whether  missionaries  have 
devoted  too  much  time  to  translations,  authorship,  schools,  secular 
business,  or  preaching  in  English.  It  is  sufficient  for  the  present 
argument,  that  the  major  part  of  our  efforts  have  been  so  ex- 
pended. It  is  not  possible  to  arrive  at  precision  in  regard  to 
the  exact  proportion ;  but  from  careful  inquiries,  I  am  led  to  set 
down,  as  preparatory,  three  fourths  of  the  work  done  in  India, 
much  more  as  to  China  and  Western  Asia,  and  somewhat  less 
in  most  other  missions. 

2.  No  small  portion  of  time  and  energy  has  been  spent  on 
objects  which  may  be  called  collateral. 

A  pastor  at  home  looks  for  these  labors  to  his  church,  and  to 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  221 

benevolent  societies.  He  has  around  him  those  who  maintain 
Sunday  schools,  distribute  Bibles  and  tracts,  sustain  pecuniary 
agencies,  hold  meetings  in  private  houses,  visit  the  sick,  main- 
tain discipline,  and  perform  a  multitude  of  other  services,  which 
in  a  foreign  land  devolve  on  the  missionary  alone.  The  frac- 
tion of  effort,  left  after  making  the  deductions  of  the  last  head, 
is  therefore  to  be  still  farther  abridged,  if  we  mean  to  measure 
missionaries  by  ministers  at  home. 

3.  He  has  many  duties  additional  to  those  of  a  pastor  in  a 
Christian  land. 

In  addition  to  all  his  studies  and  labors  of  a  strictly  missiona- 
ry and  evangelical  character,  he  must  erect  places  of  worship, 
dwellings,  and  school-houses ;  employ  and  oversee  native  assist- 
ants and  catechists ;  and  send  out  agents,  with  Bibles  and  tracts. 
In  the  absence  of  physicians,  friends,  nurses,  and  trained  ser- 
vants, he  must  be  surgeon,  midwife,  and  nurse,  in  his  own 
family.  In  many  cases,  he  must  devote  considerable  time  to  the 
dispensing  of  medicine  to  the  natives.  He  must  be  school- 
master for  his  own  children,  as  well  as  Sunday  school  teacher, 
and  perhaps  superintend  native  schools. 

Beside  this  list  of  duties,  so  large  as  almost  to  seem  absurd, 
he  must  correspond  with  his  friends  at  home,  the  Society,  and 
fellow-missionaries ;  keep  careful  money  accounts ;  and  maintain 
a  proper  intercourse  with  Europeans  around  him. 

4.  Many  missionaries  have  felt  obliged  to  imitate  the  example 
of  Carey,  Marshman,  and  Ward,  and  of  the  Moravians  generally,  in 
devoting  much  time  to  raising  pecuniary  resources.  While  the 
public  was  but  half  awake  to  their  duty,  there  was  much  reason 
for  this.  There  are  perhaps  cases  now  where  it  is  proper. 
I  only  name  it  as  another  deduction  from  our  computation  of 
the  measure  of  means  strictly  spent  in  converting  the  heathen. 

5.  Much  time  and  money  have  been  expended  erroneously,  at 
least  in  several  missions. 

Shops,  houses,  mills,  farms,  machines,  implements,  fonts  of 
type,  and  books,  have  been  made  unwisely,  and  relinquished ;  or 
made  at  too  great  a  cost.  The  temporal  affairs  of  the  people  have 
received  too  much  attention.  Periodical  publications  have  en- 
trenched on  higher  duties ;  translations  have  in  some  cases  been 
made  prematurely ;  and  in  others  great  labor  has  been  bestowed 
in  making  revisions,  which  prove  not  to  be  improvements. 

All  this  was  to  be  expected.  In  labors  not  expressly  patterned 
in  the  New  Testament,  we  have  no  teacher  but  experience, 
whose  instructions  are  always  costly.  No  reasonable  man  could 
19* 


222  MEASURE  OF  MISSIONARY  SUCCESS. 

expect  this  item  to  be  less  than  it  is.  Happily  the  pressure 
of  such  expenses  has  passed  away  with  the  period  of  our 
inexperience. 

III.  We  will  now  glance  at  the  disadvantages  under  which  the 
best  and  purest  missionary  labor  is  exerted. 

The  bigotry,  superstition,  and  sensuality  of  the  heathen,  their 
want  of  early  training  in  the  proper  theory  of  religion,  the  ab- 
sence of  a  correct  moral  sense,  and  similar  disadvantages  of 
great  magnitude,  not  felt  by  ministers  in  a  Christian  land,  will 
not  be  insisted  upon ;  because  they  equally  impeded  the 
apostles,  who  nevertheless  had  great  success.  I  intend  only  to 
name  those  which  are  peculiar  to  modern  missionaries. 

1.  An  imperfect  knowledge  of  the   language  of  the  people. 

Scarcely  one  missionary  in  twenty  has  become  able  to  preach 
with  entire  fluency,  and  probably  never  one  had  such  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  as  inspiration  gave.  A  great  amount  of 
preaching  has  been  done  through  interpreters,  and  these  often 
unconverted  heathen,  who  could  not  give  full  force  to  themes 
they  did  not  comprehend.  Few  can  acquire  such  mastery  of  a 
foreign  tongue,  as  to  express  their  thoughts  with  the  glow  and 
intensity  of  a  native,  even  when  the  idiom  and  structure  of  the 
language  is  thoroughly  understood. 

An  experienced  missionary  in  Bengal  assured  me,  that  on  an 
average,  not  one  half  of  the  sermons  of  missionaries  who  under- 
take to  preach  is  understood.  Dr.  Carey,  in  a  letter  of  August, 
1809,  states  that  after,  by  years  of  study,  he  thought  he  had  fully 
mastered  the  Bengalee,  and  had  then  preached  it  two  full  years, 
he  discovered  that  he  was  not  understood !  Yet  Dr.  C.'s  teachers 
flattered  him  that  he  was  understood  perfectly.  This  is  a  very 
common  deception  of  pundits  and  moonshees.  In  the  opinion 
of  one  of  the  most  experienced  missionaries  in  the  Madras 
presidency,  not  one  missionary  in  ten,  out  of  those  who  live  the 
longest,  ever  gets  the  language  so  as  to  be  generally  understood, 
except  when  declaring  the  simplest  truths.  This  is  a  difficulty 
not  to  be  removed.  Merchants  and  traders  may  easily  acquire 
the  vocabulary  of  traffic  and  social  life,  and  so  do  missionaries. 
They  may  go  further,  and  be  able  to  read  or  understand  literary 
and  historical  subjects.  But  to  have  the  ready  command  of 
words,  on  abstract  theological  subjects,  and  all  the  nice  shades 
of  meaning  requisite  to  discuss  accurately  mental  and  moral 
subjects,  can  only  be  the  work  of  many  years,  of  intense  study, 
and  great  practice. 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  223 

2.  There  is  a  still  greater  difficulty  in  the  poverty  of  the  lan- 
guages themselves. 

For  terms  which  are  of  primary  importance  in  religious  dis- 
course, words  must  often  be  used  which  are  either  unmeaning, 
or  foreign  to  the  purpose,  or  inaccurate.  It  is  not  easy  to  ex- 
hibit this  difficulty  in  its  true  magnitude,  to  such  as  have  not 
mixed  with  heathen.  A  few  examples  may,  however,  make  the 
argument  intelligible.  Words  equivalent  to  God,  Lord,  &c, 
must,  in  various  languages,  be  those  which  the  heathen  apply 
to  their  idols ;  for  there  are  no  others.  In  Tamul,  the  word 
pdvum  (sin)  signifies  only  "exposure  to  evil ;"  or  simply  "evil ;" 
whether  natural  or  moral ;  and  may  be  applied  to  a  beast  as  well 
as  a  man.  The  word  padesuttam  (holiness)  means  "  clearness." 
Regeneration  is  understood  by  a  Hindu  or  Boodhist  to  mean 
"  another  birth  "  in  this  world,  or  "  transmigration."  The  pur- 
poses of  God  they  understand  to  be  "  fate."  The  word  used  in 
Bengalee  for  holy,  (d'harma)  sometimes  means  "  merit "  acquired 
by  acts  of  religious  worship,  and  sometimes  "that  which  is 
agreeable  to  rule  or  custom."  When  the  compound  word  Holy 
Ghost  is  translated,  it  becomes  "  Spirit  of  rule,"  or  some  phrase 
not  more  intelligible.  In  the  Episcopal  Liturgy  in  Bengalee,  it  is 
rendered  "  Spirit  of  existence,"  (sadatma ;)  and  Mr.  Yates,  in  his 
new  version  of  the  Scriptures,  uses  the  word  pabitru,  "  clean." 
This  last,  while  it  avoids  the  hazard  of  conveying  a  wrong  idea, 
and  seems  to  be  the  best  rendering,  is  yet  evidently  imperfect. 
In  Siamese,  the  word  most  used  for  sin  (tot)  means  either  "  guilt," 
or  the  "punishment  of  guilt,"  or  simply  " exposure  to  punish- 
ment." The  best  word  the  missionaries  can  get  for  holy,  is 
boresut,  "purified,"  when  people  are  spoken  of;  and  saksit, 
"or  Spirit  having  power  because  of  sanctity,"  when  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  meant.  There  is  no  Siamese  word  equiva'ent  to  repent ; 
and  a  phrase  is  used  signifying  "to  establish  the  mind  anew,"  or 
"  make  new  resolves."  In  Burman,  there  is  no  term  equivalent 
to  our  heaven,  and  a  word  meaning  "  sky,"  or  more  properly 
"  space,"  is  used  ;  nor  any  word  for  angel,  and  the  rendering  of  that 
term  has  to  be  "  sky-messenger ; "  nor  any  word  for  condemn,  ex- 
cept the  circumlocution  "decide  according  to  demerit,  or  sin;" 
nor  any  word  for  conscience,  thank,  &c.  &c.  I  might  add  scores 
of  such  cases,  given  me  by  missionaries.  There  is  scarcely  a 
theological  term  not  subject  to  this  difficulty. 

For  a  multitude  of  our  terms  there  is  no  word  at  all.  Among 
these  are  not  only  theological  terms,  such  as  sanctification,  gos- 
pel, evangelist,  church,  atonement,  devil,  &c,  but  the  names  of 


224  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY   SUCCESS. 

implements,  animals,  customs,  clothing,  and  many  other  things, 
of  which  ignorant  and  remote  tribes  have  never  heard,  and  for 
which  entire  new  terms  are  obliged  to  be  coined. 

Let  a  man  imagine  how  he  would  be  embarrassed  in  reading  a 
book,  or  hearing  a  discourse,  in  which  he  constantly  met  with 
Greek  or  Arabic  terms,  and  words  used  in  a  sense  differing 
more  or  less  from  that  in  which  he  understands  them,  and  these 
often  the  principal  terms  in  the  sentence ;  and  he  may  form  some 
conception  of  this  difficulty.  Even  the  native  assistant,  preaching 
hi  his  mother  tongue,  is  not  properly  understood ;  for  he  must 
use  these  terms. 

3.  Waut  of  familiarity  with  the  system  and  sacred  books  to 
be  encountered,  and  with  national  prejudices  and  modes  of 
thinking. 

For  exposing  with  freedom,  and  attacking  with  power,  a  pop- 
ular belief,  these  are  eminent  advantages.  Hence,  in  part,  the 
superior  success  of  native  preachers.  The  apostles  were  native 
preachers,  almost  wherever  they  went ;  and  we  see  how  largely 
they  used  then-  intimate  knowledge  of  the  national  religion  and 
habits  of  thinking,  not  only  in  disputations,  but  in  formal  dis- 
courses and  epistles.  Many  years  must  elapse  before  a  mis- 
sionary can  attain  this  power  ;  and  then  only  by  the  wearisome 
perusal  of  many  volumes  of  disgusting  legends,  as  well  as  con- 
tact with  natives  in  many  ways,  and  for  a  long  period. 

4.  The  rudeness  and  ignorance  of  the  people  sought  to  be 
reclaimed. 

Idolatry  tends  steadily  downward;  and  eighteen  centuries 
have  served  to  degrade  the  heathen  far  below  the  latest  and  most 
corrupt  Greeks  and  Romans.  Wlien  mankind  began  to  fall 
away  from  the  living  God,  there  remained  some  knowledge  of 
the  proper  attributes  of  Deity,  and  a  comparative  nobleness  and 
purity  in  the  human  mind.  But  the  objects  of  worship,  the  rites 
enjoined,  and  the  character  of  the  people,  steadily  sunk  lower 
and  lower.  Hence  all  nations  refer  to  past  ages,  as  having 
greater  purity  and  happiness  than  the  present.  Iniquitous  ora- 
cles, abused  asylums,  horrid  bacchanalia,  and  human  sacrifices, 
were  known,  even  in  Greece  and  Rome,  only  to  later  generations. 
With  all  these  abominations,  they  possessed  no  contemptible 
amount  of  arts,  sciences,  literature,  and  poetry.  Syria,  Mace- 
donia, Greece,  Italy,  and  Northern  Africa,  forming  the  field  of  the 
first  missions,  were  the  centre  of  civilization  and  intelligence. 
The  wide  intercommunication  maintained  by  travelling  philoso- 
phers and  marching  armies,  gave  impulse  to  intellect,  and  dis- 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  225 

semiriated  knowledge.  The  Roman,  the  Greek,  the  Jew,  the 
Egyptian,  was  far  less  of  a  brute,  than  the  savage  or  semi-civ- 
ilized object  of  our  philanthropy. 

For  a  long  period  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  a  leaven  of  con- 
tempt for  pagan  rites  had  been  diffused  by  Pythagoras,  Socrates, 
Plato,  Aristotle,  and  others.  Every  century  brought  forth  some 
such  writers,  and  increased  the  effect  of  tlie  former  works. 
Socrates,  Lycurgus,  Demosthenes,  and  others,  had  by  their 
orations  stirred  up  the  stagnation  of  the  public  mind.  Euclid, 
Zeno,  Epicurus,  Apollonius,  Archimedes,  and  Eratosthenes,  led 
the  select  few  to  a  noble  expansion  and  activity  of  the  intel- 
lectual powers.  Afterward  came  the  satires  and  exposures  of 
Horace,  Lucian,  and  Juvenal,  turning  a  strong  tide  of  ridicule 
upon  the  prevailing  mythology.  To  quote  more  names  might 
seem  pedantic ;  but  there  was  then  scarcely  a  department  of 
learning  without  writers  which,  to  this  very  day,  maintain  not 
only  a  place  among  our  studies,  but  admiration  and  utility. 
Poetry,  philosophy,  history,  eloquence,  tragedy,  mathematics, 
geography,  botany,  medicine,  and  morals,  were  all  cultivated. 
Such  was  the  state  of  mankind  when  Christ  came ;  and  while  it 
would  have  allowed  a  new  system  of  superstition  or  error  little 
chance  of  prevalence,  it  made  a  happy  preparation  for  Chris- 
tianity. Not,  indeed,  that  any  of  the  philosophy  agreed  with  it ; 
or  that  any  of  the  philosophers  adopted  it.  "  The  wisdom  of 
this  world,"  then  as  now,  deemed  the  cross  "  foolishness."  But 
the  people  ivere  trained  to  think,  and  both  Jews  and  pagans  were 
capable  of  examining,  and  disposed  to  understand,  the  nature  of 
the  new  religion. 

The  nations  among  whom  missions  are  now  conducted,  are  in 
general  the  reverse  of  all  this.  With  them  the  human  intellect 
has  for  ages  been  at  a  stand.  Improvements  in  any  thing  are 
not  imagined.  Without  valuable  books,  without  a  knowledge  of 
other  countries,  without  foreign  commerce,  without  distant  con- 
quest, without  the  strife  of  theology,  without  political  freedom, 
without  public  spirit,  —  what  is  left  for  them,  but  listlessness, 
ignorance,  and  pride  ?  Such  of  them  as  attempt  study,  learn 
only  falsehood  and  folly ;  so  that  the  more  they  learn,  the  less 
they  know.  Their  history,  chronology,  geography,  physics,  as- 
tronomy, medicine,  and  theology,  are  so  utterly  wrong,  that  to 
fill  the  mind  with  them  is  worse  than  vacuity.  This  is  true  of 
the  most  civilized  heathen  of  this  day ;  and  of  many  parts  of  the 
missionary  field,  a  much  stronger  picture  might  be  drawn. 
Such  indurated  ignorance  is  incomparably  worse  to  deal  with 


U26  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

than  fine  reasonings  and  false  philosophy.  What  can  argument 
do,  if  not  understood  ?  The  edge  of  truth  itself  is  turned  by 
impenetrable  dulness. 

The  depreciation  of  morals,  is  as  great  as  that  of  intellect. 
We  look  in  vain  even  for  Spartan  or  Roman  virtue.  Except 
perhaps  among  the  Cretans,  it  is  hardly  probable  that  the  first 
preachers  any  where  encountered  such  a  spirit  of  falsehood  and 
deceit  as  distinguish  the  heathen  now.  Truth  is  utterly  wanting. 
Man  lias  no  confidence  in  man.  The  morality  is  not  only  defec- 
tive, it  is  perverted.  Killing  a  cow  or  an  insect,  is  more  shocking 
than  the  murder  of  an  enemy :  lying  lor  a  brahmin  is  a  virtue  j 
stealing  for  real  want  is  no  sin :  a  few  ceremonies  or  offer- 
ings expiate  all  crimes.  Transmigration  abolishes  identity ;  for, 
if  perfectly  unconscious  in  one  state  of  existence,  of  all  that 
transpired  in  previous  ones,  identity  is  virtually  lost.  Sin  is  re- 
duced to  a  trifle,  the  conscience  rendered  invulnerable,  generous 
sentiments  extinguished,  and  the  very  presence  and  exhortations 
of  the  missionary  engender  a  suspicion  destructive  to  his  suc- 
cess. His  reasons  lor  coming  are  not  credited  ;  and  the  fear  of 
political  treachery  is  added  to  a  detestation  of  his  creed.  The 
best  supposition  they  can  make,  is  that  he  is  seeking  religious 
merit,  according  to  his  own  system,  and  careful  not  so  much  for 
their  conversion,  as  for  his  personal  benefit  in  a  future  state. 

5.  Inability  to  live  as  the  people  live. 

Except  at  a  few  points,  the  manners  and  customs  are  such  that 
a  missionary  cannot  adopt  them  without  disadvantage.  It  has 
often  been  tried,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  but  always  relin- 
quished, for  numerous  good  reasons  which  I  cannot  here  stop  to 
adduce.  In  some  missions,  the  health  and  even  the  life  of  a 
missionary  require  him  to  live  in  a  better  house,  and  more  expen- 
sively than  the  chiefs,  or  perhaps  the  king.  The  consequent 
evils  may  be  partly  conceived,  by  considering  the  effect  with  us 
of  a  minister's  living  in  a  style  superior  to  that  of  his  richest 
hearers,  without  having  any  dependence  on  them  for  support. 
It  is  not  the  question  here  whether  this  evil  may  not  be  palliated 
in  some  places.  It  has  existed  as  a  disadvantage  in  many  in- 
stances, and  in  many  must  probably  always  so  remain. 

6.  The  world  is  not  now  under  a  single  government.  The 
apostles  were  every  where  fellow-subjects ;  for  the  stupendous 
power  of  Rome  presided  over  the  known  world.  But  the  mis- 
sionary is  now  a  foreigner,  living  in  foreign  modes,  hold- 
ing his  connections  with  foreign  powers,  and  endeavoring  to 
introduce  a  foreign  religion.     In  one  part  of  the  field,  he  is 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  227 

either  wondered  at  as  a  superior  being,  or  feared  as  a  political 
agent ;  and  in  the  other,  despised  as  coming  from  some  barbarous 
island  on  the  confines  of  creation.  To  be  either  a  Roman  or  a 
Jew,  secured  to  the  first  preachers  a  fraternity  wherever  they 
went.  Our  missionary  finds  none,  till,  by  the  blessing  of  God, 
he  makes  it.  From  some  countries  he  is  kept  aloof  by  inexora- 
ble prohibitions  ;  in  some,  his  life  is  unsafe  ;  in  some,  official  ob- 
structions are  thrown  in  his  way,  so  as  almost  to  discourage 
effort;  and  in  others,  though  protected  by  Christian  rulers,  he  is 
almost  precluded  from  usefulness  by  the  influence  of  their 
example. 

7.  The  structure  of  society. 

At  first,  Christians  could  be  tolerated  even  "  in  Caesar's  house- 
hold," and  retain  offices,  civil  and  military.  The  persecu- 
tions were  not  so  much  by  the  people  as  the  government,  and 
the  converts  could  prosecute  their  callings,  whether  as  tanners, 
tent-makers,  fishermen,  or  centurions.  Now,  the  adamantine 
barrier  of  caste  fences  off  into  innumerable  sections  the  two 
hundred  millions  of  India ;  while  all,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  unite  against  Christianity.  The  convert  becomes  an 
outcast,  in  such  a  sense  of  that  word  as  Europeans  cannot  con- 
ceive. He  is  not  only  deprived  of  property,  but  torn  from  wife 
and  children,  and  abandoned,  without  the  means  of  subsistence. 
Unless  the  missionary  devise  a  mode  of  subsistence  for  him,  he 
must  starve.  In  addition  to  other  evils,  this  state  of  things  tends 
to  keep  off"  all  who  have  property  to  lose,  and  draw  together 
mendicants,  idlers,  and  criminals,  to  profess  Christianity  for 
temporal  ends. 

Among  Mahometans,  Boodhists,  and  other  pagans,  to  become 
a  Christian  entails  most  of  these  trials,  though  in  other  forms. 
The  convert  is  cast  out  as  evil.  His  relations  deny  him,  his  busi- 
ness fails,  his  children  are  a  by-word,  his  rulers  are  displeased, 
and  his  life  endangered. 

Among  still  ruder  nations,  the  distinction  of  tribes  cuts  up 
the  human  family  into  small,  insulated  portions,  denying  to  each 
other  common  kindnesses.  After  spending  many  years  to  ac- 
quire a  language,  there  are  but  a  few  thousands  to  whom  it  can 
be  the  medium  of  truth.  Wars,  wanderings,  extreme  poverty, 
and  desperate  degradation,  seem  to  preclude  the  very  hope  of 
success. 

8.  The  apostles  were  not  every  where  met  by  a  system  of 
natural  philosophy  which  directly  contradicted  all  their  teachings. 

Wherever  Christianity  now  goes,  a  new  system  of  geography 


228  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

and  astronomy  must  be  adopted.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
missionary  may  pass  by  this  topic,  and  only  preach  Christ  cruci- 
fied. His  hearers  will  not  let  him  pass  it  by.  The  country  he 
professes  to  have  left,  cannot  exist  by  their  system.  The  Shaster 
and  the  Bedagat  must  fall,  if  his  system  be  true.  He  will  be  at- 
tacked upon  it.  It  will  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  his  religious 
belief,  and  he  must  clear  away  their  cosmogony,  before  he  can 
build  his  faith. 

With  the  few  who  can  be  so  far  educated  as  to  understand 
and  receive  the  Copernican  system,  this  difficulty  is  converted 
into  a  facility.  Such  are  at  least  rendered  unbelievers  in  their 
own  religion.  But  the  mass  of  the  people  will  long  remain  in 
the  old  belief,  and  as  Christianity  cannot  wait  to  be  preceded  by 
schools,  missionaries  must  meet  this  difficulty  in  all  its  strength. 

9.  The  presence  of  nominally  Christian  countrymen. 

These  are  now  found  almost  every  where ;  and  too  many  of 
them,  by  their  ungodly  lives,  present  to  the  undistinguishing 
heathen  a  continual  ground  of  objection.  Their  lewdness,  ex- 
tortions, oppressions,  riotous  living,  desecration  of  the  Sabbath, 
neglect  of  sacred  things,  direct  opposition,  and  secret  obstructions, 
wring  the  soul  of  the  missionary,  fill  his  way  with  thorns,  and 
tend  to  nullify  his  greatest  exertions. 

Where  Christian  governments  have  borne  rule,  and  where  his 
own  life  has  been  most  secure,  he  has  found  those  very  govern- 
ments arrayed  against  his  success.  When  Buchanan  would 
have  given  forth  information  touching  the  abominations  of  Hin- 
duism, not  a  journal  in  Calcutta  dared  publish  his  communica- 
tions !  When  he  made  them  from  the  pulpit,  his  friends  were 
not  allowed  to  publish  the  sermons.  When  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  published  these  things,  his  statements  were  denied, 
and  his  character  assailed.  The  East  India  Company  long 
opposed  the  introduction  of  missionaries,  or  kept  them  under  a 
surveillance  which  defeated  their  object.  Had  not  the  Danish 
settlement  at  Serampore  afforded  an  asylum,  till  an  experiment 
was  made,  evincive  of  the  political  harmlessness  of  evangelical 
labors  among  the  natives,  it  is  doubtful  whether  India  would 
have  been  opened  to  this  day.  It  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to 
the  periodical  accounts,  to  the  Calcutta  newspapers,  and  to  the 
occasional  pamphlets  of  that  time,  to  show  how  wilfully  and 
effectively  the  messengers  of  mercy  were  hindered,  for  many 
years ;  and  how  large  deductions  ought  to  be  made,  on  this  ac- 
count, from  the  fruits  which  might  otherwise  have  been  pro- 
duced.     Though  the   Indian  government  no  longer  exerts  a 


MEASURE  OF  MISSIONARY  SUCCESS.  229 

direct  opposition  to  missionaries,  it  does  many  things,  some  of 
which  have  been  named  in  a  previous  chapter,  to  sustain  pagan- 
ism and  Mahometanism  throughout  its  dominions. 

The  Dutch  government  has  been  even  more  inimical,  and  still 
maintains  its  hostility.  When  Mr.  Bruckner,  after  many  years' 
labor,  had  translated  the  New  Testament  into  Javanese,  he  went 
to  Serampore,  and  at  great  expense  got  types  cast,  and  printed  it. 
But  he  no  sooner  returned,  (in  1832,)  and  gave  away  a  few  copies, 
than  the  government  seized  the  whole  edition,  and  placed  it  in 
the  public  stores,  from  whence  it  has  never  been  restored.  I 
could  mention  other  facts  of  a  similar  character.  Their  own 
chaplains  and  other  clergy  are  under  such  restraints,  as  tend  to 
nullify  or  obstruct  their  labors  to  convert  the  natives. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonial  governments  in  India 
have  avowedly  opposed  us  from  the  beginning,  on  the  ground 
of  our  Protestantism. 

At  some  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  among  various  tribes  of 
American  Indians,  and  in  many  other  places  where  no  govern- 
mental opposition  has  been  made,  the  influence  and  example 
of  unprincipled  men,  both  residents  and  visitors,  have  been  most 
distressing.* 

In  the  most  favorable  aspect  in  which  the  missionary  meets  a 
Christian  government,  in  pagan  lands,  he  finds  it  a  government 
of  financial  rapacity  and  military  force.  The  natives  cannot  for- 
get that  the  presence  and  power  of  the  white  man,  is  the  fruit  and 
proof  of  their  subjection  and  inferiority.  Wherever  he  estab- 
lishes his  fort  and  his  flag,  it  is  to  the  subversion  of  their  political 
and  civil  consequence.  A  distinguished  British  writer  declares, 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  obstacles  which  the  impolicy  of 
Europeans  themselves  has  created  against  the  propagation  of 
their  religion,  there  exist  no  others.  "  In  every  country  of  the  East, 


*  O  that  immoral  Christians  living'  among  idolaters,  and  inimical  rulers, 
would  consider  how  much  more  reprehensible  they  are  than  those  who  of  old 
professed  to  be  his  people,  yet  caused  his  name  to  be  polluted  among  the  Gen- 
tiles !  In  the  days  of  Ezekiel,  "  They  were  dispersed  through  the  countries  ; 
and  when  they  entered  unto  the  heathen,  whither  they  went,  they  profaned  my 
holy  name  when  they  said,  We  are  the  people  of  the  Lord,  and  are  gone  forth 
out  of  his  land.  The  heathen  shall  know  that  I  am  the  Lord,  saith  the  Lord 
God,  when  I  shall  be  sanctified  in  you,  before  their  eyes."  Ezek.  xxxvi.  19— 
23.  In  the  days  of  Paul,  it  was  still  their  reproach,  "  Thou  that  makest  thy 
boast  of  [possessing]  the  law,  through  breaking  the  law,  dishonorest  thou  God  1 
For  the  name  of  God  is  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles  through  you."  Rom. 
ii.  23,  24. 

vol.  ii.  20 


230  MEASURE    OF   MISSIONARY   SUCCESS. 

Christianity  has  been  introduced  to  the  people  along  with  the 
invariable  and  odious  associates  of  unprincipled  ambition  and 
commercial  rapacity."*  Hence  their  expulsion  from  Japan, 
China,  Tonquin,  Cochin-China,  and  Camboja ;  and  the  precari- 
ous footing  of  missionaries  in  Siam,  Burmah.  and  other  places. 
"It  must  be  confessed  that  if  the  beauty  of  Christianity  has  not 
convinced  Orientals,  it  is  principally  by  reason  of  the  bad  opin- 
ion which  the  avarice,  treachery,  invasions,  and  tyranny  of  the 
Portuguese,  and  some  other  Christians  in  the  Indies,  have  im- 
planted in  them."  f 

10.  The  resistance  made  by  Popery. 

At  a  large  proportion  of  the  stations,  there  are  Papal  estab- 
lishments. At  these  the  priests  always,  and  the  people  often, 
are  active  and  implacable  opposers.  The  missionary's  character 
and  labors  are  misrepresented ;  his  Bibles  and  tracts  are  declared 
false  and  pernicious ;  and  salvation,  for  him  or  his  adherents,  is 
pronounced  impossible. 

Worse  than  this  is  the  contempt  and  aversion  which  they 
create  toward  the  Christian  name.  Their  proselytes  are  seldom 
less  degraded  and  vicious  than  the  heathen,  and  sometimes 
more  so.  That  they  have  not  procured  the  exclusion  of  all  mis- 
sionaries, as  they  have  from  China  and  Japan,  is  because  they 
are  not  sufficiently  powerful  to  excite  the  action  of  government. 
So  far  as  they  have  ability,  it  is  exerted  to  keep  Protestantism 
from  pagans. 

iV.  TJie  effect  of  much  of  the  efforts  at  home  does  not  reach  the 
field  abroad. 

Large  sums  have  been  spent  in  surveying  the  field,  and  sundry 
lives  lost  for  want  of  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  countries, 
climates,  natives,!  &c. 


*  Crawfurd's  Indian  Archipelago,  vol.  ii.  book  6,  chap.  4. 

t  l.a  Loubiere,  Du  Royaume  de  Siam,  torn.  i. 

\  Men  of  the  world  exclaim  against  this ;  but  they  spend  money  and  life, 
upon  matters  of  infinitely  less  moment.  They  encounter  the  same  perils,  in 
the  same  regions,  in  pursuit  of  wealth,  science,  or  fame  ;  or  perhaps,  prompted 
only  by  curiosity.  Let  but  the  effort  to  discover  the  sources  and  course  of  the 
Niger  be  specified.  In  this  one  enterprise  have  perished  Ledyard,  Houghton, 
Park,  Anderson,  Horneman,  Nichols,  Roentgen,  Tucker,  Tudor,  Cranch, 
Galway,  Smith,  Peddie,  Kummer,  Campbell,  Stockie,  Toole,  Denham.  Clap- 
perton,  Morrison,  Pearce,  Laing,  and  I  know  not  how  many  more,  all  men 
of  distinction  and  worth.  With  these  have  perished  several  hundred  soldiers, 
scientific  attendants,  servants,  &c.    All  these  lives  spent  to  discover  the  course 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  231 

Large  expenses,  of  both  time  and  money,  are  incurred  for 
agencies,  secretariships,  travelling,  clerk-hire,  buildings,  circu- 
lars, pamphlets,  &c.  Objections  may  lie  against  some  of  these 
cases,  and  certain  details.  But  the  main  question  of  expediency 
and  necessity  remains  clear.  They  yield  no  fruits  in  the  foreign 
field,  but  without  them  a  beginning  could  not  be  made.  Chris- 
tians were  ignorant  of  the  various  subjects  involved  in  the  un- 
dertaking. They  were  both  to  be  induced  to  move,  and  to  be 
taught  how;  so  that  the  whole  energies  of  some  have  been  ab- 
sorbed in  awakening  the  cooperation  of  others.  For  this  there 
is  no  present  remedy  but  in  the  continuance  of  these  very  ex- 
penses.* Even  now,  though  thousands  of  pamphlets,  reports, 
speeches,  sermons,  &c,  have  been  distributed,  thousands  of  ad- 
dresses made,  and  thousands  of  committees  and  associations 
formed,  there  are  multitudes  who  do  not  understand  the  move- 
ment. For  want  of  more  of  this  sort  of  expense  and  labor,  thou- 
sands of  sincere  Christians  have  not  been  awakened  to  a  proper 
consideration  of  the  enterprise  ;  and  thousands,  misjudging  it, 
oppose. 

In  addition  to  these  expenses,  large  sums  are  absorbed  by  the 
outfit,  passages,  and  salaries,  of  missionaries  who  die  before  they 
acquire  the  language.  Very  costly  libraries  have  to  be  furnished 
to   stations   where   translations    are   in    progress.     Those   who 

of  a  river  flowing  through  pestilent  solitudes,  and  occupied  by  barbarous 
tribes  !  And  for  what  purpose  ?  To  convey  peace  and  eternal  life  to  these 
benighted  Africans  ?  No.  To  add  a  few  facts  to  science,  and  peradventure, 
to  open  a  new  market  for  European  manufactures!  The  settlement  of  many 
colonies,  the  attempts  to  discover  a  north-west  passage,  and  a  score  of  other 
such  enterprises,  might  be  named,  which  have  involved  greater  loss  of  life,  than 
the  whole  missionary  enterprise  from  the  beginning. 

*  This  item,  though  large,  is  apt  to  be  overrated.  At  an  early  period  of 
missionary  operations,  when  the  total  receipts  were  small,  and  great  personal 
efforts  required  to  collect  them,  the  proportion  was  greater  than  at  present. 
The  average  income  of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  is  about  §260,000,  and  the  average  expenditures  for  agencies,  salaries, 
travelling  expenses  of  missionary  candidates  for  examination,  postages,  rent, 
and  other  incidental  expenses,  about  §20,000,  being  a  fraction  less  than  8  per 
cent.  The  expenditures  of  the  Baptist  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  are  about 
§90,000,  and  the  home  expenses  §7000,  which  is  also  a  fraction  less  than  8  per 
cent.  The  proportion  in  other  societies  is,  probably,  about  the  same.  Con- 
tributors ought,  certainly,  to  feel  gratified  to  know  that  they  can  collect  their 
missionaries,  place  their  donations  abroad,  and  convert  their  money  into  Bibles 
and  tracts,  at  so  small  a  charge  as  eight  cents  on  a  dollar.  Were  the  income 
of  missionary  societies  doubled,  the  home  charges  would  not  be  materially 
increased,  as  the  present  organizations  would  suffice. 


232  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

know  the  price  of  many  necessary  works  in  the  learned  lan- 
guages, will  feel  the  force  of  this  consideration.  This  sort  of 
expense,  and  all  those  connected  with  setting  up  a  printing- 
office,  must  be  renewed  at  every  principal  mission  to  be  es- 
tablished. 

The  outlay  for  societies'  houses,  secretaries,  treasurers,  clerks, 
&c,  will  not  increase  in  proportion  to  increased  operations. 
Once  properly  organized,  a  set  of  officers  can  as  well  conduct  a 
hundred  missions  as  fifty.  Experience  will  reduce  many  ex- 
penses, both  abroad  and  at  home.  The  houses,  lands,  presses, 
types,  machinery,  libraries,  &c,  now  possessed,  will  remain  as  so 
much  capital.  Natives  will  soon  learn  to  do  printing,  &c,  and 
the  cost  of  manipulations  be  reduced.  The  prices  of  passages 
will  lessen,  as  facilities  and  improvements  multiply.  In  short, 
every  charge  between  the  donor  and  his  object  may  be  expected 
to  decrease.  The  churches  will  come  to  the  work  with  more 
readiness  ;  systematic  contribution  will  succeed  to  desultory  col- 
lections ;  few  brethren  will  remain  to  be  convinced  and  urged ; 
and  the  apparatus  of  agencies  will  cease  to  be  burdensome. 

V.  Let  us  noiv  look  at  tlie  amount  ivhich  has  been  accomplished. 

1.  Numerous  and  formidable  impediments  have  been  re- 
moved. 

Ignorance  of  the  field,  and  of  the  nature  of  the  work,  have 
given  way  to  knowledge  and  experience.  An  entrance  and 
location  among  various  strange  nations,  has  been  effected.  The 
difficulties  of  many  languages  are  overcome.  Several  mission- 
aries have  attained,  not  merely  a  trader's  fluency  in  the  native 
tongues,  but  that  minute  and  critical  knowledge  which  is  neces- 
sary to  become  authors,  and  to  preach  with  advantage.  Preju- 
dices against  Christianity  have  been  overcome,  in  many  places. 
In  some,  the  spirit  of  indifference  has  given  way  to  a  spirit  of 
inquiry ;  and  confidence  in  the  missionary,  and  respect  for  the 
purity  of  his  principles,  have  been  created.  Most  missionaries 
who  now  go  out,  find  brethren  to  welcome  them,  houses  for  their 
reception,  and  other  facilities  which  do  away  no  small  amount 
of  suffering,  mistake,  and  delay.  Had  all  our  money  effected 
only  these  preliminaries,  it  would  not  have  been  ill  spent. 

2.  A  great  body  of  missionaries  and  native  preachers  are  in 
actual  service. 

The  reports  of  some  societies  do  not  distinguish  between 
missionaries  and  assistants,  printers,  &c,  so  that  it  is  not  possible 
to  state  the  precise  number  of  each.     It  will  not  be  far  from  the 


MEASURE   OF   MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  233 

truth  to  say  that  there  are  one  thousand  ordained  missionaries, 
fifty  printers,  three  hundred  schoolmasters  and  assistants,  and 
some  hundred  native  preachers. 

Of  the  ordained  missionaries  there  are  in  Africa  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight ;  other  regions  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
fifty-three  ;  Farther  India,  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight ;  Ceylon, 
twenty-eight ;  Indian  Archipelago,  Australia,  &c,  eighty-one ; 
West  Indies,  two  hundred  and  three  ;  North  American  Indians, 
one  hundred  and  eighteen.  To  send  out  one  thousand  mis- 
sionaries, and  three  hundred  and  fifty  printers,  schoolmasters. 
&c,  with  their  wives,  at  an  average  of  three  hundred  dollars  for 
passage,  and  two  hundred  dollars  for  outfit,  has  cost  one  million 
three  hundred  thousand  dollars,  to  say  nothing  of  the  expense  of 
their  education  and  the  cost  of  the  native  assistants.  The  labor 
of  committees,  correspondence,  &c,  in  discovering,  examining, 
preparing,  and  sending  forth,  this  body  of  laborers,  can  only  be 
appreciated  by  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  such  services.  A 
large  proportion  of  these  persons  has  been  in  the  field  long  enough 
to  develop  their  character,  and  prove  their  suitahleness.  Here  is. 
then,  another  item  sufficient  of  itself  to  reward  all  our  exertions. 

3.  The  Word  of  God,  in  whole  or  in  part,  has  been  translated 
by  modern  missionaries  into  nearly  a  hundred  languages. 

We  ought  to  look  steadily  at  this  fact,  till  its  difficulties,  mag- 
nitude, and  importance,  are  in  some  sort  perceived.  These 
translations,  in  many  cases,  have  been  made,  from  the  original 
tongues,  with  vast  pains  in  collating  versions,  and  after  extensive 
reading  in  the  sacred  writings  of  the  natives,  to  gather  suitable 
words,  true  idioms,  and  general  propriety. 

Some  of  these  versions  have  been  printed  in  successive  edi- 
tions, each  revised  with  a  labor  equal  to  that  of  the  first  transla- 
tion. In  several  cases,  different  and  independent  translations 
have  been  made  into  the  same  language;  thus  furnishing  mul- 
tiplied materials  for  ultimately  forming  a  satisfactory  and  es- 
tablished version. 

These  versions  embrace  the  languages  of  more  than  half  the 
human  family  ;  and  some  of  them  are  among  the  most  difficult 
in  the  world. 

4.  A  considerable  number  of  languages  have  been  reduced  to 
writing. 

Strange  sounds  have  been  caught,  orthography  settled,  parts 
of  speech  separated,  and  modes  of  construction  determined.     In 
doing  this,  it  has  been  necessary  to  go  into  wearisome  and  per- 
plexing examinations  of  native   utterance ;    to  collect,  without 
20* 


234  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

helps,  all  the  words  of  whole  languages;  and  to  study  deeply  th« 
whole  system  of  universal  grammar,  or  structure  of  languages 
in  general. 

For  some  of  these  languages  characters  have  been  invented, 
in  whole  or  in  part.  In  most  of  them  a  considerable  number  of 
the  people  have  been  already  taught  to  read,  and  an  introduction 
is  thus  made  to  the  increase  of  books,  elevation  of  intellect,  and 
extension  of  Christianity. 

5.  Missionaries  have  given  to  the  heathen  nearly  all  the  useful 
literature  they  now  enjoy. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  they  have  been  the  introducers  of  the 
art  of  printing,  into  all  the  pagan  nations  where  it  now  exists. 
Even  in  Hindustan,  there  had  never  been  a  book  printed,  in  any 
of  her  numerous  languages,  (except  a  Bengalee  grammar,  and 
one  or  two  other  works  by  the  late  Dr.  Wilkins,)  till  the  Baptist 
missionaries  gave  them  the  boon. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  specifications,  to  elucidate  or  am- 
plify this  argument.  Every  literary  man,  and  every  reader  of 
missionary  intelligence,  will  at  once  think  of  various  countries, 
where  the  facts  exist,  on  which  it  is  founded  ;  and  will  perceive 
that  this  fruit  of  missions,  though  not  directly  evangelical,  is 
highly  important.* 

6.  Tracts,  and  practical  works,  have  been  produced  in  consid- 
erable variety. 

In  the  Bengalee  alone,  there  are  seventy-jive  tracts,  beside 
Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress,  Baxter's  Call,  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
Jane  way's  Token,  Evidences  of  Christianity,  Commentaries  on 
Mark  and  Romans,  Young  Henry,  and  some  others.  The  Cal- 
cutta Tract  Society  has  printed  more  than  6525  pages  of  tracts ; 
equal  to  twenty-two  volumes  of  300  pages  each.  At  Madras  have 
been  printed,  in  the  Tamul  language,  seventy-one  tracts,  beside 
broad-sheets;  at  Jaffna  eighty  tracts,  and  at  Travancore  fifty, 
making  in  all  over  200  publications  in  Tamul.  About  fifty 
tracts  have  been  printed  in  the  Malay;  in  the  Chinese,  about 
a  hundred,  comprising  5863  pages,  or  twice  the  amount  of  pages 
in  Morrison's  Bible.  In  Burman,  there  are  hventy-eight  tracts, 
making  about  900  octavo  pages ;  beside  portions  of  Scripture  in 
tract  form.     It  would  be  tedious  to  make  further  specifications. 

*  Our  own  biblical  literature  owes  much  to  the  researches  of  missionaries  ; 
not  on!}'  for  important  illustrations  from  manners,  customs,  natural  history,  &c, 
but  for  criticism.  See,  on  the  last  point,  a  paper  in  the  Quarterly  Observer 
for  January,  1836,  on  "  The  obligations  of  philology  to  modern  missionary 
efforts." 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  235 

Among  these  publications  are  hymn-books,  in  several  lan- 
guages. Every  one  may  conceive  the  difficulty  of  writing 
poetry  iu  a  foreign  tongue,  even  if  the  metre  and  mode  of  versi- 
fication resemble  our  own  ;  the  reverse  of  which  is  true  of 
Oriental  languages.  At  most  missions,  the  variety  of  hymns  is 
now  sufficient  for  public  and  private  worship,  and  some  ad- 
vance has  been  made  in  teaching  converts  to  sing.  I  could 
not  explain,  without  too  many  words,  the  labor  and  difficulty  of 
this  work  in  both  its  departments. 

All  these  works  are  to  be  enjoyed  by  future  converts,  to  their 
more  speedy  and  effectual  growth  in  grace ;  and  by  future 
missionaries,  in  extending  the  knowledge  and  the  arguments  by 
which  Christianity  is  to  prevail. 

The  amount  printed,  forms  but  a  fraction  of  what  has  been 
made.  Part  of  the  rejected  or  postponed  matter  may  yet  be 
serviceable ;  but  a  large  number  of  manuscripts,  made  by  begin- 
ners, though  useful  in  their  place  as  studies,  will  never  be  printed. 
The  amount  of  life  and  labor  expended  in  producing  the  read- 
ing matter  now  extant,  is  not  easily  conceived.  It  is  a  labor  from 
which  fruit  can  only  now  begin  to  be  realized.  The  same  noise- 
less, and  for  the  time,  ineffective  labors,  must  be  performed  in  all 
new  missions,  and  continued  to  a  great  extent  in  the  old  ones ; 
but  so  far  as  idiomatic,  intelligible,  and  adapted  works  have  been 
prepared,  it  is  work  done  forever. 

7.  In  nearly  every  mission  there  have  been  prepared  a 
grammar,  vocabulary,  and  dictionary. 

Rude  and  imperfect  as  some  of  these  necessarily  are,  because, 
in  their  first  stages  of  preparation,  they  furnish  most  desirable 
aid  to  beginners,  saving  not  only  months  of  labor,  and  much 
health  and  strength,  to  new  missionaries,  but  forming  the  rudi- 
ments which  future  students  will  improve  to  completeness.  Not  a 
few  of  these  helps  have  already  advanced,  under  successive  mis- 
sionaries, to  a  good  degree  of  perfection,  and  are  among  the 
noblest  literary  works  of  the  day. 

8.  An  amount  literally  incalculable  of  Bibles  and  tracts  has 
been  put  into  circulation. 

Making  the  fullest  deduction  for  such  of  these  as  may  have 
been  destroyed,  millions  doubtless  remain,  to  prove,  as  we  may 
trust,  seed  sown  in  good  ground. 

1  am  not  among  those  who  seem  to  think  that  if  Christian 
publications  are  scattered  abroad,  good  must  follow.  But  the  rec- 
ords of  Bible  and  tract  efforts  most  amply  show  that  God  smiles 


236  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

on  this  species  of  benevolence.  Every  annual  report  of  these 
societies  gives  fresh  facts,  so  that  volumes  might  be  filled  with 
these  alone.  I  give  the  following  illustration,  not  because  more 
striking  than  others  which  constantly  occur,  but  because  recent 
and  unpublished.  A  young  man  came  to  the  Baptist  brethren  in 
Cuttack,  stating  that  in  his  own  country,  about  six  years  before,  he 
had  received  from  some  stranger,  who  wore  a  hat,  a  religious  tract ; 
which,  almost  without  looking  at,  he  placed  in  the  bottom  of  his 
chest.  Lately,  a  gentleman  had  come  through  the  place,  making 
a  survey  of  the  country.  The  hat  this  person  wore,  reminded 
the  youth  that  once  a  person  with  a  hat  gave  him  a  tract.  He 
brought  it  forth  from  his  chest,  and  for  the  first  time  read  it  over. 
It  proved  the  means  of  his  awakening;  and  he  persisted  in  his 
inquiries.  Having  unreservedly  become  a  disciple  of  Christ, 
he  had  now  made  a  long  journey  to  join  himself  to  his  people. 
He  was  baptized,  and  returned,  and  is  now  a  useful  laborer  in 
the  missionary  service. 

9.  Great  mechanical  facilities  have  been  created. 

Beside  the  presses  employed  on  foreign  languages,  by  the  Bible 
and  tract  societies  of  Europe  and  America,  there  are  now  in 
full  operation  in  heathen  lands,  more  than  forty  printing-offices, 
belonging  to  missionary  societies.  Some  of  these  have  from 
five  to  ten  presses,  generally  of  the  best  construction.  The  fonts 
of  type  are  numerous,  and  in  many  different  characters.  Each 
of  these  fonts  has  cost  thousands  of  dollars,  because,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  expenses,  there  have  to  be  incurred,  in  each  case, 
the  cutting  of  punches,  sinking  of  matrices,  and  apparatus  for 
casting.  The  alphabets,  too,  consist  not  of  twenty-six  letters, 
like  ours,  but  often  of  a  thousand  or  more,  including  symbols 
and  compounds.  In  addition  to  all  these  facilities,  we  may  enu- 
merate school-houses,  chapels,  dwellings,  libraries,  apparatus, 
tools,  globes,  orreries,  &c,  at  the  different  stations,  and  procured 
at  an  outlay  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars.  All  of  the 
printing-offices  have  binderies,  supplied  with  tools  sufficient  to 
do  the  work  of  the  respective  establishments. 

Many  natives,  at  the  cost  of  much  labor  and  time,  have  been 
trained  to  all  the  branches  of  mechanics  connected  with  these 
offices.  In  bringing  matters  to  their  present  position,  the  mis- 
sionaries have  not  only  been  obliged  to  devise,  teach,  and  over- 
see, but  in  many  cases,  to  perform  every  part  of  the  manual 
labor.  These  services  and  expenses  are  not  again  to  be  per- 
formed in  the  same  places.    The  costly  scaffolding  is  up,  for 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  237 

large  portions  of  the  growing  edifice ;  and  future  labor  and 
money,  on  those  sections,  may  go  directly  to  the  increase  of  the 
building. 

Beside  the  property  invested  in  these  facilities,  and  forming  a 
large  available  capital,  we  are  to  consider  the  savings  which  will 
be  made  hereafter,  by  the  improvements  which  have  been  effected. 
This  point  may  be  made  plain  by  a  single  specification.  In  1805, 
the  cost  of  printing  a  manuscript  Chinese  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  then  existing  in  the  British  Museum,  it  was  ascer- 
tained, would  be  two  guineas  (ten  dollars)  per  copy.*  In  1832, 
Mr.  Hughes,  of  Malacca,  wrote  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,!  that  the  cost  of  a  hundred  copies  of  the  whole 
Bible,  from  the  blocks,  would  be  one  hundred  and  four  dol- 
lars —  a  difference  of  about  three  thousand  per  cent. !  Whenever 
punches  and  matrices  have  been  made,  the  casting  of  type  may 
hereafter  be  done  at  a  comparatively  cheap  rate. 

10.  Schools  of  various  grades  are  established,  and  a  multitude 
of  youth  have  received  a  Christian  education. 

To  appreciate,  in  any  proper  degree,  the  magnitude  of  this 
result,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  difficulties  which  have  been 
overcome.  In  almost  every  case,  the  first  offers  of  gratuitous 
instruction  are  spurned.  When,  at  length,  a  few  pupils  are  ob- 
tained, priestly  influence  has  often  driven  them  away.  When 
even  this  is  overcome,  the  children  are  frequently  too  wayward 
and  idle  to  continue  at  school.  Our  victory,  therefore,  over  the 
prejudices  and  jealousy  of  parents,  the  influence  of  priests,  and 
the  frivolity  of  the  children,  is  a  great  achievement.  Now,  in 
many  places,  applicants  are  far  more  numerous  than  can  be 
received,  and  nothing  but  want  of  funds  precludes  an  almost 
unlimited  extension  of  the  system.  Even  brahmins  send  their 
sons  without  hesitation. 

I  need  not  expatiate  on  all  the  probable  effect  of  these  schools, 
many  of  whose  pupils  are  adults,  and  many  more,  who,  though 
youth  when  at  school,  are  adults  now.  They  have  diminished 
priestly  influence  by  raising  up  an  intelligent  body  of  persons, 
who,  though  ever  so  humble,  can  and  do  argue  triumphantly 
with  the  men  who  had  before  held  the  sway  of  great  veneration. 
They  have  diffused  a  right  knowledge  of  Christians  and  Chris- 
tianity, overthrown  erroneous  systems  of  philosophy  and  nature, 
arrested  floods  of  vice,  prepared  intelligent  hearers  of  the  gospel, 

*  Owen's  First  Ten  Years  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
t  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1833. 


238  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

proved  the  superiority  of  the  missionary,  and,  in  many  cases, 
have  been  the  means  of  genuine  conversion. 

Some  of  these  are  boarding-schools,  where  the  pupils  are 
wholly  withdrawn  from  heathen  influence.  Some  of  them  are 
for  the  children  of  native  Christians,  who  receive  at  home  im- 
pressions favorable  to  the  permanency  of  those  they  receive  at 
school.  Some  of  them  teach  the  higher  branches,  such  as  form 
a  collegiate  course  with  us.  Some  are  taught  in  languages  never 
before  committed  to  writing ;  so  that  the  pupils  are  the  first  of 
their  tribes  who  have  ever  learned  to  read.  Some  of  them  are 
for  females,  in  countries  where  the  sex  lias  ever  been  left  in 
almost  total  ignorance. 

The  whole  number  of  pupils  who  have  received  education,  or 
are  now  in  the  schools,  cannot  be  ascertained.  From  the  statis- 
tics furnished  on  this  head  by  some  societies,  and  the  imperfect 
returns  of  others,  I  set  down  the  pupils  now  in  missionary 
schools,  throughout  the  world,  at  nearly  three  hundred  thousand. 

11.  The  blessings  of  Christian  morality  have  been  widely 
diffused. 

Some  whole  nations  have  adopted  Christianity.  In  Green- 
land,* in  Labrador,  and  in  more  than  thirty  islands  of  the 
Southern  Seas,  paganism  has  ceased  to  be  the  national  faith ! 
These  have  become,  in  the  customary  sense,  Christian  countries. 
Instead  of  poverty,  wars,  and  plunderings,  are  found  plenty, 
peace,  and  security.  Instead  of  murdered  infants,  neglected 
children,  degraded  wives,  and  burning  widows,  are  seen  do- 
mestic peace  and  social  endearments.  Instead  of  idleness,  are 
the  comforts  of  intelligent  industry.  Intellectual  cultivation  has 
supplanted  brutal  insensibility.  Rulers  and  kings,  laying  aside 
ferocity  and  selfishness,  are  seen  governing  their  people  by  Bible 
laws,  and  anxious  for  the  general  good.  Wherever  even  nom- 
inal Christianity  takes  root,  through  Protestant  efforts,  it  pro- 
duces more  energy  of  character,  milder  maimers,  and  purer 
morals,  than  has  ever  been  shown  under  any  form  of  Pagan  or 
Mahometan  influence.  I  confidently  refer  for  proof  to  the  Phil- 
lippine  Islands,  to  Amboyna,  Bengal,  and  Ceylon. 

There  are,  also,  in  the  midst  of  heathen  lands,  Christian  vil- 
lages and  districts,  shining  as  lights  in  dark  places ;  such,  for 
instance,  as  at  Serampore,  Luckantiapore,  Tanjore,  Tenevelly, 
Ceylon,  Mata,  and  scores  beside. 

*  In  Greenland  there  remained,  in  1334,  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  hea- 
then! 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  239 

"  Dialects  unheard 
At  Babel,  or  at  Jewish  Pentecost, 
Now  first  articulate  divinest  sounds, 
And  swell  the  universal  anthem." 

There  are  also  single  stations,  where  nominal  Christians  are 
reckoned  by  thousands.  It  is  true,  the  degree  to  which  the  fruits 
of  Christianity  are  produced,  is  not  the  same  as  in  Christendom, 
where  its  influences  are  corroborated  in  a  thousand  ways,  and 
matured  upon  successive  generations.  The  conduct  of  these 
nominal  ones  is  often  a  discouragement,  and  sometimes  a  disgrace. 
But  the  benefits  preponderate.  Children  grow  up  among  bene- 
ficial influences,  and  enlightened  to  know  good  from  evil.  In- 
stead of  a  false,  filthy,  and  damning  mythology,  commingling 
with  their  first  and  most  lasting  impressions,  they  are  instructed 
and  restrained  by  pure  and  blessed  truth.  The  Sabbath  is  ob- 
served, and  the  same  people  assembling  from  week  to  week, 
afford  an  opportunity  of  impressing  line  upon  line,  precept  upon 
precept ;  converts  are  not  embarrassed  for  daily  bread,  nor 
scorned,  abused,  and  abandoned  by  relations.  Many  formidable 
hinderances  to  conversion  are  thus  removed.  I  need  not  expand 
this  proposition.  The  reader  will  see,  that  among  such  a  people, 
the  missionary  labors  with  many  advantages  similar  to  those 
of  a  pastor  in  our  own  land. 

12.  In  some  places,  the  entire  fabric   of  idolatry  is  shaken. 

The  knowledge  of  the  one  true  God,  and  of  salvation  through 
his  Son,  has,  in  several  regions,  become  general.  Hundreds  of 
the  best-informed  persons  openly  ridicule  and  denounce  the 
prevailing  superstition  ;  and  thousands  have  their  confidence  in 
it  weakened,  if  not  destroyed.  Conviction  of  the  truth  is  estab- 
lished in  the  minds  of  multitudes  who  dare  not  openly  confess 
it.  Not  a  few  of  the  converts  have  been  from  among  the  distin- 
guished members  of  society,  and  even  from  the  priesthood. 
Some  of  these  have  been  so  celebrated  for  sanctity,  and  so  ex- 
tensively known,  as  to  have  excited,  by  their  conversion,  a  thrill 
of  inquiry  and  alarm  in  all  their  vicinity.  Education  has  eman- 
cipated thousands  from  the  terrors  of  paganism,  who  yet  do  not 
accept  Christianity,  nor  consort  with  missionaries.  Indeed,  no 
man  can  be  conversant  with  the  heathen  world,  without  per- 
ceiving that  several  large  portions  of  the  kingdom  of  darkness 
are  on  the  eve  of  a  religious  and  moral  revolution. 

This  topic  of  encouragement  is  no  doubt  extravagant'y  en- 
larged upon  by  some.     It  has  been  assumed  of  countries  where 


240  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

it  is  not  true  ;  and  where  it  is  true,  the  degree  has  been  overrated. 
Still,  it  is  one  of  the  achievements  of  missions  which  the  most 
scrupulous  must  admit.  That  it  is  found  any  where,  and  to  any 
extent,  is  great  encouragement ;  it  is  not  only  a  blessing  on  past 
efforts,  and  the  promise  of  a  still  greater,  but  a  most  animating 
facility  and  preparation  for  future  exertion. 

13.  The  effect  of  missions  on  the  European  population 
abroad. 

Before  this  enterprise,  there  was,  among  those  who  resided  in 
foreign  lands,  whether  in  public  or  private  life,  an  almost  uni- 
versal enmity  to  religion.  Carey  said  that  when  he  arrived  in 
Calcutta,  he  could  hear  of  only  three  pious  persons  in  India;  ex- 
cepting the  four  or  five  missionaries !  Now,  a  considerable  num- 
ber, even  among  the  highest  ranks,  in  many  parts  of  the  East,  open- 
ly serve  God.  Hundreds  of  soldiers,  and  many  officers,  have  been 
converted  under  missionary  labor.  Places  of  worship  are  built, 
and  the  Sabbath  observed,  where  Christians  had  long  resided 
without  giving  any  visible  sign  of  their  faith.  Missions  now 
have  the  countenance  of  a  large  number  of  gentlemen  who 
make  no  profession  of  religion.  Apologies  for  paganism,  and 
opposition  to  Christianity,  are  nearly  silenced.  In  various 
places,  handsome  contributions  toward  the  schools,  &c,  are 
obtained  from  the  officers  and  gentry  on  the  spot. 

On  no  theme  do  pious  "old  Indians"  dwell  with  more  fervor 
than  this  change  in  the  religious  chai'acter  of  Europeans,  since 
their  arrival  in  the  country.  I  might  rehearse  numerous  facts 
given  me  by  such,  but  space  does  not  permit.  It  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  much  obstruction  is  thus  removed  at  certain  points,  and 
an  encouraging  amount  of  cooperation  secured,  which  is  annually 
increasing.  Considering  how  large  a  part  of  the  missionary 
field  is  under  the  dominion  of  Europeans,  this  single  result  of 
our  past  efforts  is  evidently  of  great  consequence. 

14.  Lastly,  and  chiefly  —  souls  have  been  converted  to  God. 
Here  is  the  great  point.     On  this  there  can  be  no  variety  of 

sentiment,  as  to  the  value  or  the  fruit,  nor  dispute  as  to  the 
reality  of  its  existence. 

"  Behold  the  midnight  glory  ;  worlds  on  worlds. 
Amazing  pomp  !     Redouble  this  amaze. 
Ten  thousand  add.     Add  twice  ten  thousand  more. 
Then  weigh  the  soul !     One  soul  outweighs  them  all, 
And  calls  the  astonishing  magnificence 
Of  unintelligent  creation,  poor." Yoong. 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  241 

Converted  heathen  are  already  numbered  by  tens  of  thousands. 
I  might  fill  many  pages  with  proof  of  the  sincerity  of  their  con- 
version, from  the  sacrifices  they  make,  and  the  lives  they  live. 
I  examined  diligently  into  this  matter  every  where ;  and  have 
copious  details  in  my  possession.  But,  adhering  to  the  studied 
brevity  of  the  other  parts  of  this  work,  two  or  three  specimens 
only  will  be  given.  Few  Christians  are  aware  of  the  extent  to 
which  such  facts  may  be  adduced.  The  various  histories  of 
missions  are  full  of  them. 

]n  the  last  report  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  it  is 
stated  that  Narapot  Singh,  a  native  preacher,  had  by  his  at- 
tachment to  Christianity,  sacrificed,  for  a  period  of  twenty-four 
years,  an  estate  of  eight  thousand  rupees  per  annum,  making  in 
the  whole  one  hundred  thousand  dollars.  And  this  is  K  all  his  living." 
For  the  entire  period,  he  has  endured  continual  poverty  and 
toil.  Many  of  the  Burman  and  Karen  disciples  have  literally 
"suffered  the  loss  of  all  things;"  and  it  is  believed  that  some 
have  died  in  consequence  of  their  sufferings.  At  the  village 
of  Mawbee,  near  Rangoon,  a  large  number  of  Karens  became 
Christians,  through  the  preaching  of  a  native  assistant,  and  en- 
dured persecutions,  which  only  fell  short  of  taking  life,  for  many 
months ;  having  never  seen  a  white  missionary.  I  saw  various 
individuals  in  Bengal  and  the  Carnatic,  who  were  then  suffering 
banishment  from  all  their  relations,  and  many  of  the  hardships 
of  poverty,  in  consequence  of  serving  God.  In  Madagascar, 
Christianity  was  for  a  while  countenanced  by  Radama,  the  king, 
and  the  missionaries  had  many  seals  to  their  ministry.  At  his 
death,  the  queen,  who  had  always  opposed  her  husband  in  this 
thing,  no  sooner  found  herself  in  possession  of  supreme  author- 
ity than  she  began  to  exercise  it  for  the  destruction  of  Christians. 
The  missionaries  were  expelled.  One  after  another,  the  promi- 
nent disciples  have  been  put  to  death.  One  of  these,  Rassalama, 
was  sentenced  to  death,  and,  for  several  successive  days,  was 
cruelly  flogged  before  the  fatal  day  arrived.  But  her  faith  never 
staggered,  and  she  met  death  with  a  martyr's  intrepidity.  Her 
companions  were  sold  into  perpetual  slavery,  and  their  property 
confiscated ;  but  not  one  recanted.  Rafaravavy,  another  distin- 
guished woman,  was  for  a  long  time  kept  in  irons,  and  then  sold 
as  a  slave. 

After  this,  the  remaining  Christians  began  to  assemble  in  the 
night,  at  the  house  of  Rafaralahy,  where  they  read  the  Scripture, 
conversed  together  on  spiritual  things,  and  united  in  prayer  and 
praise.     They  were  soon  betrayed  to  the  government,  and  Rafa- 

VOL.   II.  21 


242  MEASURE  OF  MISSIONARY  SUCCESS. 

ralahy,  after  l>eing  kept  in  irons  two  or  three  days,  was  taken  to 
the  place  of  execution.  On  his  way,  he  spoke  to  the  execu- 
tioners of  Jesus  Christ,  and  how  happy  lie  felt  at  the  thought  of 
seeing,  in  a  few  minutes,  him  who  loved  hiin  and  died  for  him. 
At  the  place  of  execution,  a  few  moments  being  granted  him, 
at  his  request,  he  offered  up  a  fervent  prayer  for  his  persecuted 
brethren,  and  commended  bis  soul  to  Jesus,  lie  then,  with 
perfect  composure,  laid  himself  down,  and  was  immediately  put 
to  death.  He  was  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  of  a  respectable 
family.  After  this,  the  persecution  was  pressed  with  rigor.  The 
government  determined,  if  possible,  to  secure  all  the  companions 
of  Rafaraiahy.  Several  of  them  were  seized,  and  afterwards 
made  their  escape.  Many  incidents,  showing  the  distress  to 
which  the  Christians  were  reduced,  are  related.  A  large  num- 
ber conceal  themselves  in  the  houses  of  friends,  or  in  the  forests, 
numbers  are  sold  to  slavery,  and  some  are  in  irons.  The  queen 
proposed  to  put  every  Christian  to  death ;  but  some  of  her  offi- 
cers advised  her  against  this,  saying,  "  It  is  the  nature  of  the  re- 
ligion of  the  whites ;  the  more  you  kill,  the  more  the  people  will 
receive  it." 

Such  are  the  facts,  which  might  be  multiplied  to  an  indefinite 
extent.  They  leave  no  room  to  question  the  reality  of  the  re- 
ported conversions.  Defections,  indeed,  often  occur,  to  pain  the 
hearts  of  the  missionaries;  but,  though  many  have  fallen  through 
strong  drink,  love  of  gain,  and  other  temptations,  I  never  heard 
of  one  who  was  driven  from  Christianity  by  violence. 

It  is  impossible  to  know  the  number  of  regenerated  hea- 
then, as  the  returns  are  not  furnished  from  some  missions. 
Two  thousand  have  been  baptized  by  missionaries  connected 
with  Serampore,  of  whom  six  hundred  are  now  alive  and  in 
good  standing.  In  the  West  Indies,  connected  with  the  Bap- 
tist and  Methodist  missions,  there  are  69,000  communicants. 
The  number  connected  with  the  London  Missionary  Society  is 
5,439 ;  with  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  1,514 ;  with  the 
English  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society,  48,795,  exclusive  of 
members  in  British  America  ;  with  the  English  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society,  18,720 ;  with  the  American  Board  of  C.  F.  M. 
2,600;*  with  the  American  Baptist  Board,  1,900;  with  the 
Moravian    missions,  47,000.     Some   missions,  for  instance  the 


*■  An  extraordinary  number  of  persons  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  have  re- 
cently become  religious.  The  particular  accounts  have  not  yet  reached  this 
country  ;  but  it  is  supposed  the  number  is  not  far  from  5000  ! 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  243 

Moravian,  do  not  require  actual  conversion  to  God  as  the  term 
of  church  membership;  so  that  we  cannot  calculate  exactly  from 
their  returns  in  this  argument. 

From  the  best  data  we  can  obtain,  we  may  safely  estimate  the 
present  number  of  converts,  alter  deducting  such  as  may  be 
supposed  to  have  been  received  on  an  outward  profession  mere- 
ly, at  more  than  a  hundred  thousand. 

In  many  cases,  these  are  formed  into  churches,  with  pastors 
and  deacons.  The  native  preachers  and  catechists  amount  to 
more  than  a  thousand.  Many  of  these  have  received  a  good 
education  in  mission  schools.  Some  (and  the  class  is  increas- 
ing) have  become  authors,  and  produced  books,  tracts,  and 
hymns,  of  great  value.  Let  the  reader  pause  and  consider  the 
facts  contained  in  these  last  four  sentences  ;  for  though  they  are 
barely  named,  they  are  of  great  importance. 

In  some  places,  these  churches  have  become  so  established 
that  if  missionaries  should  retire,  the  cause  would  probably  go 
on.  The  Rev.  M.  Baker,  of  Madagascar,  declared  in  an  address 
at  Cape  Town,  several  years  ago,  that  there  were  "  not  less  than 
five  hundred  natives,  who  had  maintained  a  constant  profession 
of  religion  amidst  persecution  and  danger."  We  have  just  seen 
how,  with  equal  constancy,  they  could  die  for  the  truth. 

Some  of  these  churches  have  already  begun  to  contribute, 
even  in  pecuniary  ways,  to  the  furtherance  of  the  great  work. 
It  is  thus  at  the  Sandwich  Islands,  in  Burmah,  and  many  other 
stations.  Even  the  poor  Africans  at  Griqua  town,  contributed  in 
1836,  to  the  funds  of  the  Society,  a  hundred  and  thirty  dollars, 
and  at  Bethelsdorf,  in  the  same  year,  four  hundred  and  forty 
dollars. 

In  addition  to  these  thousands  of  converts,  now  shining  as 
lights  in  dark  places,  we  must  not  forget  the  thousands  who 
have  died  in  the  faith.  In  the  case  of  Serampore,  out  of  two 
thousand  baptized,  only  six  hundred  survive.  We  ought,  there- 
fore, probably  to  add  anotfier  hundred  thousand  for  converts 
deceased. 

It  would  be  easy  and  delightful  to  rehearse  the  distinct  narra- 
tives of  many  who  have  crowned  a  life  of  evident  piety  by  a 
becoming  death.  To  speak  of  hundreds  or  thousands  of  con- 
verted heathen,  sounds  cold,  when  we  think  of  the  hundreds  of 
millions  yet  left  to  perish.  But  in  tracing  the  history  and  reli- 
gious experience  of  an  individual,  our  impressions  become  dis- 
tinct;  and  to  number  even  units  seems  an  ample  reward  for  all 
we  have  done  or  given.     Such  as  would  taste  this  feast  will  find 


244  MEASURE    OF  MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

it  largely  spread  out  before  them  in  the  Moravian  and  Baptist 
periodical  accounts,  the  histories  of  missions,  and  the  reports  of 
societies.  Separate  volumes  are  also  published,  containing  the 
memoirs  of  many  of  these.  He  who  knows  the  worth  of  his 
own  soul,  could  not  rise  from  the  life  of  Krishnu,  Petumber, 
Abdool  Meseeh,  Asaad  Shidiak,  Africaneer,  Peng,  Catharine 
Brown,  Karaimokee,  &c,  and  retain  enmity  to  the  system  of 
means  which,  under  God,  saved  them  from  eternal  death. 

These  glorious  fruits  are  now  safe  in  the  garner  of  God. 
Schwartz,  Brainard,  David,  Schmidt,  Carey,  and  a  great  com- 
pany of  missionaries,  have  their  converts  with  them  before  the 
throne.  No  apostasy,  no  temptations,  no  weakness,  can  over- 
take them  now.  There  they  are,  where  we  would  go.  Some 
are  there,  to  whose  salvation  we  ourselves  have  ministered. 
Soon  we  shall  embrace  them,  not  only  in  the  blessedness  of  a 
joint  salvation,  but  in  the  delicious  consciousness  of  having  been 
the  instruments  of  their  deliverance. 

If,  after  such  thoughts,  we  could  come  down  again  to  mathe- 
matical calculation,  we  might  consider  that  the  total  number  of 
conversions,  divided  by  the  number  of  missionaries  who  fully 
acquired  the  vernacular  tongues,  would  give  from  three  hun- 
dred to  four  hundred  converts  to  each !  Can  the  ministry  at 
home  reckon  thus?  Truly  the  measure  of  missionary  success 
needs  only  to  be  closely  scanned  to  become  a  theme  of  wonder, 
rather  than  of  discouragement. 

VI.  This  discussion  cannot  properly  close,  without  adverting 
to  the  effects  of  the  missionary  spirit  on  the  churches  at  home. 

I  have  held  a  telescope  to  direct  the  reader's  attention  to  cir- 
cumstances, in  various  parts  of  the  heathen  world,  which,  with- 
out this  aid,  he  might  not  notice.  This  task  is  resigned,  not 
because  I  have  shown  every  thing,  but  because  any  one  may  now 
go  into  further  details  at  his  leisure.  A  glance  at  the  effect  of 
missions  in  our  own  country,  will  conclude  my  endeavors;  and  as 
they  lie  open  to  the  perceptions  of  every  man,  I  will  do  little 
more  than  mention  the  subject. 

The  formation  of  a  missionary  spirit,  to  the  extent  which  now 
prevails,  is  reward  enough  for  all  the  labors  and  expense  which 
have  been  incurred.  To  a  very  important  extent,  ignorance, 
prejudice,  covetousness,  and  indifference  have  been  overcome. 
Experience  is  gained.  Friends  and  supporters  are  organized. 
Thousands  have  awakened  to  the  duty  of  spreading  the  gospel, 
and  will  never  give  over.     They  will  inculcate  it  upon  their 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS.  245 

children,  convince  their  friends,  and  disarm  objectors.  The 
friendly  host  will  continually  multiply.  Contributions  are  not 
now  drawn  forth  by  novel  and  aftecting  statements  of  hea- 
then cruelties,  but  in  many  cases  come  up  spontaneously,  from 
sources  lying  among  the  deepest  springs  of  Christian  action. 

Objectors  make  this  item  no  part  of  their  estimate  when  they 
declare  that  missions  have  failed.  Had  David  done  nothing 
toward  the  temple,  when  he  had  formed  the  plan  and  secured 
the  means?  Was  nothing  done  toward  bringing  civilization 
and  Christianity  to  these  shores,  when  as  yet  the  May-flower  lay 
in  an  English  dock,  and  the  resolved  colony  was  commending 
its  embryo  enterprise  to  God  ?  Was  nothing  done  toward  our 
independence,  when  the  spirit  of  resistance  had  been  spread 
through  the  country,  and  the  people  resolved  to  be  free  ?  The 
thing  is  too  plain  to  need  words.  A  great  work  has  unquestion- 
ably been  done,  in  bringing  the  church  to  its  present  state  of 
feeling.  The  spirit  of  missions  has  grown  to  adolescence,  and  is 
daily  acquiring  strength :  its  implements  and  opportunities  are 
ready,  and  its  training  becoming  daily  more  complete. 

It  is  particularly  to  be  considered  that  this  spirit  is  not  a  mere 
sudden  impetus  or  direction,  such  as  is  sometimes  transiently 
given  to  public  sentiment.  For  forty  years  it  has  been  growing, 
slowly  and  soundly,  amidst  opposition,  ridicule,  reproach,  and 
manifold  disadvantages.  Never  was  there  a  revolution  in  human 
sentiment  more  obvious  and  positive. 

Formerly,  the  thought  of  sending  the  gospel  to  the  heathen 
scarcely  entered  into  the  minds  of  God's  people.  Many  prayed, 
"Thy  kingdom  come,"  but  none  felt  called  upon  for  personal  ac- 
tion. When  Carey,  Sutcliffe,  and  Fuller,  kindled  the  flame  at 
the  Northamptonshire  Baptist  Association,  it  became  a  measure 
supported  by  the  zeal  of  a  few.  It  grew  and  extended,  by  the 
zeal  of  many.  Now  it  is  the  settled  point  of  solemn  duty  with 
the  great  body  of  believers.  It  is  found  to  have  the  same  claims 
as  any  other  duty,  specified  or  implied,  in  the  whole  word  of 
God.  Arguments  to  prove  that  a  Christian  ought  to  aid  in  send- 
ing out  God's  light  and  truth,  are  beginning  to  be  obsolete.  In- 
stead of  these,  the  question  now  is,  how  much,  and  in  what 
manner,  each  individual  is  to  aid.  In  these  respects  we  are 
still  deficient,  but  in  a  state  of  progress.  A  few  years  ago,  the 
whole  United  States  had  no  foreign  missionary  ;  and  when  Jud- 
son,  Newell,  and  others  at  Andover  proposed  to  go  as  such,  it 
seemed  so  doubtful  whether  the  whole  church  could  sustain 
them,  that  measures  were  taken  to  see  if  they  could  not  be  sup- 
1  * 


246  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY    SUCCESS. 

ported  from  England.  Now,  the  United  States  has  in  the  foreign 
field,  in  the  various  departments  of  missionary  service,  more  than 
seven  hundred  and  forty-six  persons !  They  have  forty-three 
printing-presses,  and  are  already  issuing  Scriptures  or  tracts  in 
fifty-six  different  languages ! 

No  symptom  of  revulsion,  or  of  a  waning  enthusiasm,  is  dis- 
cernible hi  any  quarter.  The  humblest  advocate  assumes  the 
attitude  of  a  man  who  feels  that  his  cause  will  finally  prevail. 
Discomfiture  in  some  cases,  and  small  success  in  others,  have 
produced  no  check.  Defeat  only  sends  the  bands  of  the  benevo- 
lent "to  inquire  of  the  Lord."  It  leads  them  to  doubt  their 
measures,  but  not  their  object.  It  makes  them  sensible  of  weak- 
ness, but  teaches  them  where  their  strength  lies.  It  silences 
their  boasting,  but  awakens  their  prayers. 

The  development  of  the  missionary  spirit,  in  the  single  matter 
of  home  missions,  is  full  of  grandeur  and  promise.  Eleven  hun- 
dred and  three  missionaries  are  now  in  the  service  of  the  Ameri- 
can Home  Missionary  Society,  and  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Missionary  Society,  to  say  nothing  ofthose  from  similar  institutions, 
in  these  and  other  denominations.  These  are  scattered  among 
feeble  churches,  strengthening  good  beginnings,  sustaining  Bible 
classes  and  benevolent  societies,  diffusing  Bibles  and  tracts,  and, 
above  all,  gathering  a  multitude  of  souls.  The  number  who  have 
made  credible  profession  of  religion,  in  connection  with  the  two 
societies  above  named,  one  of  which  has  been  in  operation 
eleven  years,  and  the  other  but  half  that  time,  is  about  seventy- 
Jive  thousand!  In  Ireland  it  has  produced  effects  of  the  most 
animating  kind.  It  is  now  extending  into  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  is  nobly  calling  forth  the  most  blessed  actings  of 
Christian  zeal. 

It  would  require  a  disproportionate  space  were  I  but  to 
enumerate  the  societies  and  movements  which  have  grown  up 
as  the  fruit  of  a  missionary  spirit.  Such  an  enumeration  would 
comprise  results  of  even  greater  magnitude  than  can  be  shown 
in  the  foreign  field.  To  this  spirit  may  be  ascribed  all  the  im- 
provements of  the  church  for  the  last  forty  years.  For  proof, 
contrast  the  state  of  religion  in  missionary  and  anti-missionary 
churches.  It  is  the  spirit  which  forms  the  essential  difference 
between  active  and  inactive  Christians,  and  comprises  nearly  all 
the  characteristics  which  make  them  "  the  salt  of  the  earth."  It 
has  altered  the  character  of  colleges,  academies,  asylums,  school- 
books,  and,  in  fine,  placed  Christianity  itself,  so  far  as  it  has 
prevailed,  in  the  attitude  it  maintained  under  apostolic  influence. 


MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY   SUCCESS.  247 

Concluding  Remarks.  Were  more  time  and  labor  than  I 
am  able  to  give,  bestowed  upon  the  preceding  investigations, 
this  chapter  might  be  made  more  copious.  But  to  give  it  com- 
pleteness is  impossible.  Thousands  of  tacts  lie  scattered  about, 
in  unpublished  journals  and  letters;  and  many  more  are  known 
only  to  Him  from  whom  no  secrets  are  hidden.  But  the  facts 
which  J  have  adduced,  do  not  lose  their  force  for  want  of  more, 
and  can  only  be  answered  by  the  production  of  counter  facts. 
But  what  facts  can  countervail  such  as  have  been  here  adduced  ? 
The  last  paragraph  alone,  weighs  more  than  mountains  of 
objection. 

That  captains  or  merchants  visiting  the  East  often  say,  "  We 
read  animating  missionary  accounts  in  the  papers,  but  see  no 
such  things  on  the  spot,"  is  not  surprising.  How  should  they  ? 
What  means  do  they  take  to  get  information  ?  Have  they  gone 
to  the  native  chapels ;  or  accompanied  the  missionary  in  his 
daily  rounds  ;  or  visited  the  converts'  homes,  or  the  schools  ;  or 
seen  Bibles  and  tracts  given  away?  Have  they  so  much  as 
visited  the  missionary  himself,  except  at  meal-times,  or  other 
intervals  of  labor?  What  would  a  gentleman  know  of  the  state 
of  religion  in  London  or  New  York,  who  had  merely  walked 
about  the  streets,  or  conversed  with  those  who  make  no  preten- 
sions to  piety;  or  with  such  as  are  hostile?  Without  taking 
pains,  even  residents  at  a  station  may  remain  almost  perfectly 
ignorant  of  a  missionary's  operations. 

Instead  of  naked  assertions  that  nothing  has  been  done,  we 
have  a  right  to  expect  objectors  to  come  forward  with  the  re- 
ligious statistics,  past  and  present,  of  specified  places.  They 
should  fairly  show  that  the  work  said  to  be  done  is  not  done,  or 
that  the  effects  said  to  have  followed  have  not  followed.  If 
they  merely  point  to  things  left  undone,  we  concur  in  lamenta- 
tion ;  and  only  ask  larger  means,  and  further  time,  to  show  greater 
results. 

There  is  reason  to  suspect,  that  those  who  most  loudly  assert 
the  failure  of  missions,  are  those  who  would  have  it  so.  There 
are,  in  foreign  countries,  many  who  would  shelter  their  vices  in 
the  gloom  of  surrounding  paganism,  and  are  impatient  of  the 
restraints  of  missionary  influence.  And  there  are  many  at 
home,  who,  being  inimical  to  Christianity,  impugn  its  benevolent 
operations,  for  want  of  talent  or  learning,  to  attack  its  funda- 
mentals. And  there  are  many,  who,  without  being  unfriendly  to 
religion,  are  glad  of  a  cloak  for  covetousness,  and,  in  declining 
to  contribute  on  the  score  of  conscience,  can  save  their  money, 


248  MEASURE    OF    MISSIONARY   SUCCESS. 

and  at  the  same  time  claim  superior  piety,  or  keener  insight 
into  abuses. 

It  is  quite  certain,  that  the  great  body  of  those  who  complain 
are  not  persons  who  have  most  right  to  do  so.  They  are  not 
those  who  have  given  their  money,  their  children,  or  themselves 
to  the  work;  and  who,  if  there  be  fraud  or  folly,  are  of  all  others 
the  most  interested  to  make  the  discovery.  They  are  not  those 
who  have  seen  most  of  the  field,  or  who  have  most  diligently 
read  the  reports  of  the  societies.  They  are  not  those  who  have 
had  the  most  extensive  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  men 
who  have  gone  forth,  and  who  might  infer  what  is  done  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  agents.  They  are  not  the  men  best  acquainted 
with  the  managers  and  management  of  the  different  boards.  All 
these  classes  of  persons  are  friendly. 

Such  considerations  should  restrain  the  uninformed  from 
impugning  our  motives  or  disparaging  this  great  work.  They 
should  hear  the  voice  of  reason,  addressed  to  some  in  a  former 
age,  who  opposed  what  they  did  not  understand.  "  Let  'these 
men  alone ;  for  if  this  counsel  or  this  work  be  of  men,  it  will 
come  to  nought ;  but  if  it  be  of  God,  ye  cannot  overthrow  it ; 
lest  haply  ye  be  found  even  to  fight  against  God." 


249 


CHAPTER   IV 

ON  THE   MODE  OF  CONDUCTING  MODERN  MISSIONS. 

Schools  —  Translations  and  Tracts  —  Preaching  in  English  —  Periodicals  — 
Use  of  the  Roman  Alphabet  —  Missionary  Physicians  —  Unnecessary  Dis- 
play and  Expense  —  Direct  Preaching-  to  Natives  —  Formation  of  Regular 
Churches  —  Qualifications  of  Native  Assistants  —  Instruction  in  the 
English  Language  —  Intermission  of  Operations  —  Division  of  Labor  — 
Concentration  —  Choice  of  Fields  —  Remarks. 

More  than  forty  years'  experience  in  modern  missions,  ought 
to  furnish  data  for  an  intelligent  revision  of  the  system  ;  and  the 
anxious  inquiries  which  are  heard  on  this  point,  not  only  among 
friends  and  supporters  at  home,  but  among  missionaries  them- 
selves, seem  to  demand  some  remarks  on  the  subject,  in  a  work 
like  the  present. 

The  question  is,  whether  the  whole  system  is  so  erroneous  that 
it  should  be  abandoned  for  another ;  or  is  correct  in  the  main, 
with  curable  imperfections.  The  first  of  these  opinions  finds 
many  affirmative  respondents,  some  of  whom  propose  definite 
substitutes.*  The  writer  embraces  the  other  opinion,  and  ven- 
tures, though  with  sincere  diffidence,  to  contribute  his  mite 
toward  a  discussion  which  he  hopes  will  call  forth  abler  pens, 
and  result  in  a  happy  approximation  to  a  perfect  arrangement. 
For  the  sake  of  brevity,  whatever  is  approvable  will  be  passed 
over,  and  only  such  matters  touched,  as  seem  to  call  for  change. 

1.  The  proportion  of  time  and  money,  bestowed  on  schools, 
should  be  much  less. 

Schools  are  extravagantly  extolled,  and  hopes  are  built  upon 
them  which  could  only  be  warranted  by  a  New  Testament 
declaration  that  they  are  the  Lord's  chosen  and  primary  means 
for  spreading  Christianity.     It  has  been  declared,  that  "  our  only 

*  Edward  Irving  proposes  that  each  missionary  go  forth  singly,  looking  to 
God  for  supplies,  even  as  he  does  for  success.  The  author  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Euthasiasm  insists  that  our  present  system  must  be  dissolved,  and 
recomposed  upon  a  new  model;  the  principal  feature  of  which  is,  that  all 
existing  missionary  societies  be  absorbed  into  one  great  society,  under  the 
English  Episcopacy,  and  using  the  English  liturgy. 


250  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

hope  of  success  lies  in  the  school  system  ;"  that  "the  evidences 
of  Christianity  must  be  understood  before  it  can  be  embraced;" 
that  "  man  must  be  civilized  before  he  can  be  Christianized;" 
and  that  "the  schoolmaster  must  precede  the  missionary." 

Tims  a  religion  which  God  designed  to  convert  and  save  even 
ignorant  savages,  is  made  to  wait  the  operation  of  a  tardy  pro- 
cess of  intellectual  culture  :  and  man  is  to  be  made  wise  unto 
salvation  through  the  wisdom  of  this  world.  By  this  system, 
whole  generations  of  adults  must  be  left  to  perish,  while  the 
youth  are  being  instructed ;  and  instead  of  boldly  advancing  to 
dislodge  "  the  strong  man  armed,"  we  are  to  seek  priority  of 
occupation  in  the  human  heart.  Alas!  by  such  a  course,  we  are 
not  only  in  danger  of  losing  our  labors,  but  of  awakening  the 
jealousy  of  Him  who  "  will  not  give  his  glory  to  another." 

The  extent  to  which  schools  have  been  established,  by  modern 
missionaries,  is  very  great.  There  cannot  be  fewer  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  youth  now  receiving  instruction  in 
missionary  schools.  As  the  school  system  has  been  actively 
maintained  from  an  early  period,  and  a  full  course  may  be  pre- 
sumed to  include  only  five  years,  this  number  must  be  doubled  to 
make  the  true  total  of  educated  pupils.  And,  as  the  gre<it  majority 
of  scholars  remain  but  a  year  or  two,  the  number  must  be  again 
doubled,  making  an  aggregate  of  a  million  of  pupils,  who  have 
been,  for  a  succession  of  months,  subject  to  missionary  influence. 

The  proportion  of  conversions,  among  this  mighty  host,  is  cer- 
tainly very  small.  It  was  stated  by  the  late  Rev.  Mr.  Reichardt 
of  Calcutta,  who  labored  long  in  the  service  of  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  that,  of  the  many  thousand  boys  instructed  by 
that  society,  only  five  or  six  had  been  converted.  At  Vepery,  a 
suburb  of  Madras,  where,  for  a  hundred  years,  this  species  of 
labor  has  been  largely  bestowed  by  the  Christian  Knowledge 
Society,  the  results  are  scarcely  more  encouraging ;  nor  at 
Tranquebar,  where  schools  have  been  maintained  for  a  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years.  In  all  Madras,  where  several  thousands 
have  constantly  been  taught  in  missionary  schools,  there  are  not 
known  to  be  half-a-dozen  converted  natives.  At  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  college  at  Malacca,  which  has  existed  for  twenty  years, 
only  a  few  have  been  converted,  though  some  twenty  or  thirty 
have  been  brought  over  to  Christianity.  In  Ceylon,  where 
schools  have  been  conducted  for  twenty-six  years,  and  generally 
with  more  attention  to  religion  than  is  common  in  India,  few 
conversions  occurred  previous  to  1830 ;  and  those  since  that 
time  have  been  rather  the   fruit  of  protracted  meetings,  and 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  251 

special  pastoral  efforts,  than  of  the  school  system.  Out  of  the 
Scotch  General  Assembly's  School  in  Calcutta,  which  for  six 
years  has  had  an  average  of  lour  hundred  scholars,  and  the 
entire  and  constant  attention  of  two  missionaries,  there  have 
been  but  five  or  six  conversions.  The  Baptist  schools  in  Ben- 
gal, numbering  thousands  of  scholars,  for  more  than  thirty  years 
past  have  produced  very  few  conversions.  That  at  Chittagong, 
tauglit  by  a  missionary  in  person,  every  day  for  sixteen  years, 
with  an  average  of  two  hundred  pupils,  has  witnessed  but  two 
of  the  scholars  brought  to  a  knowledge  of  the  truth.  In  Arracan, 
no  conversion  has  yet  occurred  in  the  schools.  Among  all  the 
Bunnans,  I  know  of  no  Christian  who  is  regarded  as  the  fruit  of 
schools.  Among  the  Karens,  many  scholars  have  been  convert- 
ed ;  but  the  primary  and  daily  object  of  those  schools  has  ever 
seemed  to  be  the  conversion,  rather  than  the  education,  of  the 
scholar. 

Let  the  primary  and  immediate  object  of  gathering  youth  into 
a  school,  be  their  conversion,  and  the  schoolmaster  may  do  great 
good.  But  to  rely  chiefly  on  him  and  his  work,  for  results  which 
Jehovah  has  appointed  to  be  done  by  other  men  and  other 
means,  is  only  calculated  to  mislead  us,  and  insure  disappoint- 
ment. Our  expectations  from  schools  are  in  most  cases  wholly 
different  from  the  expectations  of  the  teacher  himself,  nine  tenths 
of  them  being  unconverted  heathen. 

In  places  where  schools  have  most  abounded,  and  for  the 
longest  time,  a  considerable  number  of  pupils  have  rejected 
idolatry,  without  embracing  Christianity;  and  are  now  conceited 
infidels,  worse  to  deal  with  than  pagans.  Many  of  these,  by 
means  of  their  education,  have  obtained  offices  under  govern- 
ment, or  in  large  commercial  houses,  and  exert  considerable 
power  and  influence  against  religion.  In  some  cases,  nearly  all 
the  pupils  are  children  of  country-born  Catholics,  whose  education 
only  serves  to  make  Popery  more  respectable  ;  in  others,  a  great 
majority  of  scholars  are  from  the  poorest  of  the  people,  whose 
knowledge  of  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering,  does  not  serve  to 
elevate  their  situation,  and  who,  having  no  use  for  these  ac- 
quirements, after  leaving  school,  forget  them  to  a  great  extent 

Few  are  so  far  advanced  as  to  comprehend  those  evidences 
of  Christianity,  which  have  been  made  such  an  argument  in 
favor  of  schools.  Even  in  our  own  country,  this  is  a  study  for 
the  last  years  at  college,  and  not  for  school-boys.  But  our 
school-boys  are  better  prepared  to  comprehend  these  evidences, 


252  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

than  most  of  the  students  in  Oriental  "  colleges,"  even  of  an 
advanced  standing. 

It  should  be  considered  how  far  the  diffusion  of  the  ability  to 
read  is  desirable  among  a  people  in  whose  language  little  or 
nothing  of  a  valuable  nature  is  yet  prepared,  or  likely  soon  to  be. 
The  readers  in  Bengalee,  taught  by  missionaries,  have  been  fur- 
nished, by  unprincipled  natives,  with  a  multitude  of  silly  and 
pernicious  books,  which,  at  the  old  average  of  readers,  would 
probably  never  have  been  printed.  The  Friend  of  India,  of  1825, 
contains  a  list  of  all  the  books  issued  from  the  native  press  in 
Bengal  up  to  that  period.  They  amount  to  thirty-one  ;  and  are 
all,  with  two  exceptions,  pestilent  or  preposterous  !  The  issues 
of  subsequent  years  have  been,  no  doubt,  of  the  same  character; 
but  I  am  not  able  to  find  a  list. 

When  the  happiest  effect  flows  from  schools,  viz.  the  conver- 
sion of  scholars,  the  influence  diffused  on  the  population  is  less 
than  from  conversions  which  follow  preaching.  The  triumph 
of  Christ  is  scarcely  perceptible.  The  heathen  see  that  the  chil- 
dren have  been  regularly  trained  to  the  new  faith.  They  know 
that  if  our  children  were  trained  in  the  same  manner  by  their 
priesthood,  they  would  as  easily  become  pagans.  They  attribute 
the  change,  therefore,  not  to  the  superiority  of  our  system,  but  to 
the  natural  effect  of  early  education. 

I  am  far  from  wishing  the  school  system  to  be  abandoned, 
especially  in  Hindustan.  A  school  has  many  advantages  in 
enabling  a  missionary  to  bring  divine  truth  before  his  pupils  ; 
and  a  man  whose  heart  glows  with  zeal,  will  find  it  an  animating 
field.  The  error  seems  to  be,  not  in  having  schools,  but  in  ex- 
pending upon  them  a  disproportionate  measure  of  our  means ; 
in  expecting  too  much  from  them ;  in  not  making  them  suffi- 
ciently religious ;  in  establishing  more  than  can  be  properly 
superintended  ;  in  the  indiscriminate  reception  of  scholars ;  in 
employing  heathen  teachers ;  and  in  trusting  to  science  for  the 
overturn  of  idolatry. 

Schools  furnish  an  advantageous  opportunity  for  the  partial 
employment  of  fresh  missionaries,  whose  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage is  insufficient  for  more  direct  efforts.  But  this  very 
deficiency  in  the  language,  must  almost  preclude  religious  influ- 
ence. The  plan  now  often  pursued,  is  for  a  missionary  or 
his  wife  to  superintend  five,  ten,  or  even  twenty  schools,  taught 
by  hired  pagans.  These  are  visited  once  every  few  days,  in  the 
cool  of  the  morning;   giving  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  to  each. 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  253 

In  some  cases,  they  are  visited  once  a  month.  The  master 
merely  teaches  reading  and  writing;  and  that,  too,  in  his  own 
inexpert,  or  perhaps  ferocious  manner.  He  is  naturally  sup- 
posed by  the  scholars  to  understand  our  religion,  and  his  not 
receiving  it  has  a  pernicious  influence.  Qualified  teachers  are 
so  few,  that  persons  have  sometimes  been  employed  who  open- 
ly opposed  Christianity.  Secret  counteracting  influences,  by 
the  master,  are  still  more  common.  In  schools  patronized  by 
the  British  government,  though  taught  by  a  missionary,  it  is 
required  that  instruction  in  religion  shall  not  be  formally 
introduced. 

The  question  seems  not  to  have  received  sufficient  attention, 
whether  we  should  multiply  schools,  and  teach  mere  rudiments, 
to  a  great  number,  or  restrict  the  number,  and  carry  the  educa- 
tion to  a  high  point.  I  am  in  favor  of  the  latter  course.  No 
nation  has  become  literary  by  universal  instruction  in  reading 
and  writing.  These  confer  no  knowledge ;  they  are  only  means 
for  acquiring  and  diffusing  it.  In  a  country  where  the  absence 
of  books,  periodicals,  and  political  freedom,  preclude  advance- 
ment in  after  life,  beyond  the  rudiments  learned  at  school,  these 
acquirements  will  not  be  generally  retained ;  or  if  retained,  are 
of  little  use.  With  us,  common  schools  bring  our  youth  to  the 
starting-point,  and  give  to  genius,  where  it  exists,  a  chance  for 
advancement  and  honor.  But  where  these  leave  a  heathen 
pupil,  there,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  he  stops ; 
and  soon  begins  to  recede,  for  want  of  use  for  his  knowledge. 
Beside,  the  most  extended  system  of  such  schools,  which  we  call 
hope  to  establish  in  the  heathen  world,  can  embrace,  after  all, 
but  a  very  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  youth ;  so  that  even  the 
argument  for  universality  will  not  apply. 

It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  the  highest  advantages  of 
schools  are  to  be  gained  by  gathering  select  children  of  pagans 
into  boarding-schools,  and  all  the  children  of  native  converts 
into  day-schools,  (which  at  most  stations  may  be  united,)  and 
carrying  the  education  of  these  to  a  high  point.  Such  pupils 
will  be  exempt  from  the  dreadful  pollutions  of  a  heathen  home, 
and  the  innumerable  associations  which  tend  to  nullify  every 
good  influence.  They  become  subject  to  continuous  and  sys- 
tematic efforts,  which  are  impossible  where  the  scholars  are 
often  changing.  Some  of  them  are  likely  to  become  authors  in 
their  own  language,  for  which  they  will  have  qualifications 
which  foreigners  can  scarcely  hope  to  attain. 

Such  schools  give  the  missionary  a  paternal  relationship  to 
vol.  ii.  22 


254  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

the  child,  and  a  probability  of  securing  his  confidence  and 
attachment.  They  furnish  precious  opportunities  ibr  the  daily 
inculcation  of  sacred  truth.  They  form  at  once  permanent 
congregations  and  attached  households ;  opening  access,  at  the 
same  time,  to  many  parents.  New  missionaries  could  usefully 
assist,  two  or  three  hours  a  day ;  and  rather  gain  than  lose  time, 
in  learning  the  language.  Scholars  long  trained  in  this  manner, 
could  not  but  have  a  salutary  influence  on  their  parents,  and  be 
the  means  of  diffusing  many  important  truths.  The  systematic 
control  of  their  minds,  and  constant  example  of  true  family 
order,  would  counteract  the  danger,  which  exists  in  other  schools, 
of  creating  a  contempt  for  parental  knowledge  and  government, 
without  furnishing  an  adequate  substitute,  to  prevent  the  ef- 
fects of  filial  disobedience.  In  every  such  school,  one  mis- 
sionary at  least,  competent  in  the  language,  should  devote  his 
whole  time,  and  hold  the  salvation  of  the  pupils  as  his  promi- 
nent aim. 

In  educating  converts,  particularly  the  younger  ones,  there'  can 
scarcely  be  too  much  effort.  If  knowledge  is  power,  let  us  give 
it  to  the  truly  good.  Let  us  not  compass  sea  and  land  to  make 
a  proselyte,  and  then  leave  him  to  grope  his  way  in  ignorance, 
perplexity,  and  error.  Let  us  form  his  tastes,  habits,  studies, 
and  pursuits,  upon  the  noblest  principles  of  divine  revelation. 
Let  us  do  all  in  our  power  to  create  an  impressive  superiority 
on  the  part  of  such  as  bear  the  Christian  name,  and  to  aid  them 
in  diffusing  light  and  peace. 

2.  At  some  stations,  at  least,  less  time  might  be  devoted  to 
translations  and  tracts. 

It  is  eminently  desirable  to  perfect,  every  tract  and  translation  ; 
but  where  an  intelligible  and  tolerably  correct  one  exists,  the  per- 
fecting of  it  may  thenceforth  be  made  a  by-business.  There 
will  be  diversities  of  taste,  if  no  more,  which  will  prevent  any 
production  from  suiting  every  scholar.  But  it  is  not  found  that 
the  last  is'  always  the  best  There  have  been  printed  seven 
versions  and  revisions  of  the  Malay  Bible  ;  and  a  distinguished 
missionary  among  that  people  assured  me  that  the  first,  pub- 
lished at  Serampore,  remains  the  best. 

It  is  not  desirable  that  missionaries  should  in  their  first  years 
devote  themselves  to  translation  and  authorship,  even  if  there 
be  no  Christian  books  in  the  language.  To  write  and  translate, 
as  exercises  for  themselves,  is  important ;  but  they  should  put 
nothing  to  press  till  they  have  been  years  at  their  post,  and  have 
revised  their  work  many  times.     It   would  be  well  if  every 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  255 

missionary,  qualified,  by  his  early  studies,  to  translate  the  Scrip- 
tures, were  to  take  some  select  portion,  and  occupy  himself  upon 
it,  at  leisure  moments,  for  eight  or  ten  years  ;  or  even  his  lifetime. 
He  might  sketch  two  or  three  tracts,  and  keep  them  by  him  in 
the  same  way.  This,  however,  would  not  prevent  the  necessity 
for  some  individuals  to  make  translations  and  authorship  their 
prominent  employment. 

The  anxiety  for  an  immediate  production  of  books  has  caused 
the  publication  of  Scriptures  and  tracts  so  imperfect,  as  to  be 
almost,  if  not  quite  useless,  and  in  particular  passages  quite 
erroneous.  To  prove  this,  and  at  the  same  time  show  the  sort 
of  errors  to  which  I  allude,  I  will  give  a  few  instances  which 
were  mentioned  to  me,  taken  from  distant  and  different  versions. 
John  i.  1,  "  In  the  beginning  was  the  word,  and  the  word  was 
with  the  Lord  God  Boodh,  and  the  word  was  the  Lord  God 
Boodh."  Exod.  iii.  2,  "  The  Lord  appeared  unto  him  in  a  flame 
of  fire  in  the  knot  of  a  tree."  Acts  i.  8,  "Ye  shall  receive  the 
power  of  life  and  death."  Matt.  v.  3,  "  Blessed  are  the  destitute  of 
life."    1.  Cor.  v.  6,  "  A  little  crocodile  crocodileth  the  whole  lump." ! 

When  there  are  none  of  these  mistranslations,  there  may  be 
such  a  want  of  idiomatic  propriety,  such  an  infusion  of  new 
words,  or  such  general  obscurity,  as  to  discourage,  if  not  bewil- 
der, the  heathen  reader.  Such,  it  appears  from  Mr.  Medhurst,* 
is  the  case  with  Morrison's  Chinese  version,  of  which  the  con- 
vert Lew  Tse-chuen,  as  quoted  by  him,  says,  "  I  perceive  there  is 
no  unwillingness  to  accept  the  books,  but,  failing  to  comprehend 
their  meaning,  they  frequently  throw  the  work  aside."  To  the 
same  effect  is  his  quotation  from  Choo  Tih-lang,  a  Chinese  tran- 
scriber now  in  England.  "  Having  perused  the  present  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  Chinese,  I  find  it  exceedingly  verbose, 
—  containing  much  foreign  phraseology,  so  contrary  to  the  usual 
style  of  our  books,  that  the  Chinese  cannot  thoroughly  understand 
the  meaning,  and  frequently  refuse  to  look  into  it."  Marshman's 
version  is  greatly  liable  to  the  same  objections. 

It  is  a  serious  subject,  and  deserving  the  early  attention  of  the 
managers  at  home,  as  well  as  Biblical  critics,  how  far  our  versions 
should  conform  to  the  pompous  and  unchristian  phraseology  of 
Eastern  languages.  The  language  of  a  superior  to  an  inferior  is 
wholly  different  from  that  of  an  inferior  to  a  superior.  Shall  this 
diversity  be  followed  in  translations  ?  It  is  so  in  many  of  them, 
and  not  so  in  others.     In  one  Tamul  version,  the  Virgin  Mary  is 

"  China,  its  State  and  Prospects,  p.  443. 


256  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

always  addressed  as  "  worshipful."  And  instead  of  "  said,"  &c.  in 
Gen.  i.  3,  it  is  "  opening  his  divine  mouth,  he  said,  Let  light  ap- 
peal-." Li  one  version,  "  apostle  "  is  rendered  "  royal  messenger." 
These  idioms  give  a  haughty  aspect  to  the  language  of  apostles 
and  prophets,  and  a  servility  to  those  who  address  them.  It  will 
be  a  question  also  whether  we  shall  make  two  versions  in  some 
languages,  one  high  and  literary,  and  one  common  and  plain. 
Henry  Martyn's  Persian  Testament  is  of  the  former  kind,  and 
though  intelligible  and  acceptable  to  all  the  upper  classes,  is 
wholly  incomprehensible  to  vulgar  readers.  Rhenius's  version 
of  the  Tamul  is  intermediate,  and  has  by  some  been  objected  to 
as  suitable  for  no  class  of  society. 

Yet  with  all  their  imperfections,  most  translations  have  been 
sufficiently  good  to  convey  a  large  amount  of  genuine  truth  ; 
so  that  the  expense  has  by  no  means  been  utterly  wasted. 
Thank  God,  the  most  important  texts  in  the  Bible  are  easily 
translated.  It  would  probably  be  difficult  to  err  in  rendering 
"  He  that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall  be  saved ; "  "  It  is  a 
faithful  saying,  and  worthy  of  all  acceptation,  that  Jesus  Christ 
came  into  the  world  to  save  sinners  ;  "  "  Except  a  man  be  born 
again,  lie  cannot  see  the  kingdom  of  God." 

The  value  even  of  a  good  version  of  Scripture,  is  wholly  over- 
rated by  such  as  suppose  it  to  be  as  intelligible  to  heathen  as  our 
Bible  is  to  the  unconverted.  The  case  is  far  otherwise.  The 
most  intelligent  pagan  finds  not  only  words,  but  facts,  reason- 
ings, and  allusions,  which  he  can  no  better  understand  than  the 
Ethiopian  eunuch  did  the  predictions  concerning  Christ.  He 
has  not  so  much  preparation  for  understanding  the  Bible,  as  is 
acquired  by  our  children  in  the  nursery.  Beside,  this  want  of 
preparation  is  the  littleness  and  debility  of  a  heathen's  mind, 
which  is  alluded  to,  page  225.  Things  must  be  explained  to 
him,  as  to  an  infant.  Let  the  language  be  never  so  plain  and 
idiomatic,  he  will  rarely  understand  the  subject,  unless  it  be  some 
simple  parable  or  narrative.  Hence  the  king  of  Siam,  after 
hearing  a  Christian  book  read,  threw  it  aside,  saying,  "Let  the 
teachers  go  on  giving  these  books ;  no  man  in  my  kingdom  can 
understand  them." 

As  to  tracts  translated  from  the  English,  very  few  of  them  can 
be  of  any  service,  except  to  some  of  the  more  advanced  converts. 
They  all  are  constructed  on  the  supposition  that  the  reader 
knows  certain  doctrines,  or  facts,  which  heathen  do  not  know, 
and  take  for  granted,  what  a  heathen  does  not  grant.  They 
all  involve  some  knowledge  of  Christianity,  while  the  heathen 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  257 

reader  may  never  have  so  much  as  heard  of  it  before.  Tracts  for 
the  heathen  must  be  written  for  them  ;  and  that  by  men  who  not 
only  know  their  modes  of  thinking,  their  system  of  religion, 
their  habits,  temptations,  &c,  but  by  such  as  have  so  far 
learned  the  language  as  to  think  in  it,  and  write  it  with  idiomatic 
accuracy. 

The  number  of  heathen  who  can  read  intelligibly,  on  subjects 
not  connected  with  trade  and  common  things,  is  very  small.  This 
point  seems  not  to  have  excited  sufficient  attention  ;  and  a  tew 
efforts,  lately  made,  lead  to  startling  conclusions.  Mr.  North,  of 
the  mission  to  Singapore,  has  made  the  most  efficient  investiga- 
tion on  this  subject  that  I  know  of.  He  examined,  personally, 
the  crews  of  many  vessels  trading  to  Singapore,  from  the  other 
ports  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  numerous  islands  of  the  China 
Sea.  Out  of  two  thousand  persons  thus  examined,  he  informed 
me  that  he  found  but  one  could  read  with  ease,  and  four  others 
who  could  spell  out  the  sense  with  difficulty.  The  rest,  though  in 
general  able  to  read  the  characters,  scarcely  knew  the  sense  of  a 
single  word.  These  persons  are  not  an  inferior  class,  like  Euro- 
pean sailors,  but  are  for  the  most  part  traders  on  their  own  ac- 
count, and  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  sample  of  the  inhabitants  of 
their  respective  countries.  The  Malay  population  of  Singapore 
has  scarcely  a  reader,  except  a  mere  handful,  who  had  been 
taught  in  the  mission  schools.*  I  have  already  spoken  of  the  few- 
ness of  readers  even  in  China.  The  Burmans,  though  a  reading 
people,  as  to  the  ability  to  pronounce  the  characters,  are  not  gen- 
erally able  to  read  with  understanding.  Jn  a  late  discussion  of 
another  subject  in  the  Friend  of  India,  it  is  declared  by  the  edi- 
tor that  not  more  than  one  million,  out  of  the  thirty  millions  of 
Bengalees,  can  read.  And  this  estimate  is  twice  as  high  as  is  made 
by  some  others.  Mr.  Trevelyan,  admitting  that  there  may  be  a 
million,  asks,  "And  what  sort  of  readers  are  this  one  million? 
How  many  of  them  understand  what  they  read  ?  How  many  can 
even  pronounce  fluently  the  mere  words  on  a  page  they  never  saw 
before  ?  Even  Pundits  and  Munshees,  and  much  more  the  com- 
mon people,  read  with  difficulty,  stopping  to  spell  words,  and  re- 
peating over  and  over  the  last  two  or  three  words,  while  they  are 
studying  out  the  next.     There  are  probably  not  Jive  hundred  persons 


*  In  calling  these  a  mere  handful,  I  do  not  impeach  the  missionaries  who 
have  for  many  years  labored  largely  in  this  department.  The  truth  is,  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  persuade  many  of  the  scholars  to  remain  long  enough 
to  acquire  the  art  of  reading. 

22* 


258  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

in  all  India  not  educated  by  Europeans,  ivho  coidd  take  up  a  transla- 
tion, in  their  own  character,  of  any  work  in  philosophy,  morals,  or  re- 
ligion, and  read  it  extempore  ivith  understanding." 

Our  expectations  from  the  diffusion  of  Bibles  and  tracts  appear 
extravagant,  if  we  reason  upon  them  in  the  abstract.  No  school 
teacher  could  hope  to  fulfil  his  duty  by  shutting  himself  up  in  a 
study,  and  sending  out  among  his  pupils  elementary  treatises 
and  cogent  appeals.  Cases  of  the  benefit  of  Bible  and  tract  dis- 
tribution have  occurred  in  sufficient  numbers  to  warrant  our 
diligent  continuance  in  this  department  of  effort,  hut  not  enough 
to  warrant  our  making  it  so  prominent  in  our  general  system  of 
means.  It  is  to  be  considered  how  few  it  has  converted,  com- 
pared with  the  prodigious  amount  done  in  this  way.  Among 
the  Malays,  for  instance,  who  have  had  the  whole  Bible,  and 
more  than  forty  tracts,  distributed  among  them  by  thousands, 
for  many  years,  I  could  not  hear  of  a  decided  Christian  on  the 
Peninsula.  The  avidity  with  which  our  books  are  received,  is 
not  to  be  ascribed  to  a  general  and  intense  desire  to  know  the 
truth.  The  paper,  the  printing,  the  shape,  and  the  color  of  the 
book,  make  it  as  great  a  curiosity  as  a  palm-leaf  manuscript  is  to 
us.  A  heathen  missionary  might  give  away  any  quantity  of  such 
manuscripts  in  the  streets  of  our  cities,  and  the  rush  for  them 
would  continue  till  they  ceased  to  be  curiosities. 

We  certainly  do  well  to  prosecute  a  lavish  distribution  in 
countries  like  China  and  Japan,  where  missionaries  are  not  ad- 
mitted ;  or  like  Burmah  and  Madagascar,  where  their  tenure  is 
frail.  But  the  utility  in  such  cases  consists  chiefly  in  preparing 
the  way  for  personal  effort ;  and  without  its  being  thus  followed 
up,  permanent  and  general  benefit  can  hardly  be  expected. 

3.  There  should  be  less  preaching  in  English. 

At  a  great  proportion  of  our  stations  there  are  some  who 
speak  our  language  ;  and  these,  though  but  half  a  dozen,  will 
desire  the  ministrations  of  the  Sabbath.  But  the  missionary  is 
sent  forth  to  heathen  ;  and  he  violates  his  engagement,  if  these 
receive  not  the  great  bulk  of  his  attentions.  Many  missionaries 
are  almost  lost  to  the  heathen  in  this  way.  These  Europeans  or 
Americans  know  the  system  of  salvation,  and  deliberately  put 
it  away !  To  irreligious  men  of  cultivated  minds,  common 
preaching  has  no  charms.  It  must  either  be  so  eloquent,  as  to 
make  them  consent  to  hear  unwelcome  truths,  for  the  pleasure 
of  the  oratory ;  or  so  neutral,  as  not  to  disturb  their  consciences. 
A  young  man,  who  has  practised  little  or  none  in  his  own  coun- 
try, will  find  regular  weekly  services  consume  too  much  time 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSION'S.  259 

and  strength.  If  he  deal  in  undigested  crudities,  his  little  au- 
dience will  fall  offj  or  no  fruit  ensue.  Constant  and  close 
preaching  to  a  very  small  auditory,  unless  managed  as  few  have 
skill  to  do,  will  give  personal  offence,  and  inflict  on  the  mission- 
ary both  mental  suffering  and  official  embarrassment.  Beside,  it 
is  seldom  desirable  for  a  missionary  to  appear  closely  connected 
with  other  foreign  residents.  In  general,  the  persons  with  whom 
he  becomes  thus  identified  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  live  in  open 
violation  of  the  Sabbath,  and  other  scandalous  vices;  and  the 
natives  are  likely  to  take  their  conduct  as  the  fruits  of  Christian- 
ity. It  has  ever  been  a  difficulty  with  missionaries  to  make 
the  heathen  understand  that  these  people  are  Christians  only  in 
name. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  multiply  arguments  on  any  subject. 
It  will  suffice  to  remark,  that  while  a  missionary  should  readily 
render  his  spiritual  services  to  nominal  Christians  when  sick- 
ness, death,  or  other  occasions  call  for  them  ;  and  welcome  to  his 
family  worship  and  expositions  such  as  may  be  willing  to  attend, 
his  proper  business  is  to  go  after  the  lost  ones,  who  have  never 
known  the  way  of  peace.  To  these  he  is  sent  by  those  who 
furnish  his  support.  Where  it  is  proper  to  maintain  an  English 
service,  there  should  be  sent  a  person  adapted  to  the  work,  who 
should  make  this  his  chief  business,  and  whose  health  should 
not  be  worn  down,  or  his  mind  distracted,  by  studying  the  ver- 
nacular. His  support  should  be  expected  in  great  part  from  his 
auditory,  and  only  such  sums  voted  by  the  Missionary  Board,  as 
may  be  contributed  for  this  purpose. 

4.  Less  effort  should  be  spent,  for  the  present  at  least,  on 
periodicals. 

Nearly  every  principal  station,  such  as  Calcutta,  Bombay, 
Madras,  Malacca,  Canton,  Greece,  &c,  has  one  or  more  periodi- 
cals, published  or  edited  by  missionaries.  It  must  be  evident, 
that  the  getting  up  of  these  is  attended  with  far  more  labor,  than 
similar  works  in  our  own  country,  both  from  manifold  inconve- 
niences and  the  fewness  of  writers.  A  serious  amount  of  mis- 
sionary energy  is  therefore  expended  in  this  way,  even  on  the 
supposition  that  subscribers,  other  than  missionaries,  are  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  cover  the  mechanical  expense.  But  if 
these  periodicals  do  not  support  themselves,  much  less  pay  the 
salaries  of  editors,  or  if  most  of  the  subscribers  are  missiona- 
ries, they  cost  the  church,  as  a  whole,  too  much,  both  in  money 
and  men. 

With  one  or  two  exceptions,  these  periodicals  are  in  the  Eng- 


260  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

lish  language,  and  are  intended  to  affect  English  and  Americans. 
They  contain  theological  and  missionary  controversies,  general 
literature,  philology,  news,  translations  of  pagan  authors,  and 
other  matter,  which,  to  a  great  extent,  might  with  advantage  be 
inserted  in  existing  periodicals  at  home,  or  in  some  one  or  two 
established  for  this  separate  purpose.  They  might  thus  be  even 
more  extensively  distributed  among  missionaries  than  they  are 
now ;  for  it  is  in  general  easier  to  send  parcels  from  home  to 
each  station,  than  to  send  them  from  any  one  station  to  all  the 
others. 

If  this  amount  of  labor  and  expense  be  continued,  it  should 
be  by  the  expressed  will  of  the  churches,  just  as  contributions 
are  now  designated  for  education,  for  the  distribution  of  Bibles 
and  tracts,  for  the  support  of  children,  or  for  general  missionary 
purposes.  Funds  to  support  editors  and  writers  for  periodicals, 
might  be  made  a  distinct  account.  If  the  amount  of  contribu- 
tions for  this  object  will  sustain  these  periodicals,  and  brethren 
arise  who  deem  it  their  province  to  go  abroad  and  edit  them, 
no  one  can  object.  The  department  of  service  is  both  use- 
ful and  honorable  ;  and  some  of  the  present  works  might  prob- 
ably be  continued  with  advantage.  But  we  must  not,  with  our 
present  small  force,  bestow  disproportionate  time  and  money 
upon  it,  nor  allow  the  friends  of  missions  in  this  country  to  be 
expecting  conversions  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  laborers, 
without  understanding  how  those  laborers  are  employed. 

5.  In  reducing  languages  to  writing,  the  Roman  letters  only 
should  be  used. 

The  curse  of  Babel  has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  variety 
of  characters  mankind  have  employed  in  expressing  articulate 
sounds.  Some  of  these  are  more  philosophical  and  convenient 
than  others,  but  none  are  comparable  to  ours.  I  cannot  so 
extend  this  head  as  to  argue  the  whole  case,  but  will  barely 
name  a  few  reasons  which  go  to  show  why  our  alphabet  should 
be  preferred. 

Oriental  alphabets  are  written  with  great  difficulty.  Many 
missionaries  never  become  able  to  write  their  new  language ; 
and  many,  with  all  their  pains,  are  so  awkward  and  slow  at  it,  as 
to  prefer  to  employ  a  native  hand  on  all  occasions,  during  their  life. 

They  are  written  at  best  very  slowly.  It  may  safely  be 
affirmed,  that  it  requires  five  hours  for  a  missionary  to  write  in 
the  native  character  what  he  would  write  in  one  in  his  own. 
Thus  four  years  out  of  five,  of  time  spent  in  writing,  is  lost ! 
The  most  expert  native  Bengalee  writers  have  been  found,  by 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  261 

experiment,  to  require  three  times  as  long  to  write  a  page  in 
their  own  character,  as  it  does  to  write  the  same  on  the  Roman 
system.  Any  man  can  see  how  this  would  operate  on  the  pro- 
gress of  arts,  sciences,  literature,  manufactures,  and  religion,  in 
lands  where  all  are  to  be  begun.  Should  we,  who  are  to  raise 
up  readers  and  writers  for  half  the  world,  entail  upon  them,  and 
all  their  posterity,  miserable  alphabets  of  a  thousand  different 
kinds,  when,  with  the  same  labor,  we  can  give  them  our  own  ? 

Oriental  alphabets  proceed  from  line  to  line,  without  any 
prominent  mode  (often  without  any  mode)  of  marking  emphatic 
words,  proper  names,  quotations,  pauses,  accents,  or  even  of 
separating  words  from  one  another.  How  would  an  English 
reader  be  puzzled  in  reading  a  page  thus  put  together,  and  how 
likely  to  be  led  wholly  astray !  This  argument  alone  should 
weigh  against  many  objections,  when  it  is  considered  how  im- 
portant it  is  to  avoid  every  possible  mode  of  misapprehension, 
for  natives  reading  books  on  a  subject  so  new  and  strange,  and 
which  inevitably  contain  many  words  they  have  never  seen 
before. 

In  writing  these  characters  there  is  often  no  standard.  There 
being  no  other  established  form  of  the  letters,  than  as  printed, 
and  this  form,  in  general,  being  so  difficult  and  slow,  each  man 
alters  to  suit  himself,  when  writing  in  haste.  Hence  the  writing 
of  one,  is  often  scarcely  legible  to  another,  or  even  to  himself, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  months.  In  our  language,  the  written 
and  printed  characters  are  so  alike,  that  all  who  read  one,  can 
read  the  other ;  yet  the  former  requires  but  one  fifth  of  the  time 
consumed  by  the  latter. 

That  our  alphabet  is  competent  to  the  expression  of  any  lan- 
guage, is  proved  by  the  number  and  diversity  of  those  already 
so  written  ;  viz.  English,  Welsh,  Irish,  German,  Danish,  Dutch, 
Swedish,  French,  Italian,  Portuguese,  Spanish,  Basque,  Catalo- 
nian,  Malay,  Bengalee,  Hindustanee,  Malagasse,  Asamese,  Mah- 
ratta,  New  Zealand,  several  languages  of  Africa,  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  the  South  American  dialects,  and  probably  others. 
Except  the  Cherokee,  for  which  a  native  invented  letters,  all  the 
translations  and  tracts  which  have  been  printed  for  the  Ameri- 
can aborigines,  are  in  the  Roman  character,  and  generally,  if  not 
always,  without  diacritical  marks;  and  certainly  words  more 
difficult  to  spell  and  pronounce  are  not  found  on  earth.  The 
inference  is  perfectly  safe,  that  if  these  languages,  in  every  part 
of  the  earth,  and  with  every  variety  of  articulation,  can  be  ex- 
pressed in  our  alphabet,  so  may  all  others.     The  Roman  Catholic 


262  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

missionaries  employ  them  even  for  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
Siamese,  and  Burman. 

The  difficulties,  inconsistencies,  and  often  absurdities,  of  our 
orthography  form  no  objection  to  the  use  of  our  letters.  So  far 
as  modern  missionaries  are  concerned,  these  anomalies  are 
avoided.  English  words  are  spelled  after  the  fashion  of  the 
different  languages  from  whence  they  are  derived ;  but  in  con- 
structing an  orthography  for  an  entire  language  at  once,  a  per- 
fectly uniform  system  can  be  always  adopted. 

Another  great  objection  to  these  alphabets  is  the  expense  they 
involve,  in  furnishing  the  nations  with  the  word  of  God.  A 
good  font  of  our  type,  of  the  size  of  this,  embracing  both  upper 
and  lower  case  letter,  and  all  the  variety  of  points,  &c,  costs 
about  four  hundred  dollars.  There  are  three  sizes  of  Burman 
letter,  and  each  font  cost,  including  the  support  of  a  missionary 
to  superintend  the  work,  at  least  two  thousand  dollars.  The 
proportion  is  not  very  different  in  most  other  Eastern  tongues. 

There  are  probably  four  thousand  languages  yet  to  be  fur- 
nished with  the  Scriptures.  If,  in  doing  this,  we  resolve  all  into 
two  thousand  various  alphabets,  which,  perhaps,  is  hardly  possi- 
ble, and  give  three  sizes  of  type  to  each  alphabet,  it  will  cost 
twelve  millions  of  dollars !  Our  type,  of  three  different  sizes  for 
the  same  languages,  would  cost  but  two  million  four  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  When  done,  many  of  them,  such  as  Persian, 
Nagari,  Arabic,  &c,  are  so  formed  that  the  types  are  necessarily 
and  constantly  breaking ;  making  a  still  greater  difference  in  the 
cost  of  books.  The  small  strokes  above  and  below  (see  speci- 
men page,  Persian  and  Arabic  characters)  are  not  sustained  by 
the  body  of  the  type,  but  run  out,  and  can  scarcely  bear  the  force 
of  the  press. 

But  the  first  cost  of  an  Oriental  font  is  as  nothing  compared 
to  the  subsequent  expenses  it  entails ;  chiefly  on  account  of  its 
large  size.  It  requires  from  three  to  six  times  the  expense  of 
press  work,  and  the  same  for  paper,  binding,  transportation,  &c. 
Judson's  Bible  is  in  four  large  octavos  ;  and  yet  the  type  is  scarcely 
half  the  size  in  which  Burmans  commonly  write.  I  am  satis- 
fied, every  thing  considered,  that  the  use  of  Roman  letter  would 
be  a  saving  of  seven  tenths  of  all  the  money  to  be  spent  in 
missionary  printing. 

The  question,  then,  is  not  only  philological.  Grant  all  that 
the  warmest  advocates  of  Oriental  letters  could  affirm ;  nay, 
admit  for  them  a  great  superiority  over  ours;  it  comes  back 
to  a  question  of  dollars  and  cents.     The  whole  number  of  Ian- 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  263 

giiages  which  contain  the  word  of  God  is  less  than  a  hundred, 
and  about  a  hundred  more  have  portions  of  it  The  people  of 
some  of  those  languages  have  not  yet  been  supplied  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  family  in  a  thousand.  Here,  theu,  are  thousands 
of  fonts  of  type  to  procure,  thousands  of  translations  to  make, 
and  myriads  of  Bibles  to  print;  beside  rousing  up  nominal 
Christendom  to  supply  itself.  While  the  means  for  accomplish- 
ing all  this  are  so  inadequate  in  the  best  modes,  how  ran  we 
honestly  pursue  a  system  which  so  vastly  augments  the  diffi- 
culty? Indeed,  except  we  use  the  Roman  alphabet,  the  supply 
of  the  Scriptures  to  mankind  is  indefinitely  postponed,  and 
perhaps  rendered  impracticable. 

Whenever,  in  giving  letters  to  a  tribe  that  never  had  any,  we 
adopt  those  of  some  adjacent  nation,  rather  than  our  own.  we 
incalculably  abridge  the  benefit  to  the  people,  as  well  as  inflict 
on  the  church  an  intolerable  and  useless  expense.  When  a 
natiou,  like  the  Chinese,  Hindus,  or  Burmans,  have  a  written 
language,  and  books,  and  schools,  of  their  own,  we  must  adopt 
their  characters  for  some  of  our  books.  But  it  has  been  found 
expedient  in  Hindustan  to  teach  Bengalee,  Hindee,  &c,  in  the 
Roman  character.  Dictionaries  and  translations  have  been  so 
published ;  and  it  is  not  certain  but  that,  even  in  such  a  country, 
the  use  of  the  native  alphabets  may  be  wholly  superseded. 

Against  all  the  reasons  for  preferring  the  Roman  alphabet,  1 
know  of  no  respectable  objection.  In  all  the  world,  the  mass  of 
readers  are  to  be  raised  up  by  efforts  yet  to  be  made ;  and  they 
may  as  easily  be  taught  in  one  character  as  another ;  nay,  far  more 
easily  in  the  Roman  than  any  other.  There  is  no  valuable  lit- 
erature in  any  pagan  language  to  be  displaced  by  a  new  charac- 
ter. On  the  contrary,  the  rendering  obsolete  of  the  mass  of 
impurity,  error,  and  absurdity  now  existing,  is  a  powerful  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  Romanizing  system.  By  teaching  through 
the  medium  of  our  alphabet,  we  shut  out  from  the  pupil,  and 
gradually  render  obsolete,  the  mass  of  abominations  now  con- 
stituting the  literature  of  such  nations.  We  would  thus  avoid 
several  of  those  evils  which  now  attend  upon  our  schools,  and 
which  have  been  mentioned  under  that  head.  To  get  rid,  by 
any  process,  of  the  stupendous  obstruction  now  presented  by 
pagan  literature,  would  be  a  magnificent  achievement. 

6.  The  recent  plan  of  sending  missionary  physicians,  should 
be  very  sparingly  prosecuted. 

It  may  be  that  a  sense  of  failure  in  regard  to  direct  evangelical 
labors,  or  a  love  of  novelty,  renders  popular  the  sending  out  of 


264  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

physicians.  Many  are  already  in  the  field  ;  and  from  various  di- 
rections the  call  is  made,  "Send  us  out  accomplished  physicians." 
For  some  fields,  it  is  avowed,  that  no  others  are  wanted  at  first. 

Or  the  hope  may  be,  to  gain  respect  and  confidence,  and  thus 
open  a  door  for  Christianity.  But  Christianity  needs  no  such 
usher.  We  are  pointed  to  the  miracles  of  Christ  and  the  apos- 
tles. But  these  were  for  conviction  and  proof;  not  for  attrac- 
tiveness or  insinuation.  Hence  they  were  not  all  of  healing. 
Some  of  them  inflicted  death,  others  blindness.  They  with- 
ered fig-trees,  destroyed  swine,  or  struck  down  enemies.  To 
assert  that  we  need  a  substitute  for  miracles  will  not  comport 
with  the  received  doctrine  that  miracles  have  answered  their 
end,  and  passed  away.  If  those  of  the  first  age  are  still  suffi- 
cient proof,  why  seek  a  substitute  ?  If  the  immediate  effects  of 
miracles  are  now  necessary,  we  must  "  ask,  and  we  shall  receive  " 
power  to  work  them. 

It  is  not  clear  that  a  physician,  practising  gratuitously  among 
the  heathen,  opens  a  door  for  his  missionary  brother.  It  may 
even  tend  to  throw  him  into  the  shade,  and  prejudice  his  use- 
fulness. One  may  be  admired  and  patronized,  while  the  other 
is  regarded  as  a  mere  supernumerary.  He  may  acquire  per- 
sonal esteem  and  confidence  ;  but  how  this  is  transferred  to  his 
preaching  and  proselyting  brother,  to  Christianity  as  a  system,  or 
to  successors,  is  not  plain.  The  cause  and  effect  do  not  seem  to 
correspond. 

The  religion  of  the  heathen  is  every  where  a  religion  of  merit 
and  demerit.  Of  disinterested  benevolence  he  knows  notliing, 
till  he  is  made  to  understand  it  by  the  cross  of  Christ.  All  the 
labors  of  a  missionary,  which  appear  meritorious,  are  regarded  as 
efforts  to  improve  his  own  condition,  now  or  hereafter.  If  the 
physician,  by  intimacy  with  his  missionary  brethren,  by  giving 
of  tracts,  &c,  give  cause  to  suspect  that  his  real  object  is  to 
introduce  Christianity,  he  incurs  as  much  jealousy  as  his  breth- 
ren, whose  primary  business  is  to  make  direct  evangelical  efforts. 
"In  vain  is  the  net  spread  ui  sight  of  any  bird."  It'  he  shows  no 
desire  to  introduce  and  recommend  Christianity,  how  can  he  be 
paving  the  way  for  his  evangelical  brethren  ? 

Extended  and  gratuitous  medical  services  may  have  the  in- 
jurious effect  of  conferring  upon  the  mission  the  appearance  of 
opulence.  The  supply  of  medicines  obviously  involves  great 
expense.  The  heathen  sees  them  given  away  profusely,  every 
day,  to  scores  of  utter  strangers,  from  whom  no  remuneration  or 
service  is  accepted.     It  is  natural  that  he  should  infer  that  the 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  265 

individual  and  private  charity  of  the  physician,  is  not  competent 
to  such  expenditure.  He  may  suspect  the  hand  of  a  foreign 
government,  preparing  for  future  encroachments.  He  will  cer- 
tainly suspect  something,  though  his  fear  be  no  more  rational  than 
that  which  has  prevailed  very  extensively  in  Burmah,  that  when 
a  certain  number  of  disciples  are  obtained,  we  mean  to  take 
them  home  and  eat  them ! 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  history  of  missionary  phy- 
sicians, from  Felix  Carey  till  now,  contains  many  discouraging 
facts.  It  shows  the  danger  of  being  drawn  away  to  posts  of 
pagan  honor ;  or  making  shipwreck  of  Christian  character ;  or 
becoming  mere  physicians. 

It  appeai-s  to  me  that  an  affectionate  and  judicious  missionary, 
male  or  female,  with  a  few  well-known  medicines,  good  books 
written  for  family  use,  and  some  experience,  will  be  able  to  do 
all  that  ought  to  be  done  in  this  line,  in  most  places.  Mrs.  Wade 
and  Mrs.  Hancock  have  practised  extensively,  and  with  great 
success.  Such  a  mode  is  as  well  calculated  to  impress  natives 
with  the  benevolence  of  Christians,  though  it  may  not  so  as- 
tonish them  with  the  superiority  of  Europeans. 

7.  Every  unnecessary  expense  in  the  mode  of  living  should 
be  studiously  avoided. 

The  unavoidable  difference  between  the  missionary  and  the 
natives,  in  most  cases,  is  very  great.  Native  assistants  seldom 
receive  more  than  a  tenth  or  fifteenth  of  the  salary  of  a  mission- 
ary. Rulers  and  princes,  at  some  stations,  are  unable  to  live  as 
the  missionaries  do,  even  where  considerable  sacrifices  are  made, 
and  where  a  style  of  living  is  adopted,  which  many  of  the  con- 
tributors at  home  would  regard  as  involving  positive  and  serious 
hardships. 

The  difficulty  is  aggravated,  where  the  missionary  aims  at  the 
style  of  genteel  Europeans  around  him.  It  is  altogether  unde- 
sirable to  see  carved  mahogany  sofas,  covered  with  crimson  silk, 
mahogany  book-cases,  engravings,  cut-glass,  silver  forks,  &c,  in 
the  house  of  a  missionary ;  the  house  itself  resembling  our  hand- 
some country-seats.  Such  a  mode  of  living  unavoidably  imposes 
great  restraint  on  the  approach  of  natives.  However  accessible 
the  missionary  may  hold  himself,  the  poor  inquirer  will  scarcely 
venture  into  such  premises;  or,  if  he  do,  will  not  be  able  to  over- 
come an  oppressive  sense  of  inferiority,  and  perhaps  intrusion. 
Even  in  Burmah,  where  no  missionary  so  much  as  approaches 
this  style  of  living,  I  have  seen  inquirers  listen  eagerly  for  a  few 
vol.  ii.  23 


266  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

moments,  and  then  become  absorbed  in  admiration  of  the  fluted 
leg  of  a  table,  or  the  joints  of  a  chair. 

Several  missionaries  have  confessed  to  me  that,  on  their  first 
arrival  in  the  East,  they  were  shocked  at  the  style  in  which  they 
found  their  brethren  living.  Yet  they  had  been  carried  away  by 
the  current.  And  so,  generally,  will  be  their  successors.  A  man 
does  not  like,  on  his  first  arrival,  to  set  up  for  a  reformer.  He 
feels  as  though  he  should  have  more  experience,  and  knowledge 
of  the  country.  But  when,  after  a  few  years'  residence,  he  is 
convinced  that  another  mode  is  preferable  and  practicable,  he 
discovers  that  to  attempt  a  change  will  not  only  involve  him  in 
difficulties  with  his  brethren,  but  will  require  changes  in  his  own 
modes,  which  neither  he  nor  his  wife  may  have  strength  of  mind 
to  accomplish. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  adopt  the  costume,  or  all  the  customs  of 
the  natives ;  nor  is  it  in  general  possible  for  the  missionary  to  live 
so  cheaply.  To  do  either,  would  abridge  usefulness,  and  hazard 
health.  Many  things  are  absolute  necessaries  to  one,  which  to 
the  other  seem  highly  luxurious.  But  this  difference  should  not 
be  increased  by  the  use  of  superfluities  deemed  genteel  and 
suitable  at  home.  Cheap  fabrics  make  raiments  as  truly  com- 
fortable as  costly  ones ;  and  ornaments  and  embroideries  cer- 
tainly add  no  comfort.  Plain  furniture,  made  by  the  natives  or 
himself,  should  be  preferred  to  that  which  is  elegant,  even  if  the 
latter  could  be  had  for  nothing.  And  in  erecting  a  house,  no 
object  should  be  regarded  but  health  and  convenience. 

The  example  of  a  missionary  should  tend  to  elevate  the  people 
in  temporal  things,  and  spread  a  iove  of  neatness  and  order. 
But  expensiveness  defeats  this  result.  If  the  materials  of  our 
refinements  and  conveniences  are  too  costly,  the  natives  cannot 
have  them.  I  know  certain  missionaries  who  have  their  sofas 
and  bedsteads  made  of  bamboo,  at  an  expense  not  exceeding  ten 
cents  each.  Their  people  are  thus  taught  cleanliness  and  com- 
fort, and  cease  to  repose  on  the  floor.  The  same  individuals 
dress  in  the  cheapest  fabrics,  and  have  brought  their  people  to 
possess  suitable  changes  of  raiment,  instead  of  wearing  one  filthy 
garment  till  it  coidd  be  worn  no  more. 

A  great  superiority  of  living,  on  the  part  of  the  missionary, 
will  almost  certainly  excite  envy  —  a  feeling  tending  more  than 
any  other  to  obstruct  usefulness.  "  Who  can  stand  before 
envy  ? "  A  minister  in  our  own  country  could  scarcely  hope 
for  success  if  there  existed  a  proportionate    disparity  between 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  267 

him  and  his  people.  In  places  where  there  are  many  Euro- 
peans, the  evil  will  not  he  so  much  felt,  it*  the  missionary  live  in 
far  less  style  than  they.  In  these  places  only,  have  I  seen  such 
modes  of  living  as  have  heen  just  named.  And  it'  these  very 
houses  are  compared,  not  with  those  of  the  natives,  hut  those  pf 
Europeans,  they  will  generally  appear  to  he  as  much  humbler 
than  those,  as  ministers'  houses,  in  this  country,  are  humbler  than 
their  wealthy  parishioners.  In  the  remote  stations,  a  missionary 
should  take  a  still  humbler  mode.  The  natives  cannot  know 
what  luxuries  are  enjoyed  with  us,  even  by  the  poor.  They  just 
compare  the  missionaries  with  themselves,  and  can  scarcely 
associate  the  idea  of  self-denial  with  a  mode  of  living  which  so 
greatly  transcends  their  own. 

The  effect  on  the  missionary  himself  is  injurious.  Ilis  anticipa- 
tions had  comprised  great  and  unavoidable  self-denial  iu  regard 
to  house,  food,  climate,  and  other  bodily  comforts.  He  is,  there- 
fore, in  danger  of  habitually  endeavoring  to  make  this  self-denial 
as  small  as  possible.  Those  who  have  preceded  him  will  ad- 
duce arguments  or  excuses  with  regard  to  health,  respectability, 
&c.  Their  example,  the  wish  to  preserve  peace,  and  his  early 
habits,  will  all  tend  to  carry  him  on  to  the  very  position,  which,  on 
first  seeing  occupied  by  others,  had  shocked  his  feelings.  He 
is  then  no  longer  the  man  he  was,  and  intended  to  be.  His 
conscience  is  either  smothered  or  troubled  ;  his  success  is  hin- 
dered ;  and  there  is  great  danger  that  his  early  devotedness  and 
hope  of  usefulness  may  subside  into  formality  and  quiescence. 

The  blessed  Master  is  the  great  pattern  of  a  missionary.  But 
he  did  not  endeavor  to  live  in  a  condition  resembling,  as  near  as 
possible,  that  which  he  had  left.  Nor  should  the  missionary, 
sojourning  amid  degraded  heathen,  seek  to  retain  as  far  as  possi- 
ble the  refinements  and  gratifications  of  his  own  land.  Let  him 
renounce  them,  in  fact,  as,  on  his  knees,  when  he  gave  himself  to 
this  work,  lie  renounced  them  in  anticipation. 

Beside  the  effect  of  an  appearance  of  luxury  on  the  natives, 
every  useless  expense  should  be  avoided  on  the  ground  of  its 
raising  a  barrier  against  the  universality  of  our  operations. 
Though  money  will  probably  be  raised  in  greater  amount,  and 
with  greater  facility,  yet  it  must  be  remembered  how  small  a 
body  the  Protestants  of  Europe  and  America  are,  compared  with 
tbe  entire  human  race,  and  how  great  is  the  work  to  be  done. 
Presuming  that,  in  every  country,  native  pastors  should  be  raised 
up  in  sufficient  numbers  to  perform  the  entire  labor  of  evan- 
gelists, we  still  need  thousands  of  missionaries  to  make  begin- 


268  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

nings  in  every  tribe,  to  prepare  these  native  pastors,  to  make 
books  and  translations,  establish  schools,  &c. 

As  our  societies  grow  old,  widows  and  children  multiply ; 
and  soon  very  serious  sums  will  be  required  for  these.  As  an 
exemplar,  we  may  advert  to  the  Moravians,  who  have  longest 
maintained  modern  missions.  Nearly  all  the  contributions  from 
their  own  body  are  absorbed  on  matters  which  refer  to  the  past ; 
and  their  present  missionary  work  is  sustained  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  other  Christians.  By  the  last  annual  report  I  can  obtain, 
it  appeals  that  their  receipts,  from  all  sources,  are  about  £11,000 ; 
about  half  of  which  is  from  their  own  community. 

Total  expenses  for  all  stations £6100    0    0 

Paid  also  within  the  year  — 

to    20    retired    and   disabled  ?  faift  -ic  in 

missionaries ) 

to  36  widows 334  16    7 

education    of  95  missionary )  -ka^vx    n    n 

children ) 

20  boys  and  11  girls  apprenticed 1629    0    0 

Contingencies 898    0    0        4900  13    5 

£11000  13    5 


It  might  give  rise  to  unwarrantable  surmises,  if,  in  a  work  so 
crowded  with  facts,  directly  and  indirectly  connected  with  mis- 
sions, nothing  should  be  said  of  the  salaries  received  by  mis- 
sionaries ;  especially  while  speaking  of  their  modes  of  living. 
Nor  am  I  concerned  to  avoid  that  subject  But  the  reader  will 
bear  in  mind  several  considerations  — ;  1.  That,  in  preceding  chap- 
ters, I  have  borne  full  testimony  to  the  purity  and  zeal  of  mis- 
sionaries as  a  body.  2.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  them  endure 
serious  privations  as  to  modes  of  living,  and  all  of  them  endure, 
in  other  respects,  what  few  Christians  are  willing  to  encounter. 
3.  Though  their  income  may  far  transcend  the  poor  semi -civil- 
ized or  perhaps  barbarous  tribes  around  them,  it  falls  far  short 
of  what  Europeans  of  similar  education  and  talents  command, 
in  the  same  places,  and  their  mode  of  living  is  proportionally 
humble.  4.  Those  of  them  whose  style  of  living  has  just  been 
mentioned,  as  in  my  opinion  unsuitable,  do  but  copy  numerous 
ministers,  and  still  more  numerous  private  Christians,  in  our 
own  country,  who  live  in  costly  houses,  and  see  no  harm  in  using 
just  such  articles  as  have  been  named.    5.  It  is  certainly  too 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  5269 

much  to  expect  that  an  appointment  as  a  missionary  should,  as 
by  a  charm,  at  once  raise  a  man  to  a  fervor  of  piety,  contempt 
of  earth,  courage  in  dissenting  from  custom,  and  readiness  to 
endure  privations  which  none  of  his  church  at  home  have  at- 
tained, and  for  which  he  has  liad  neither  training  nor  example. 
The  difficulty  can  only  be  met  by  the  adoption  of  stricter  systems 
of  expenditure  by  all  Christians  at  home  and  abroad.  Missiona- 
ries will  carry  abroad  just  that  sort  and  degree  of  piety  they  have 
been  trained  to  at  home.  6.  The  chaplains  of  the  East  India 
Company  receive  775  rupees  per  month,  and  rank  as  majors,  with 
full  retiring  pension  at  the  end  of  the  term  of  service,  which,  I 
believe,  is  twenty-two  years.  There  are  ninety  chaplains,  whose 
salaries  and  places  of  worship  cost  the  Company  annually 
438,000  dollars.  This  last  statement  is  made  to  constitute  a 
standard  of  comparison  by  which  the  salaries  of  the  missiona- 
ries may  be  measured. 

The  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society  pay,  in  Hindustan, 
about  200  rupees  per  month,  for  a  family,  without  allow- 
ances. In  large  towns,  a  very  humble  house  costs  from  fifty 
to  eighty  rupees  per  month.  One  of  these  brethren  stated  to  me 
that  his  annual  expenses  for  medicine  and  medical  attendance 
averaged  250  rupees.  The  missionaries  of  the  Scotch  General 
Assembly  receive,  in  Calcutta,  400  rupees  per  month,  to  cover 
every  thing.  Missionaries  from  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  receive  £100  per  annum  for  a  family, 
without  allowances,  except  to  such  as  reside  in  Cape  Town.  In 
large  cities  of  India,  this  society  pays  sometimes  double  this 
amount,  hi  the  South  Sea  Islands,  the  allowance  for  a  family 
is  but  £75.  The  English  General  Baptist  Missionary  Society  pay 
their  missionaries  at  Orissa  about  1200  rupees  per  annum,  for 
a  family,  without  allowances.  A  missionary  from  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas  informed  me,  that  the  salaries  there  were 
£80  for  a  married  couple  and  family.  A  self-supported  unmar- 
ried missionary  from  Patna,  in  Bengal,  informed  me  that  his 
expenses  at  that  place  were  £70  per  annum. 

Whether  the  English  AVesleyan  Society  pay  fixed  salaries, 
I  have  no  means  of  knowing;  but  from  the  only  report  of  that 
society  I  have  at  hand,  (1835,)  it  appears  that,  in  the  Madras  dis- 
trict, five  missionaries,  four  native  assistants,  the  passages  home 
of  two  missionaries,  and  grants  to  schools,  cost  £2116.  In  Cey- 
lon, nine  missionaries,  twelve  native  assistants,  grants  to  schools, 
and  the  return  passage  of  a  family,  cost  £6032.  In  Sierra 
Leone,  three  missionaries  cost  £286 ;  and  in  New  South  Wales, 
23* 


270  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

a  station  with  three  missionaries  cost  £701.  The  Am.  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  have  not  fully  adopted  the 
system  of  fixed  salaries,  having  generally  allowed  each  family 
to  expend  what  is  requisite.  In  Southern  India,  they  pay  a  mar- 
ried couple  £150  per  annum,  with  allowances  for  children  and 
house  rent.  Missionaries  in  the  East  from  the  American  Baptist 
Board,  have  100  Company  rupees  per  month  for  a  married  couple, 
and  allowance  for  children,  house  rent,  medical  expenses,  and 
travelling. 

8.  There  should  he  more  direct  preaching  of  the  word,  pub- 
licly and  from  house  to  house. 

Of  all  parts  of  big  work,  direct  preaching  looks  most  attractive 
to  the  missionary  on  leaving  home,  and  becomes  in  general  most 
repulsive  in  the  field.  One  of  the  best  missionaries  now  alive 
remarked  that  there  was  nothing  so  difficult  for  him  to  resist  as  a 
repugnance  against  coming  in  contact  with  the  natives  !  This 
is  the  grand  object  of  those  who  design  to  devote  themselves  to 
foreign  service.  To  sit  beneath  some  friendly  shade,  imparting 
to  heathen  the  words  of  eternal  life,  is  their  beau  ideal,  their  en- 
rapturing anticipation,  their  expected  reward,  for  leaving  friends 
and  home.  But  when  they  approach  the  reality,  they  find  the 
romance  of  this  hope  turned  into  the  substantial  material  for 
disgust,  weariness,  and  despair. 

Sophisms,  absurdities,  false  reasonings,  extreme  ignorance, 
malicious  opposition,  unworthy  suspicions,  and  inveterate  preju- 
dices, must  be  perpetually  encountered.  These  are  rendered 
still  more  formidable,  for  the  first  few  years,  for  want  of  a  profi- 
ciency in  the  language,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  national  re- 
ligion and  literature.  To  teach  school,  to  study,  to  translate, 
to  survey  new  fields,  &c,  have  none  of  these  disagreeable 
concomitants,  and  are  not  so  totally  at  variance  with  previous 
habits  and  feelings.  They  have  the  charm,  too,  of  promising 
evident  and  immediate  fruit ;  and  of  seeming  to  prepare  the 
way  for  successors. 

Thus  the  highest  self-denial  required  of  a  missionary  is  in  that 
very  part  of  his  work  where  he  thought  he  should  want  none. 
He  is  unprepared  for  the  demand,  and  in  too  many  cases  is 
turned  aside  to  collateral  pursuits. 

This  is  an  age  in  which  the  proper  ministry  of  the  word  is  in 
danger  of  being  undervalued.  It  is  an  age  of  invention  and 
activity,  in  religious  as  well  as  common  matters,  and  the  mecha- 
nism of  Christianity  is  in  danger  of  transcending  the  simplicity 
of  the  Scripture  model,  or  at  least  of  attracting  superabundant 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  271 

attention.  One  eminent  minister  calls  infant-schools  "  the  railroad 
to  the  millennium."  Some  declare  preaching  to  be  "  the  smallest 
part  of  a  minister's  duty."  Others  affirm  that  conversions  among 
the  heathen  are  not  to  be  expected,  till  they  are  enabled  to  un- 
derstand the  evidences  of  divine  revelation,  and,  therefore,  that 
"  schools  are  the  grand  means  of  converting  the  heathen."  The 
same  sentiments  are  rung  in  the  ears  of  a  missionary  by  his 
countrymen  abroad.  He  has  their  countenance  in  schools, 
translations,  &c. ;  but  if  he  "  preach  the  gospel "  in  high-ways 
and  by-ways,  he  often  incurs  the  imputation  of  fanaticism  and 
folly.  Every  temptation  is  thus  offered  to  slight  the  proper 
ministry  of  the  word,  and  give  weak  faith  a  resting-place  on 
human  schemes. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  the  apostles  did  not  resort  to  schools, 
Bibles,  and  tracts,  because  the  art  of  printing  was  not  then  in- 
vented ;  that  learning  was  more  diffused ;  &c.  But  it  must  be 
sacredly  remembered,  that  the  Lord  gave  his  apostles  a  system 
of  means  not  founded  on  the  then  state  of  society  in  that  part 
of  Asia,  but  for  all  possible  conditions  of  society,  in  all  the  world, 
to  the  end  of  time.  It  is  a  system  founded  on  the  nature  of  reli- 
gion and  the  nature  of  man ;  and  no  changes  of  outward  condi- 
tion will  warrant  us  to  invent  another. 

All  modes  of  doing  good  should  undoubtedly  have  a  place  in 
our  system  of  means  ;  but  let  us  have  a  care,  lest  we  disparage, 
or  make  subordinate,  that  which  is  of  our  Lord's  own  appoint- 
ment, and  which,  above  all  others,  should  engage  our  energies. 
"By  the  foolishness  of  preaching,"  it  pleases  God  to  save  men. 
It  has  always  been  the  grand  instrument  of  conversion.  We 
must  always  rely  upon  it  as  such.  Other  services  demand  a  por- 
tion of  time,  and  in  a  proper  division  of  labor,  where  there  are 
several  missionaries,  some  one  brother  may  take  one  of  these  as 
his  department.  But,  as  a  general  rule,  the  first  object  and 
business  of  each,  is  strictly  ministerial  service.  President  Way- 
land,  in  his  address  to  missionaries  leaving  Boston  in  July,  1834, 
insists  on  this  point.  "  Nor  is  it  enough  that  you  be  laborious  ; 
your  labor  must  be  exclusive  ;  it  must  be  devoted  in  singleness 
of  heart  to  the  conversion  of  souls  to  Christ.  This  work  is  surely 
of  itself  extensive  enough  to  occupy  all  your  time,  and  all  your 
talents ;  and  manifestly  no  other  can  vie  with  it  in  importance. 
You  go  not  abroad  to  be  linguists,  nor  lexicographers,  nor  bota- 
nists, nor  philosophers,  nor  statesmen,  nor  politicians,  but  am- 
bassadors of  Christ.  Remember,  we  always  expect  an  ambassa- 
dor to  keep  entirely  aloof  from  all  entanglements  with  the  affairs 


272  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING  MISSIONS. 

of  the  parties  to  which  he  is  sent,  and  devote  himself  exclusively 
to  the  interest  of  the  party  by  which  he  is  commissioned.  I  do 
not  say  that  these  inquiries  are  not  important ;  I  only  say  that 
they  are  not  your  duty.  Like  Nehemiah,  you  are  doing  a  great 
work,  and  you  cannot  come  down." 

Of  the  same  opinion  was  Swartz,  who  reckoned  that  he  had 
been  the  means  of  converting  two  thousand  persons ;  and  of 
Brainard,  who  also  gathered  many  souls.  The  following  re- 
marks by  a  distinguished  Baptist  minister,  now  living  in  Edin- 
burgh, seem  full  of  piety  and  good  sense:  — 

"Much  have  we  heard,  indeed,  in  modern  times,  of  the  noble 
invention  of  printing,  and  much  respecting  the  power  of  educa- 
tion ;  and  I  do  not  imagine  that  any  candid  reader,  who  has 
proceeded  thus  far,  can  suppose  that  the  writer  is  indisposed  to 
give  to  each  its  own  appropriate  place.  At  the  same  time,  he 
conceives  that  they  may  not  only  be  perverted,  but  prevented  from 
doing  that  good  which  they  otherwise  might  accomplish.  For  ex- 
ample, if  they  be  permitted  to  occupy  that  place  in  our  esteem  and 
expectation,  which  belongs  to  a  divine  and  sovereign  appointment, 
then  they  may  not  only  become  as  chaff'  when  compared  to  the 
wheat,  but  awaken  the  jealousy  of  Him  who  will  not  give  his 
glory  to  another.  Our  employment  of  education  only,  and  with 
all  the  energy  which  the  art  of  printing  has  given  to  it,  may  turn 
out  to  be  nothing  more  than  giving  activity  to  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  without  directing  and  controlling  their  movements. 

"Education  will  humanize  and  improve,  in  most  instances;  but 
to  save  from  ultimate  destruction,  properly  speaking,  never  was 
within  its  province,  and  never  will  be.  Yet  since  the  time  in 
which  many  have  been  roused  to  see  its  necessity,  there  has 
been  a  phraseology  often  used  respecting  it  by  no  means  war- 
rantable. Education,  but  above  all,  scriptural  education,  will 
do  much.  There  will  always  he  an  undescribable  distance 
between  a  people  so  favored,  and  any  other  left  without  such 
means.  But  if  we  expect  more  from  it  than  it  has  ever  pro- 
duced, and  above  all,  if  we  apply  to  it  the  language  furnished  to 
us  in  the  Scripture,  and  which  is  there  exclusively  employed 
with  reference  to  an  institution  of  God's  own  sovereign  appoint- 
ment, we  may  be  left  to  witness  the  impotence  of  education, 
instead  of  its  power.  Hence  we  have  read  of  the  system  of 
some  one  of  these  educational  societies,  being  adapted  for  the 
regeneration  of  Ireland ;  and  the  terms  employed  in  Scripture 
to  the  laborers  in  the  vineyard  of  God,  have  been  unsparingly 
employed  by  religious  people  to  the  exertions  of  schoolmasters, 


MODE    OF   CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  273 

or  those  who  superintend  them.  This  is  not  merely  incorrect, 
but  it  is  unwise  and  unwarrantable.  Every  one  knows,  that,  in 
all  such  cases  of  agency,  every  thing  depends  upon  the  expecta- 
tions and  intentions  of  the  agent ;  but  the  language  referred  to 
is  teaching  us  to  expect  from  him,  what,  in  a  thousand  instances, 
the  agent  neither  intends  or  expects  himself.  The  schoolmaster 
may  have  gone  abroad,  and,  if  a  man  of  principle,  will  do  great 
good ;  but  to  apply  to  him  or  his  efforts  the  language  of  Sacred 
Writ,  which  regards  another  order  of  men  and  another  exercise, 
is  calculated  to  injure  the  work  of  his  hands,  as  well  as  blind 
our  own  minds  with  respect  to  another  and  a  higher  duty."  * 

While  I  am  indulging  in  quotation,  1  will  add  the  following, 
from  a  distinguished  missionary  —  Melvill  Home,  who  puts  the 
following  words  into  the  mouth  of  an  objector,  in  the  shape  of 
an  apostrophe  to  the  "  Lord  of  the  harvest."  "  If  thou  wilt  force 
us  to  cultivate  this  unpromising  field,  do  not  think  of  sending  us 
out  immediately,  but  let  schoolmasters  go  to  receive  the  first  fire, 
and  teach  the  little  children  reading  and  writing,  and  then  will 
we  go  and  enter  into  their  labors ;  for  the  experience  of  ages 
has  taught  us,  that  where  preaching  of  the  gospel  makes  one 
Christian,  education  makes  ten.  Hence,  instead  of  preaching 
first  to  the  parents,  and  then  establishing  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  children,  as  the  apostles  did,  (who  knew  that  the 
sword  of  the  spirit  was  of  heavenly  temper,  an  instrument  into 
which  the  God  of  glory  had  wrought  all  his  attributes,  we, 
having  lost  the  art  of  using  it,  and  that  arm  which  gives  it 
the  demonstration  of  the  Spirit  and  of  power,)  we  go  to  work 
another  way,  by  educating  children  first;  and  many  are  of 
opinion  that  the  best  way  of  enlightening,  is  by  putting  the 
moon  in  the  sun's  sphere,  and  having  children  to  instruct  their 
parents,  rather  than  parents  to  teach  their  children ! " 

Preachers  must  not  be  reluctant  to  itinerate.  It  will  not 
be  necessary,  except  among  a  few  tribes,  to  dispense  with  a  set- 
tled home,  and  to  wander  with  a  wandering  flock.  Still,  few 
missionaries  should  confine  themselves  at  home.  There  are 
jungles,  small  islands,  and  pestilent  districts,  accessible  to  for- 
eigners only  for  a  few  months  in  the  year,  which  can  only  be 
reached  by  itinerants.     There  are  advantages  too,  in  all  places, 


*  Anderson's  "  Ireland  without  the  Ministry  of  the  Word  in  her  native 
Language."  "  The  Domestic  Constitution,"  so  largely  quoted  from  by  Jay, 
in  his  Family  Monitor,  and  republished  in  this  country  under  the  title  of"  Book 
for  Parents,"  is  by  this  author. 


274  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

peculiar  to  such  itineracies.  There  is  upon  the  missionary  so 
employed,  a  benign  and  impressive  aspect  of  disinterested 
benevolence,  not  easily  misconstrued.  His  privations,  inconve- 
niences, dangers,  and  exertions  convince  even  the  heathen  of 
his  love  of  souls.  He  honors  them  by  the  condescension  and 
confidence  with  which  he  eats  the  food  they  prepare,  and  sleeps 
on  the  mat  they  spread  for  him.  He  becomes  acquainted  with 
native  character,  where  it  has  not  been  modified  by  foreign  influ- 
ence, and  is  thus  assisted  both  to  preach  and  to  prepare  tracts. 
He  has  opportunities  for  calm  and  repeated  conversations  with 
individuals  at  their  own  home.  He  escapes  the  pestilent  pres- 
ence of  ungodly  nominal  Christians.  The  circumstances  of  his 
own  superior  living,  are  not  present  to  do  injury. 

Not  for  a  moment  would  I  countenance  that  gadding  and 
discursive  spirit  which  entices  men  to  leave  their  sphere ;  nor 
that  romance  which  loves  to  visit  distant  and  celebrated  places ; 
nor  that  love  of  fame  which  is  gratified  by  being  able  to  send 
racy  journals  to  the  magazines.  It  can  be  of  little  use  to 
scatter  far  and  near  seed  which  neither  we  nor  others  can  water. 
The  itineracy  should  for  the  most  part  be  performed  within  a 
given  limit,  visiting  the  same  places  again  and  again,  as  the 
apostles  did. 

Preaching  must  be  maintained  in  contradistinction  to  con- 
versation and  disputing.  I  know  that  it  cannot  always  be  such 
preaching  as  we  have  at  home.  Questions  must  be  permitted, 
objections  occasionally  answered,  explanations  made,  and  much 
of  our  own  formality  dispensed  with.  But  it  must  be  legitimate 
preaching.  The  heathen  are  very  glad  to  dispute ;  and  do  it  in  a 
very  wearisome,  provoking,  and  often  suhtle  manner.  When 
we  enter  into  their  sophistries,  and  recondite  arguments,  we 
make  Christianity  contend  with  the  intellect,  instead  of  the  con- 
science, and  our  great  advantage  is  lost.  Paul's  disputings  in  the 
school  of  Tyrannus  are  quoted.  But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  StaXoyofJEvog,  (dialogomenos,)  here  rendered  "disputing,"  is 
the  very  word  used  of  other  occasions  where  pros  and  cons 
were  not  thought  of;  such  as  "  Paul  was  long  preaching"  Acts 
xx.  9 ;  "  He  reasoned  in  the  synagogue  every  Sabbath-day,"  Acts 
xviii.  4 ;  "  He  preached  unto  them,  ready  to  depart  on  the  morrow," 
Acts  xx.  7 ;  "  He  reasoned  of  righteousness,"  &c,  Acts  xxiv.  9. 
Missionaries  will  sometimes  be  obliged  to  dispute;  and  so  were 
the  apostles.  But  they  are  destitute  of  many  advantages  enjoyed 
by  the  latter.  Those  disputes  were  with  men  who  believed 
in  the  Old  Testament,  or  who  held  great  principles  in  common 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  275 

with  themselves.  They  were  to  prove,  to  persons  who  expected  a 
Messiah,  that  Jesus  was  that  Christ ;  or  were  based  upon  premises 
which  the  antagonists,  or  their  own  poets,  fully  admitted.  So 
did  our  Savior  sometimes  dispute  ;  but  we  have  numerous  cases 
where  he  dexterously  avoided  foolish  questions  or  philosophical 
subtilties.  He  parried  where  he  might  have  triumphed,  and 
chose  the  more  immediate,  if  not  the  only  avenue,  to  conviction. 

What  has  been  gained  by  the  repeated  triumphs  of  speculative 
theology  over  science,  politics,  and  heresy  ?  Over  and  over  the 
battle  has  been  fought,  consuming  whole  lives,  and  filling  up 
whole  libraries.  Over  and  over  have  infidels,  heretics,  Papists, 
and  Jews,  been  defeated.  But  new  champions  rise.  The  old 
ground  is  taken,  or  some  novelty  advanced ;  and  in  every  age, 
the  war  continues.  At  this  very  day  our  press  teems  with  works 
on  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  and  in  opposition  to  errors 
already  a  thousand  times  refuted.  In  countries  where  Christian- 
ity has  so  triumphed,  as  to  make  worldly  and  political  men  con- 
fess it,  and  weave  it  inio  the  very  texture  of  social  and  civil 
society,  what  do  we  see  but  a  dead  orthodoxy,  an  unconverted 
priesthood,  simony,  secularity,  and  pride  ?  Christianity  has 
made  its  greatest  triumphs  where  it  has  stood  despised,  hated, 
and  cast  out,  by  the  learning,  the  philosophy,  and  the  power  of 
the  world.  Why  should  missionaries  repeat  that  struggle  which 
has  a  thousand  times  ended  in  a  bootless  triumph  ?  It  is  not  a 
man's  learning,  philosophy,  or  superstition,  that  precludes  his 
conversion,  but  the  opposition  of  his  carnal  heart.  To  over- 
come this,  God  forbid  that  we  should  confide  in  aught  else  than 
the  doctrine  of  "  Christ  crucified,  to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block, 
and  to  the  Gentiles  foolishness."  Let  us  never,  never  forget  that 
"  God  hath  chosen  the  foolishness  of  this  world  to  confound  the 
wise,  and  low  things,  and  things  that  are  despised,  and  things 
which  are  not,  to  bring  to  naught  the  things  that  are,  that  no 
flesh  should  glory  in  his  presence." 

9.  Regular  churches,  with  pastors  and  deacons,  should  be 
formed  at  the  earliest  possible  period,  in  eveiy  place. 

It  is  of  great  consequence  to  put  our  work  on  a  footing  which 
may  secure  stability  and  increase,  without  the  presence  of  a 
missionary.  Ordained  native  ministers  are  very  few.*  Church 
order  and  discipline  are  not  sufficiently  understood  by  the  dis- 
ciples.    The   missionary  is  all  in  all ;  and  at  his  departure  or 

*  In  all  the  Burman  and  Karen  churches  I  found  but  one  ;  in  some  mis- 
sions, none  j  and  no  where,  any  adequate  supply. 


/ 


276  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

death,  every  trace  of  his  work  may  disappear.  It  is  true,  such 
churches  at  first  would  seldom  be  able  to  stand  alone.  But  if 
they  ever  do,  they  must  first  have  this  feeble  beginning.  There 
were  great  and  important  reasons  why  Christ  instituted  churches. 
Even  higher  advantages  result  from  them,  in  heathen  lands,  than 
among  ourselves.  Without  the  mutual  brotherly  watchfulness 
which  they  secure,  feeble  members  cannot  receive  adequate 
assistance.  It  is  true,  few  are  as  qualified  as  is  desirable  for 
the  imposition  of  hands.  But  the  apostles,  in  resolving  to 
ordain  elders  in  every  church,  must  have  met  the  same  difficulty. 
If  no  encouraging  degree  of  fitness  be  found  in  any  member, 
we  may  take  a  brother  from  some  other  church.  To  these 
should  be  committed,  for  obvious  reasons,  most  of  the  preaching, 
discipline,  and  administration  of  ordinances.  They  should  be 
honored  in  the  presence  of  the  people.  Their  support  should,  as 
far  as  possible,  be  derived  from  the  converts.  They  should  be 
sedulously  watched  over  and  aided.  They  should  have  associa- 
tions, and  ministers'  meetings.  They  should  meet  the  missionary 
at  stated  periods,  and  be  aided,  as  for  as  possible,  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  Scripture  history  and  doctrine.  In  many  cases, 
they  should  be  changed,  on  the  plan  of  Methodist  circuits.  Some 
might  attend  half  the  year  at  a  proper  seminary.  Younger  ones 
should  be  placed  at  such  an  institution  for  several  years.  But 
of  this  more  under  the  next  head. 

A  similar  appointment  and  training  should  be  had  for  deacons, 
exhorters,  and  church  clerks.  The  guiding  influence  of  the 
missionary  should  be  exerted  as  unseen  as  possible.  Every 
effort  should  be  made,  to  bring  out  the  capacity  and  activity 
of  the  members,  so  that  the  death  or  removal  of  the  missionary, 
should  be  injurious  in  the  least  possible  degree. 

10.  The  qualifications  of  native  assistants  should  receive  more 
attention. 

The  importance  of  this  class  of  auxiliaries  can  scarcely  be  too 
highly  estimated.  Without  risk  of  health,  and  with  little  ex- 
pense or  inconvenience,  they  can  carry  the  tidings  of  salvation 
where  a  missionary  cannot  go,  or  may  not  be  sent,  for  an  age. 
They  can  travel,  eat,  sit,  and  lodge,  as  the  natives  do.  Between 
those  and  themselves,  there  is  not  that  awful  distance  which 
can  scarcely  be  overcome  by  a  missionary.  Their  knowledge 
of  the  language  is  complete,  which  can  seldom  be  said  of  a 
foreigner.  They  know,  from  experience,  the  exact  temptations, 
doubts,  difficulties,  and  prejudices  of  their  hearers.  They  can 
talk  with  an  inquirer,  often  and  long,  without  drawing  opposition 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  277 

upon  him,  before  he  has  become  enlightened  and  firm  enough  to 
endure  it.  To  be  seen  conversing  a  few  times  with  a  missionary, 
or  to  go  repeatedly  to  his  house,  or  chapel,  excites  almost  as 
great  opposition,  as  a  profession  of  Christianity.  Thus  a  man's 
mind  must  be  made  up  to  encouuter  exceeding  difficulties,  be- 
fore he  has  become  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  missionary's 
arguments,  to  know  whether  he  will  endure  sufferings  lor  the 
new  religion  or  not ;  that  is  to  say,  he  must  submit  to  be  per- 
secuted, before  he  knows  whether  the  system  is  worth  being 
persecuted  for. 

Various  reasons  of  this  sort,  some  adapted  to  the  condition  of 
one  country,  and  some  to  that  of  another,  show  the  duty  of  fos- 
tering this  branch  of  our  force.  Unordained  natives  have  indeed 
been  employed,  and  in  some  places  to  a  great  extent.  And  to 
their  labors  are  traceable  very  numerous  conversions.  But  it 
seems  necessary  to  bestow  upon  them  a  much  greater  measure 
of  mental  cultivation  and  religious  knowledge.  Had  half  the 
pains  been  thus  bestowed,  which  have  been  expended  on  common 
schools,  how  great  would  have  been  the  gain ! 

Without  some  additional  mental  cultivation,  doctrinal  knowl- 
edge, and  practical  graces,  native  assistants  are  not  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  their  peculiar  advantages  ;  some  of  which  have  just 
been  named.  It  is  well  known  that  scarcely  one  of  them  is  able  to 
act  alone  ;  and  that,  though  so  useful,  when  sustained  and  guided 
by  a  good  missionary,  they  have  run  into  manifold  evils,  when 
left  to  themselves.  Why  is  this  ?  They  possess  piety,  zeal,  and 
talents.  It  must  be  owing  to  the  superior  intelligence  and  ac- 
quired advantages  of  the  missionary.  Let  us,  then,  lead  them  into 
that  knowledge  of  the  word  of  God,  and  that  measure  of  devotion, 
which  at  present  they  have  no  means  of  obtaining. 

Slender  would  be  the  qualifications  of  a  minister  with  us, 
whose  opportunities  had  been  no  greater  than  those  of  native 
preachers.  Abstract  from  him  all  that  his  mother  and  father 
taught  him,  all  he  learned  at  infant  or  Sunday  school,  from  the 
moral  maxims  of  his  horn-books,  his  copy-slips,  his  general  read- 
ing, and  the  restraints  of  Christian  society  ;  put  in  the  place  of  this, 
every  degrading,  polluting,  and  erroneous  thing,  learned  by  a 
heathen  child,  at  home,  at  school,  and  abroad ;  take  away  the 
intellectual  benefits  of  an  academic  or  collegiate  course  ;  abolish 
all  his  knowledge  of  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  history,  chro- 
nology, geography,  prophecy,  miracles,  and  the  state  of  the 
world ;  all  he  ever  gained  by  intercourse  with  eminent  saints, 
vol.  ii.  24 


278  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

or  a  perusal  of  their  biographies;  all  the  helps  he  has  had 
from  commentators,  critics,  sermons,  anniversaries,  associations, 
religious  periodicals,  and  intercourse  with  enlightened  fellow- 
ministers  ;  in  fine,  leave  him  nothing  but  some  portions  of  God's 
word,  and  a  few  evangelical  tracts ;  and  add  to  him  a  plenitude 
of  errors  and  malpractices  acquired  in  a  life  of  Gentile  abomina- 
tions,—  and  you  will  have  the  present  qualifications  of  a  native 
assistant. 

Some  regular  institution  seems  wanting,  in  every  mission,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  instructing  those  who  give  evidences  of  a 
call  to  this  work.  Advantages,  similar  in  kind,  if  not  in  extent, 
to  those  enjoyed  by  young  ministers  at  home,  should  be  placed 
within  their  reach.  A  supply  of  assistants,  thus  educated,  would 
leave  leisure  to  the  missionary  for  necessary  translations  and 
revisions  ;  for  exercising  a  general  pastoral  care  over  a  large  dis- 
trict ;  for  exploring  new  fields ;  for  corresponding  with  the  socie- 
ties at  home  ;  and  for  other  duties,  which  can  now  only  be  done 
at  a  great  sacrifice  of  pastoral  pursuits. 

By  no  other  course  does  it  now  appear  that  we  can  send  the 
gospel  into  all  the  earth.  We  cannot  hope  to  send  forth  from 
ourselves  the  hundredth  part  of  an  adequate  supply  of  ministers 
for  six  hundred  millions  of  pagans,  at  an  annual  expense  of  from 
five  hundred  to  one  thousand  dollars  for  each  family.  Nor  could 
we  consent  to  lay  the  foundations  of  Christianity,  over  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  earth,  by  native  preachers  so  ignorant  of  the 
system  as  those  we  now  have.  Without  raising  these  qualifica- 
tions, they  will  soon  be  despised  by  the  very  youth,  whom,  by 
hundreds  and  thousands  are  now  being  educated  in  missionary 
and  government  schools. 

11.  A  considerable  number  of  the  most  promising  converts 
and  younger  preachers  should  be  taught  the  English  language. 

It  is  dismaying  to  compute  the  period  which  must  elapse 
before  the  heathen  can  be  supplied,  in  their  own  languages,  with 
the  word  of  God.  Who,  then,  can  predict  the  time  when  those 
languages  shall  contain  a  supply  of  works  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, biblical  criticism,  theology,  and  practical  piety  ?  Who  is  to 
give  them  books  of  science  and  art  ?  If,  now,  we  would  impart 
to  our  missionary  pupils  the  benefits  of  such  studies,  we  are  re- 
stricted to  wearisome  oral  instructions,  demanding,  on  the  whole, 
an  amount  of  time  equal  to  ivhat  would  be  necessary  to  teach  them 
English.  Beside,  instructions  unsustained  by  reading  are  less 
perfectly  acquired,  and  the  amount  obtained  is  in  danger  of  being 


MODE   OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  279 

forgotten.  At  best,  when  the  pupil  leaves  the  institution,  his 
progress  is  terminated ;  and  terminated  too,  as  all  school-studies 
are,  at  the  threshold  of  the  subjects. 

By  giving  our  young  convert  the  English  language,  we  set 
before  him  the  whole  temple  of  knowledge,  and  present  him 
with  the  key.  Subjects  which  would  otherwise  have  remained 
forever  sealed  will  be  fully  open  to  his  inspection.  He  has  but 
to  use  his  own  powers,  and  he  may  pursue  an  indefinite  progress. 
With  an  enriched  mind,  trained  habits  of  thinking,  and  a  culti- 
vated heart,  he  goes  forth  among  his  people  "  a  workman  that 
needeth  not  to  be  ashamed."  Let  but  the  reader  ask  himself 
what  benefit  he  has  gained,  merely,  by  a  dozen  books,  such  as 
the  Saint's  Rest,  Law's  Serious  Call,  Watts  on  the  Mind,  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  the  works  of  Brooks,  Mather,  Flavel,  Charnock,  &c, 
and  decide  whether,  even  for  this,  he  would  not  have  done  well 
to  master  a  language  ?  Did  he  ever  gain  so  much  from  his 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  Italian,  or  German,  or  all  together,  as  a 
heathen  convert  would  gain  from  a  knowledge  of  English  ?  Our 
language  is  now  becoming  the  religious  language  of  mankind, 
and  perhaps  the  scientific  also.  It  is  to  be  to  the  East,  what 
Greek  was  to  Rome,  or  Latin  was,  a  century  or  two  ago,  to 
Europe.  Already  does  it  abound  with  works  of  imagination, 
specimens  of  eloquence,  stores  of  history,  speculations  on 
metaphysics,  morals,  government,  law,  commerce,  scientific  re- 
searches, and  mechanical  inventions,  immensely  more  valuable 
than  was  ever  extant  in  all  the  ancient  languages.  As  to  religion, 
it  probably  contains  more  valuable  books  than  all  other  lan- 
guages put  together. 

Add,  therefore,  to  the  important  advantages  already  enjoyed  by 
the  native  preacher,  merely  those  which  the  ability  to  read  Eng- 
lish would  confer,  and  he  would  be  more  valuable  than  almost 
any  foreign  missionary  can  be,  and  at  the  same  time  cost  the 
church  incomparably  less. 

From  natives  able  to  read  English,  we  might  hope  soon  to  see 
many  valuable  translations.  Men  translate  into  their  own  lan- 
guage far  more  successfully  than  into  a  foreign  one.  They 
would  do  more  than  this  —  they  would  write  original  works. 
Few  translations,  except  of  the  Scriptures,  will  ever  be  very 
useful.  Books,  being  written  for  our  state  of  society,  and  degree 
of  knowledge,  do  not  answer  for  heathen.  They  must  be 
written  by  natives,  not  only  in  native  idiom,  but  in  native  modes 
of  thinking,  and  adapted  to  the  degree  of  knowledge  possessed 
by  the   reader.     Our   books,  on   every  page,  take   for  granted 


280  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

certain  measures  of  previous  mental  culture,  which  heathen 
readers  do  not  possess,  and  for  want  of  which,  the  whole  effort 
of  the  author  is  likely  to  fail. 

The  difficulty  of  learning  to  read  and  write  a  language,  es- 
pecially our  own,  is  much  less  than  learning  to  speak  it ;  and  in 
this  case,  only  the  former  is  required.  Indeed,  the  learning  so 
much  of  a  language  as  to  gather  the  meaning  of  an  author,  is  by 
no  means  an  arduous  undertaking.  To  pronounce  correctly, 
and  to  command  words  fluently  for  conversation,  is  much  the 
largest  part  of  the  task.  This  is  not  only  unnecessary  to  our 
brethren,  but  in  some  cases  undesirable,  lest  they  be  corrupted 
by  evil  intercourse,  or  tempted  to  seek  secular  situations  of 
greater  profit. 

A  native  assistant  has  now  no  books  to  read,  but  the  tracts 
and  translations,  to  which  his  hearers  have  access.  How  can 
he  hold  a  proper  intellectual  and  religious  superiority  over  them  ? 
He  ought  to  be  versed  in  the  true  meaning  of  difficult  passages, 
the  rules  of  interpretation,  the  geography,  chronology,  and 
natural  history  of  the  Bible,  the  manners  and  customs  of  Jews, 
and  other  kindred  studies.  He  should  know  something  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  church  government,  and  biblical  theology. 
But  in  all  these  he  has  no  helps  in  his  own  language,  and  in 
hundreds  of  languages  there  never  will  be  any.  Missionary 
money  can  never  make  translations  of  all  these ;  and  many  years 
must  elapse  before  there  will  be  a  religious  public,  creating  such 
a  demand  for  them,  that  they  will  be  printed  as  matters  of 
trade. 

In  our  own  country,  what  students  actually  learn  at  college,  is 
not  so  important  as  the  knowledge  they  obtain  of  the  sources  of 
information.  The  wide  and  long  vista  of  truth  is  opened  be- 
fore them ;  they  see  what  is  to  be  learned,  obtain  mental  train- 
ing, get  a  knowledge  of  books,  and  leave  the  institution  prepared 
to  be  successful  students.  Not  so  with  native  preachers.  They 
set  out  with  a  modicum  of  biblical  knowledge,  precariously 
retained  in  their  memories,  and  with  scarcely  the  advantages 
of  a  Sunday  scholar.  They  meet  antagonists,  learned  in  the 
prevailing  system,  and  must  contend  with  them,  without  so 
much  as  a  proper  knowledge  of  their  own. 

12.  There  must  be  greater  care  taken  that  a  station,  once 
begun,  should  be  uninterruptedly  maintained. 

That  this  has  not  been  the  case,  has  seldom  been  the  fault  of 
missionaries.  It  is  not  easy  to  convey  the  importance  of  this 
idea  to  churches  and  directors  at  home  ;  and  their  arrangements 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  281 

have  been  such  as  to  spread  over  as  large  a  surface  as  possible, 
leaving  many  stations  in  the  hands  of  a  solitary  individual. 

What  would  be  the  effect  on  any  district  of  fifty,  or  sixty,  or 
perhaps  five  hundred  square  miles,  which  should  be  left  for  one, 
two,  or  three  years,  without  a  minister,  or  a  prayer-meeting,  or  a 
Sunday  school,  or,  in  fine,  any  of  the  means  of  grace  ?  But  with 
us,  even  in  such  a  case,  there  would  be  a  thousand  good  influ- 
ences, public  and  private.  Not  so  among  the  heathen.  The 
death  or  departure  of  a  missionary  stops  even  tiling,  except  a 
church  have  been  gathered,  and  native  pastors  trained.  Even 
then,  all  activity  is  suspended,  and  passive  virtues  will  not  abound. 
The  converts  will  fall  into  errors  and  apostasies,  if  not  into 
sufferings  and  want. 

A  heathen  or  Mussulman,  on  becoming  a  Christian,  is  gener- 
ally discarded  by  his  friends;  and  where  caste  exists,  always. 
In  very  many  cases,  if  the  missionary  do  not  provide  him  work, 
he  must  starve.  If  not  so  poor,  yet  without  the  missionary,  how 
shall  he  contend  with  the  difficulties  of  his  situation,  and  the 
evils  of  his  former  habits  ?  He  is  left  without  daily  instruction, 
without  pious  intercourse,  without  a  shield  from  tyranny.  The 
little  band,  gathered  by  years  of  toil,  is  in  a  few  months 
scattered ;  the  enemy  triumphs ;  confidence  in  the  continuance 
of  the  station  is  destroyed ;  and  the  next  missionary  is  often  led 
to  affirm,  as  several  have  done  to  me,  that  it  would  have  been 
better  if  no  predecessor  had  ever  labored  there. 

Many  contingencies  may  cause  a  station  to  be  suspended 
where  a  missionary  is  alone.  There  can  be  no  security  against 
it,  except  by  placing  two  brethren  at  every  station ;  and  at 
some,  still  more.  They  need  not  always  be  in  the  same  com- 
pound, or  even  in  the  same  village ;  but  should  not  be  so  far 
apart  as  to  prevent  one  from  taking  an  effective  temporary  charge 
of  the  department  of  the  other,  in  case  of  death,  sickness,  or 
absence. 

It  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  fatal  errors  of  modern 
missions  to  disregard,  so  generally,  the  New  Testament  example 
in  this  particular.  Our  Lord  sent  both  the  seventy  and  the 
twelve,  two  by  two.  When  he  had  ascended,  the  apostles  con- 
tinued the  same  plan.  They  either  proceeded  forth  in  pairs,  or 
took  a  younger  evangelist  as  a  "partner  and  fellow-helper." 
The  Holy  Ghost  gave  sanction  to  this  mode,  when  he  called  for 
the  separation  of  Barnabas  and  Saul  to  a  particular  field.  How 
touching  and  instructive  are  Paul's  feelings,  when  separated 
from  his  official  companion,  though  in  the  midst  of  distinguished 
24* 


282  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

successes !  "  When  I  came  to  Troas  to  preach,  and  a  door  was 
opened  unto  me  of  the  Lord,  I  had  no  rest  in  my  spirit,  heexiuse 
I  found  not  Titus ;  so,  taking  my  leave,  I  went  into  Macedonia." 
When  Titus  rejoined  him,  he  was  in  the  midst  of  disappoint- 
ment and  difficulty ;  but  his  heart  was  immediately  made  whole. 
He  then  said,  "I  am  filled,  I  am  exceeding  joyful,  in  all  our 
tribulation  ;  for  though,  when  we  came  into  Macedonia,  our  flesh 
had  no  rest,  and  we  were  troubled  on  every  side,  (without  were 
fightings,  and  within  were  tears,)  yet  God  comforted  us  by  the 
coming  of  Titus."     2  Corinthians  ii.  12,  13,  and  vii.  4-6. 

It  is  believed  by  some  judicious  brethren  abroad,  that  some 
missionaries  have  died  in  consequence  of  lonesomeness,  dis- 
traction, care,  and  excessive  exertion. 

13.     It  is  important  to  establish  a  greater  division  of  labor. 

Hitherto  the  same  missionary  has  been  compelled  to  be 
pastor,  itinerant,  Sunday  school  teacher,  schoolmaster,  trans- 
lator, author,  tract- distributor,  proof-reader,  physician,  nurse, 
housekeeper,  and  perhaps  printer  and  bookbinder.  Some- 
times, in  addition  to  these,  he  must  oversee  catechists  and 
preachers,  be  agent  for  inland  stations,  and  preach  occasionally 
in  English !  The  thing  amounts  to  a  perfect  absurdity.  Some 
men  may  endure  such  wear  and  tear  for  a  while ;  but  the  results 
of  their  labors  are  nullified  by  desultoriness.  Regularity  and 
efficiency  are  impossible.  Nothing  can  be  prosecuted  with 
sufficient  vigor,  either  to  obtain  skill  in  it,  or  secure  the  best 
results. 

It  is  truly  surprising  that  the  few  missionaries  scattered  over 
the  world,  should  have  accomplished  what  we  now  see.  It 
proves  that,  in  general,  they  must  have  been  extraordinary  men. 
And  it  is  very  well  to  practise  on  the  doctrine,  that  it  is  better  to 
wear  out  than  rust  out.  But  such  a  system  as  is  now  pursued, 
only  makes  men  tear  out. 

Schools  might  be  maintained  by  the  wives  of  missionaries,  or 
by  brethren  who  shall  call  themselves  schoolmasters.  Where 
preaching  in  English  is  deemed  necessary,  let  a  brother  separate 
himself  to  that  work;  or  let  it  be  done  by  one  whose  age,  experi- 
ence, and  mental  cultivation,  will  enable  him  to  do  it  with  extem- 
poraneous ability.  Theological  or  boarding  schools  should  enjoy 
the  whole  services  of  a  select  individual.  Translations  and  au- 
thorship, with  some  avocation  requiring  bodily  activity,  are  work 
enough  for  one  man  at  each  principal  station.  Further  specifi- 
cations must  depend  on  each  particular  case. 

Beside  the  advantages  on  the  spot  of  such  a  distribution  of 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  283 

duties  it  would  have  a  happy  effect  at  home  in  showing  the 
churches  the  actual  state  and  operations  of  their  phalanx  abroad. 
I  hey  would  see  what  branches  of"  the  work  most  needed  reeu- 
forcement.  They  would  better  understand  what  result  should  be 
expected  in  each  particular  department.  They  would  particular- 
ly see  what  proportion  of  labor  is  made  to  bear  on  the  imme- 
diate conversion  of  souls,  and  the  whole  operation  of  the  mis- 
sionary enterprise  would  stand  transparent  and  self-explained. 

14.  There  should  be  more  concentration  of  effort 

In  every  mission  there  should  be  one  point  where  operations 
should  be  conducted  with  great  vigor  and  by  many  hands. 

By  placing  at  this  point  the  translator,  the  printing-office,  the 
school  for  native  assistants,  and  two  or  three  evangelists,  beside 
those  brethren  whose  proper  field  is  pestilent  or  inaccessible 
except  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  there  would  be  secured  many 
advantages.  Numerous  questions  from  minor  stations,  which 
must  now  wait  the  tedious  process  of  a  reference  to  the  Board, 
might  be  safely  left  to  the  decision  of  such  a  body  of  brethren  on 
the  spot.  Vacaucies  at  various  points  might  be  immediately 
supplied  —  a  matter,  as  has  been  shown,  of  great  consequence. 
Thus  a  farmer,  penetrating  into  the  forest,  makes  first  an  effective 
clearing  where  he  establishes  himself,  and  from  whence  he  may 
extend  his  openings  at  pleasure.  Thus  an  army  always  has  its 
"  head  quarters."  Thus  the  primitive  church  retained  at  Jeru- 
salem a  body  of  principal  apostles  and  elders,  to  whom  disputed 
questions  were  referred,  from  whence  the  brethren  went  forth 
to  their  spheres,  and  to  whom  they  returned,  reporting  suc- 
cesses and  refreshing  themselves  with  genial  society. 

The  majority  of  employments  which  were  just  named  as  ab- 
surdly falling  on  the  same  individual,  may  be  divided  and  prose- 
cuted at  such  central  station  with  effect.  Thus  the  brethren 
who  go  forth,  two  by  two,  to  lonelier  stations,  will  have  fewer 
duties,  and  may  divide  these  with  a  prospect  of  mutual  success. 
The  establishment  of  such  a  body  of  brethren  would  constitute  a 
safe  band  of  counsellors  both  to  one  another  and  to  their  society 
at  home  ;  it  would  inspire  confidence  in  the  natives  that  the  un- 
dertaking was  permanent;  it  could  supply  for  a  time  any  out- 
station  vacated  by  the  retirement  or  death  of  a  missionary  ;  and 
it  would  be  a  favorable  location  for  new  missionaries  to  study 
for  a  year  or  two,  and  acquire  a  knowledge  of  their  field. 

There  should  be  more  concentration  as  to  the  portions  of  the 
world  which  we  attempt  to  evangelize.  Those  regions  which 
have  received  the  largest  supply  of  missionaries  have  been  the 


284  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 

most  encouraging.  Labrador  and  Greenland,  with  a  population 
of  but  eight  or  nine  thousand,  have  fifty-one  missionaries  and 
assistants.  The  West  Indies  have  more  than  two  hundred  mis- 
sionaries ;  and  each  of  these  may  be  counted  equal  to  two  in  the 
East  Indies,  if  we  consider  that  they  have  not  been  obliged  to 
learn  a  language,  or  make  dictionaries,  translations,  &c.  Jamaica, 
with  a  population  of  four  hundred  thousand,  has  more  than  sixty 
European  missionaries.  The  Sandwich  Islands,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  one  hundred  and  eight  thousand,  has  eighty-seven  mis- 
sionaries and  assistants.  The  portion  of  Karens  which  have  re- 
ceived the  services  of  Boardman,  Wade,  and  Mason,  and  which 
has  been  blessed  in  actual  conversions  more  than  almost  any 
other,  amounts  to  less  than  six  thousand. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  single  cities  containing  popula- 
tions of  hundreds  of  thousands,  with  but  one,  two,  or  three  mis- 
sionaries ;  and  in  these  we  hear  of  small  success.  It  is  to  be 
feared  that  the  church  has,  in  its  anxiety  to  spread  wide  the 
tidings  of  salvation,  been  beguiled  into  too  great  diffusiveness  of 
labor.  It  seems  hard  to  keep  sending  men  to  countries  already 
entered,  while  whole  kingdoms  and  tribes  are  left  to  perish.  But 
it  had  better  be  thus.  Only  thus  can  the  work  be  done.  Only 
thus  will  the  church  be  able  to  see  clearly  and  impressively  how 
much  land  remains  to  be  possessed,  and  feel  the  inadequacy  of 
her  present  operations. 

15.  A  larger  proportion  of  effort  should  be  directed  to  the 
more  enlightened  nations,  and  to  the  higher  classes  in  all  nations. 

Our  efforts  have  hitherto  been  expended  chiefly  on  Esqui- 
maux, Laplanders,  Greenlanders,  Tartars,  American  Indians, 
Sandwich  Islanders,  Hottentots,  Bushmen,  Nicobarians,  Malays, 
Negroes,  and  Slaves.  Converts  have  indeed  been  made,  and 
immortal  souls  saved.  But  the  results  terminate  on  the  spot. 
Such  people  have  no  such  influence  on  adjacent  nations-  as  had 
the  citizens  of  Jerusalem,  Damascus,  Alexandria,  Rome,  Corinth, 
or  Ephesus.  They  have  no  commerce  to  spread  abroad  the 
holy  leaven,  and  few  pecuniary  resources  to  enable  them  to  join 
in  the  work  of  giving  Bibles  and  ministers  to  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

Among  tribes  so  degraded,  the  missionary  contends  with  brutal 
ignorance,  strong  temptations  to  hypocrisy,  deep  poverty,  petty 
wars,  and  frequent  changes  in  congregation  ;  together  with  the  in- 
conveniences of  unsuitable  food  and  habitation,  and  the  most  vio- 
lent change  in  all  his  previous  habits  and  associations.  Had  we 
begun  by  spreading  the  gospel   among  our  more   immediate 


MODE   OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS.  285 

neighbors  and  the  greater  kingdoms,  missionaries,  and  mission- 
ary influences  in  a  thousand  forms,  would  have  multiplied  spon- 
taneously. Converted  Arabs,  Chinese,  Hindus,  or  Burmans 
could  have  spread  out  among  ruder  tribes,  without  those  violent 
transitions  which  curtail  the  lives  of  our  brethren,  or  those  ex- 
cessive expenses  which  keep  down  the  extent  of  our  efforts. 

It  may  be  thought  the  Hindus  should  not  be  named  in  this 
collection,  so  much  having  been  done  for  them.  But  the  extent 
of  this  country  should  be  remembered,  and  the  number  of  mis- 
sionaries, which,  with  all  the  late  augmentations,  have  been  sent 
to  occupy  it.  From  Bombay  to  Bankok,  and  from  Ceylon  to 
Delhi,  the  number  of  missionaries  is  stated  by  a  late  writer 
in  the  Calcutta  Christian  Observer  to  be  one  hundred  and 
thirty.  This  estimate  comprehends  at  least  200,000,000  in- 
hahitants  —  one  missionary  to  1,538,461  souls.  The  region  de- 
scribed, it  will  be  perceived,  includes  Burmah,  as  well  as  Hin- 
dustan, and  is  emphatically  that  part  of  the  field  to  which  the 
attention  of  the  church  has  been  of  late  years  particularly 
drawn. 

In  scarcely  any  mission  have  the  higher  classes  received  their 
full  share  of  attention.  They  have  not  been  so  freely  visited  at 
their  houses ;  and  when  visited,  it  has  rather  been  the  act  of 
respect,  or  to  secure  advantages.  The  visit  is  seldom  for  the 
express  purpose  of  winning  their  souls,  as  is  the  case  when  the 
poor  are  sought  The  oftener  such  visits  are  paid  without  the 
disclosure  of  a  deep  anxiety  for  the  conversion  of  his  soul,  the 
more  does  the  chief,  or  rich  man,  grow  satisfied  to  remain 
as  he  is,  and  to  suppose  that  his  toleration  or  friendship  is  all 
that  is  expected.  We  should  abhor  the  spirit  which  gathers 
ministers  round  great  men,  to  share  their  gifts,  to  bask  in  their 
favor,  to  secure  political  enactments  in  favor  of  religion,  or  to 
gain  popularity  and  distinction  among  the  common  people.  But 
we  should  leave  no  efforts  unattempted  to  save  their  souls.  The 
prophecies  which  cheer  us  in  our  work,  specify  such  persons 
as  among  the  fruit,  and  declare  that  they  shall  hi;  nursing  fathers 
and  mothers  to  the  church.  Csesar's  court  contained  disciples. 
Some  of  the  "mighty,"  and  of  "honorable  ones,  not  a  few,"  ap- 
pear among  the  converts  to  apostolic  zeal. 

Concluding  Remarks.  Many  suggestions  to  the  churches  at 
home  offer  themselves.     I  will  venture  only  two  or  three. 

1.  The  number  of  missionaries  should  be  greatly  increased. 
Numerous  stations,  occupied  now  by  a  single  individual,  should 


286 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS. 


be  reenforced  by  one,  two,  and  in  some  cases  five  or  six  brethren. 
No  post  lias  been  taken,  which  seems  untenable  or  useless ; 
none  from  which  the  occupant  wishes  to  retreat.  Each  de- 
scribes openings  for  usefulness  which  he  cannot  embrace.  If 
we  mean  merely  to  keep  our  present  position,  there  is  need  of  a 
fresh  laborer  in  every  station  and  department,  who  may  be  coming 
forward  in  his  qualifications,  and  be  ready  to  take  up  the  task  at 
any  moment,  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  present  incumbent. 

There  must  be  a  wrong  in  concentrating  preachers  among  a 
portion  of  mankind,  to  the  extent  seen  in  England  and  Ameri- 
ca, while  whole  nations  lie  unblest  with  the  truth.  Such  as 
have  not  known  or  considered  the  proportion  of  ministers  in 
England  and  America,  should  ponder  the  following  facts. 

The  following  table  takes  up  some  of  the  counties  in  Eng- 
land alphabetically,  so  as  to  furnish  a  fair  sample  of  the  whole. 


Area. 

Churchts. 

Population. 

Average 

County. 

Square  MUes.Established. 

Voluntary. 

Total. 

Souls   to  a 
Minister. 

Bedfordshire, .... 

Buckinghamshire, 
Cambridgeshire,  . 

Cumberland,  .... 

463 
752 

738 
857 
1052 
1330 
1523 
1028 

127 
160 
214 
174 
142 
221 
145 
177 

72 

83 

89 

87 

162 

328 

90 

189 

199 
243 
303 
261 
304 
549 
235 
365 

95,000 
145,000 
146,000 
143,000 
334,000 
302,000 
169,000 
237,000 

477 

597 
482 
548 
1099 
550 
719 
649 

In  New  England,  taken  at  large,  the  proportion  of  ministers  is 
not  much  short  of  the  above  average.  In  Massachusetts  are  1252 
ministers ;  population,  650,000 ;  average  souls  to  each  minister, 
519.  In  New  Hampshire  are  412  ministers;  population, 269,633 ; 
average  number  of  souls  to  each  minister,  654.  In  Connecticut 
are  482  ministers  ;  population,  298,000  ;  average  number  of  souls 
to  each,  620.*  The  great  cities  of  the  United  States  are  shown, 
by  Rev.  Messrs.  Reed  and  Mattheson,  to  have  a  larger  proportion 
of  ministers,  than  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 

The  contrast  between  one  missionary,  and  he  a  foreigner,  im- 
perfect in  the  language,  and  unsustained  by  surrounding  Chris- 
tians, attempting  to  bless  a  million  of  souls,  and  a  pastor  in 
Great  Britain  or  America  to  every  four  or  five  hundred  souls, 


*  These  numbers  are   taken  from  the  Registers  of  the  respective  Stales. 
In  the  other  Northern  States  the  proportion  is  about  the  same. 


MODE    OF    CONDUCTING    MISSIONS.  287 

and  aided  by  a  hundred  Christian  influences,  is  both  painful  and 
humiliating. 

2.  Numerous  lay  brethren  are  immediately  wanted. 

A  glance  at  the  employments  enumerated  a  little  while  ago, 
shows  how  few  of  them  fall  exclusively  within  the  province  of  a 
minister.  Except  preaching,  administering  ordinances,  and  pre- 
siding over  church  discipline,  tliey  may  as  well  be  done  by 
laymen.  Perhaps  one  reason  why  so  little  is  said  of  some  of 
these  departments,  in  the  New  Testament,  is,  that  that  history 
gives  professedly  the  life  of  Christ,  and  the  acts  of  apostles.  We 
certainly  see  that  some  branches  of  missionary  duty  were  con- 
signed to  laymen,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  secular  concerns,  the 
care  of  the  poor,  and  the  settlement  of  disputes.  There  are 
many  brethren  not  inferior  to  the  best  ministers  in  piety.  A 
knowledge  of  business  and  accounts,  and  habits  of  order,  de- 
spatch, and  economy,  give  some  of  these  superior  qualifications 
for  some  parts  of  the  work.  Such  services  as  are  rendered  by 
lay  brethren  in  our  own  country,  are  greatly  wanted. 

It  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable  that  all  laymen,  who  for 
Christ's  sake  go  to  the  heathen,  should  put  themselves  under  the 
patronage  of  a  society,  or  give  their  whole  time  to  religious 
services.  The  brethren  scattered  from  Jerusalem  by  persecution, 
no  doubt  pursued  their  secular  callings,  in  the  cities  whither 
they  fled.     Yet  through  them  the  holy  influence  was  spread. 

If  persecution  were  now  to  break  out  in  England,  or  the  United 
States,  thousands  of  church  members  would  pass  to  other  parts 
of  the  world,  and,  we  may  presume,  would  labor  to  establish 
pure  religion  wherever  they  might  find  a  home.  May  we  not 
fear  that  if  we  remain  supine,  some  such  necessity  for  dispersion 
may  be  permitted  to  occur  ?  By  going  without  the  impulse  of 
persecution,  the  sacrifices  involved  in  emigration  are  immensely 
lessened.  The  ties  of  friendship,  kindred,  and  business,  may  be 
preserved,  and  property  retained.  In  fact,  the  evils  incurred  by 
voluntary  expatriation  are  submitted  to  by  multitudes,  for  no 
higher  end  than  the  possible  improvement  of  outward  circum- 
stances. 

Finally.  A  vastly  higher  state  of  piety  at  home  must  be 
realized. 

On  this  copious  and  most  important  theme,  1  must  now  confine 
myself  to  a  few  sentences.  But  I  pass  it  by  with  the  more  con- 
tent, because  it  is  a  subject  on  which  others  can  write  as  well  aa 
one  who  has  travelled,  and  which  is  often  calling  forth  able 
works.     I  think  it  has  been  proved  that  the  measure  of  mission- 


288  MODE    OF    CONDUCTING   MISSIONS. 

ary  success  is  equal  to  the  amount  and  kind  of  effort  employed. 
But  all  must  agree,  that  had  the  whole  movement  been  more 
apostolic,  there  would  be  seen  much  more  fruit.  Want  of  piety 
makes  missionaries  less  successful,  just  as  it  does  other  ministers. 
Were  they  absorbingly  interested  in  their  work,  and  highly  qual- 
ified for  it,  by  large  measures  of  the  spirit  of  Christ,  they  would 
seldomer  fall  into  the  subordinate  and  less  self-denying  depart- 
ments of  labor,  and  would  prosecute  their  proper  work,  not  only 
with  more  commensurate  zeal  and  skill,  but  with  a  greater 
blessing. 

How  shall  such  missionaries  be  expected  from  a  religious 
community  pervaded  by  love  of  ease,  elegance,  and  gain  ?  They 
come  forth  from  the  mass,  and  resemble  the  mass.  Streams  rise 
no  higher  than  their  sources.  In  vain  we  harangue  departing 
missionaries  upon  the  necessity  of  a  holy  weanedness  from  the 
world,  and  contempt  of  ease,  if  we  have  no  more  ourselves. 
These  are  not  the  fruits  of  mere  volition,  or  sudden  effort.  They 
are  the  result  of  circumstances  and  self-training,  through  the 
steady  agency  of  the  Spirit.  None  but  extraordinary  persons 
rise  above  the  level  of  their  times ;  and  we  cannot  expect  every 
missionary,  and  missionary's  wife,  and  printer,  and  school  teacher, 
to  be  an  extraordinary  person,  wholly  in  advance  of  the  churches. 
They  are,  moreover,  sent  out  too  young  to  have  made  very  great 
Christian  attainments,  even  if  they  are  extraordinary  persons. 
The  ordinary  state  of  the  church  must  be  made  right,  and  then 
ordinary  persons  will  have  right  views,  aims,  and  qualities ;  and 
missionaries  will  possess  proper  qualifications,  and  bear  abroad 
a  proper  spirit. 

Every  professed  Christian,  therefore,  may  aid  the  cause  of  mis- 
sions by  promoting  a  return  to  apostolic  simplicity  and  singleness 
of  heart  among  all  Christians.  This  would  not  only  furnish  the 
right  kind  of  missionaries,  but  the  right  number,  and  the  proper 
support.  When  every  believer  shall  habitually  pray  not  only  for  a 
blessing  on  the  work  at  large,  but  for  a  clear  perception  of  his 
own  duty  in  the  matter,  and  shall  cherish  the  spirit  of  entire 
self-dedication,  we  shall  have  abundant  means  and  proper  men. 


289 


POLITICAL   RELATIONS  OF  THE  EAST  INDIA 
COMPANY.* 


1.  Foreign.    Persia,  Cabul,  Senna,  Arabs,  Siam,  Acheen. 

2.  External,  or  Frontier.     Burmah,  Nepaul,  Lahore,  Scindia. 

3.  Internal,  or  those  which  have  relinquished  political  rela- 
tions with  one  another,  and  with  all  other  states.  The  latter 
kind  may  be  divided  into  six  classes :  — 

L  Treaties  offensive  and  defensive.  Right  on  their  part  to 
claim  protection,  external  and  internal,  from  the  British  govern- 
ment.   Right  on  its  part  to  interfere  in  their  internal  affairs. 


Area  in  square  miles. 

1.  Oude, 23922 

2.  Mysore, 27999 

3.  Berar, 56723 


Area  in  square  miles. 

4    Travancore, 4573 

5.  Cochin, 1787 


II.  Treaties  offensive  and  defensive.  Right  on  their  part  as 
above.  No  right  on  the  part  of  the  British  to  interfere  in  their 
internal  affairs. 

1.     Hydrabad, 88887 

2  C  Baroda, 5525 

'  i  Katewa, 19424 

IB.  Treaties  offensive  and  defensive.  Tributary  to  British 
government,  but  supreme  rulers  in  their  own  territory. 


1.  Indore, 4245 

2.  Oudepore,  or 

Ooduypore 11784 

3.  Jeypore, 13426 

4.  Joudpore, 34131 

5.  Kotah, 5500 

6.  Boondee 2291 

7.  Ulwur 3294 

8.  Bickaneer, 18059 

9.  Jesulmeer, 9779 

10.  Kishengur, 724 

11 .  Banswarra, 1440 


12.  Purtabur, 1457 

13.  Doongurpore 2004 

14.  Keerolee, 1878 

15.  Serowee, 3024 

16.  Bhurtpore, 1945 

17.  Bhopal, 6772 

18.  Cutch, 7395 

19.  Dhar, 1465 

20.  Dhalpore  Baree, 1625 

21.  Saugur  and  Bundle- 

cund, 26483 

22.  Savuntwaree, ...934 


Compiled  for  this  work,  from  Hamilton's  Gazetteer,  and  other  sources. 
vol.  ii.  25 


290  TABLES. 

IV.  Guarantee  and  protection.    Subordinate  cooperation.    Su- 
premacy in  their  own  territory. 

4.  Putteala,  Keytal,  Naba 
Jheend,and  other  pro- 
tected Seik  states,.  .16602 


1.  Ameer  Khan  Touk,..1103 

2.  Seronge, 201 

3.  Neembera 269 


V.  Amity  and  friendship. 

1.  Gwalior, 32944 

VI.  Protection  and  right  on  the  part  of  the  British  to  control 
internal  affairs. 

1.  Sattara, 7943     |     2.  Collapore, 3184 

Total  area  in  square  miles  of  the  above  native  states, 449,845 

Absolute  British  territory  in  India  included  within  the 

Bengal,  Bombay,  and  Madras  Presidencies, 626,745 


Grand  Total, 1,076,590 

The  British  have  ascertained  the  population  of  their  absolute 
territory,  including  theBurman  provinces,  to  be  about  eighty-four 
millions;  and  that  of  the  states  above  named  is  probably  quite 
as  great,  if  not  more;  making  the  entire  number  of  the  human 
family,  subject  to  British  general  control  in  India,  not  less  than  a 
hundred  and  sixty-eight  millions. 

The  whole  number  of  Britons  in  India  does  not  exceed  50,000, 
of  whom  30,000  belong  to  the  army. 

The  standing  army  of  the  East  India  Company  now  exceeds 
200,000  men,  of  which  about  175,000  are  sepoys.  It  has  often 
amounted  to  a  much  larger  number,  and  at  this  time  is  about  to 
be  enlarged,  through  jealousy  of  Russia.  In  January,  1827,  it 
exceeded  300,000  men,  viz. 

Artillery, 15,782 

Native  cavalry, 26,094 

Native  infantry,  or  sepoys, 234,412 

Engineers, 4,575 

280,863 

King's  troops, 21,934 

Total, 302,797  men. 


291 


BRITISH  TERRITORIAL  POSSESSIONS, 

WITH   THE   DATE   OF   THEIR   ACQUISITIONS. 
A.  D. 

1639.  Madras,  a  territory  five  miles  along  shore  by  one  inland. 

1664.  Bombay. 

1691.  Fort  St.  David. 

1696.  Calcutta. 

,  _,  „"  >  The  Ja<?hire,  in  the  Carnatie. 
1/63.  $  °       ' 

1757.  The  twenty-four  Pergunnas. 

1761.  Chittagong,  Burdwan,  and  Midnapore. 

1765.  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  four  of  the  Northern  Circars. 

1776.  The  Island  of  Salsette. 

1781.  The  Zemindary  of  Benares. 

1787.  The  Guntoor  Circar. 

1792;  Malabar,  Canara,  Coimbatore,  Dindigal,   Salem,    Barra- 

1799.  Seringapatam.  [mahal,  &c. 

1800.  The  Balaghaut  ceded  districts  of  Bellary  and  Cuddapah. 

1801.  Territories  ceded  by  the  nabob  of  Oude,  consisting  of 

Rohilcund,  (including  Bareily,  Moradabad,  Sliahjehan- 

pore,  &c.,)  the  lower  Doab,  and  the  districts  of  Furrucka- 

bad,  Allahabad,  Cawnpore,  Goruckpore,  Azinghur,  &c. 
1801.     The  remainder  of  the  Carnatie,  comprehending  the  whole 

of  the  nabob  of  Arcot's  territories. 
1803.    The  Dutch  portion  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon. 
1803.     Delhi,  Agra,   the    upper    Doab   Humana,   Saharunpore, 

Merut,  Alighur,  Etawah,  Bundlecund,  Cuttack,  Balasore, 

Juggernaut,  &c. 
1803.     Cessions  from  the  Peshwa  and  Guicowar  in  Gujerat. 
1815.     Part  of  Nepaul,  consisting  of  the  hill   country  between 

the  Sutuleje  and  Jumna  Rivers  and   the   districts  of 

Gurwal  and  Kumaon. 

1815.  The  kingdom  of  Candy  in  Ceylon. 

1816.  Anjar,  Mandavie,  and  other  places  in  Cutch. 

1818.  Poona,  and  the  whole  of  the  Peshwa's  dominions,  Can- 
deish,  Saugur,  and  otlier  places  in  Malwa ;  Ajmeer 
in  Rajpootana;  and  Sumbhulpore,  Sirgooja,  Gurrah, 
Mundlah,  and  other  portions  of  Gundwana. 

1825.  Conquests  from  the  Burmese,  consisting  of  Asam,  Ca- 
char,  Munipore,  Arracan,  and  the  Tenasserim  prov- 
inces, consisting  of  Martaban,  Ye,  Tavoy,  Mergui,  and 
the  adjacent  isles. 


292 


PRINCIPAL  MISSIONARY  STATIONS  IN  THE 
WORLD, 

WITH   THE  DATE   OF   THEIR   ESTABLISHMENT,   AND   THE   SOCIETY 
BY    WHICH    THEY   ARE    SUPPORTED, 


The  abbreviations  are,  U.  B.,  for  United  Brethren,  or  Moravians  ;  C.  K.  S.,  for 
Christian  Knowledge  Society;  VV.  M.  S.,  for  YVesleyan  Missionary  Society; 
E.  B.  M.,  for  English  Baptist  Missionary  Society  ;  S.  M.  S.,  for  Scottish  Mis- 
sionary Society;  CM.  S.,  for  Church  Missionary  Society;  L.  J.  s.,  for  Lon- 
don Jews  Society  ;  N.  M.  S.,  for  Netherlands  Missionary  Society  ;  G.  M.  S.,  for 
German  Missionary  Society;  Gl.  M.  S.,  for  Glasgow  Missionary  Society; 
G.  B.  M.,  for  General  Baptist's  Missions  ;  U.  F.  M.  for  United  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  ;  A.  B.  C,  for  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions;  A.  B.  B.,  for  American  Baptist  Board  of  Missions  ;  P.  E.  B.,  for  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Board;  N.  Y.  S.,  for  New  York  Missionary  Society;  G.  A.  M., 
for  General  Assembly's  Missions ;  M.  M.,  for  Methodist  Missions. 


Tranquebar,.Kingof  Denm.  1706. 

Madras, C.  K.  S.  1727. 

Vepary, C.  K.  S.  1727. 

St.  Thomas, U.  B.  1732. 

Greenland, U.  B.  ]  733. 

St.  Croix, U.  B.  1734. 

St.  Jan, U.  B.  1734. 

North  America, U.  B.  1734. 

Canadian  Indians,. ..  .U.  B.  1734. 
Muskingum  Indians,  .U.  B.  1734. 

Surinam, U.  B.  1735. 

Parimaribo, U.  B.  1735. 

South  Africa, U.  B.  1736. 

Negapatam, C.  K.  S.  1737. 

Cuddalore, C.  K.  S.  1737. 

Gnadenthal, U.  B.  1737. 

Pilgerhut, U.  B.  1738. 

Sharon, U.  B.  1739. 

Labrador, U.  B.  1752. 

Jamaica, U.  B.  1754. 

Antigua, U.  B.  1756. 

Hope U.B.  1757. 

Nicobar  Islands, U.  B.  1759. 

Tranquebar, U.  B.  1759. 

Trichinopoly, C.  K.  S.  1762. 

Barbadoes, U.B.  1765. 

Asiatic  Russia, U.  B.  1765. 

Bombay, U.B.  1766. 

Tanjore, C.  K.  S.  1772. 

St.  Christopher, U.B.  1774. 

Grace  Hill,(Antigua,).U.  B.  1782. 

Sommelsdyke, U.  B.  1785. 

Caribbee  Islands  . .  W.  M.  S.  1788. 


Trinidad, W.  M.  S.  1788. 

Tobago, U.  B.  1789. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,.  .U.  B.  1792. 

Serampore, E.  B.  M.  1793. 

Malda, E.  B.  M.  1794. 

Taheiti, L.  M.  S.  1797. 

St.  Christina,  . . . .  W.  M.  S.  1797. 
Marquesas  Islands,  L.  M.  S.  1797. 

Calcutta, L.  M.  S.  1798. 

Susoo  Country,  . .  .S.  M.  S.  1798. 

India E.  B.  M.  1798. 

Zac  River, L.  M.  S.  1799. 

Bermudas, W.  M.  S.  1799. 

South  Africa, E.  B.  M.  1799. 

CafFraria, E.  B.  M.  1799. 

Newfoundland,. . . .  E.  B.  M.  1799. 

Serampore, E.  B.  M.  1799. 

Boschemen, E.  B.  M.  1799. 

Tuscaroras, N.  Y.  S.  1800. 

Cherokee  Indians,. . .  .U.  B.  1801. 
GriquaTown, L.  M.  S.  1801. 

.B.  M.  S.  1801. 

.B.M.  S.  1801. 


Calcutta 
Stellenbosch 
Karess,  (Asiatic 
Russia,). . . 

Tartary, 

Bethelsdorp,. 

Ceylon, 

Bahamas,  . . . 
West  Africa, 

Cutvva, 

Dinagepore, 
Sahebgunge, 


ic  ) 


,S.  M.S.  1802. 


S. 
,...L. 
....E. 
...W. 
,...C. 
...B. 
,...E. 
,...E. 


M.S. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
B.M. 


1803. 
1803. 
1804. 
1804. 
1804. 
1804. 
1805. 
1805. 


MISSIONARY    STATIONS. 


293 


1805. 
1805. 
1805. 
1805. 
1805. 


M.  S.  1805. 
M.  S.  1805 
F.  M.  1805. 


Surat, C.  M.  S. 

Green  Bay, U.  F.  M. 

Asia  Minor, A.  B.  C. 

Madras, L.  M.  S. 

Travancore, L.  M.  S. 

Amlamgodde, )         T 

(Ceylon,)..  }  '"-L 

Vizagapatam, 

Indians   of      ) 

New  York,  )  ' " " 

Travancore, 

Namaquas, 

Buenos  Ayres,.. ., 
St.  Bartholomew,  . 

Creek  Indians, 

Jessore, E. 

Canton, L. 

Calcutta, C. 

Madras, W. 

Deinarara, W. 

Tobago, E. 

Rangoon, E. 

Trinadad, E. 

Digah, E. 

Bellary, E. 

Burinah, E. 

Bellary, L. 

Now  Zealand, C. 

Orissa, E. 

Balasore, E. 

Monghir, E. 

Greek  Islands,  . . .  .E. 

Agra, E. 

Eimeo, L. 


Malta, L. 

Bombay, A. 

Agra, C. 

Ceylon, E. 

Chittagong, E. 

Algoa  Bay, L. 

Surat, E. 

Chinsurah, L. 

Cape  of  Good  ) 

Hope, 5 

Java, E. 

Pacaltsdorf L. 

Lattakoo, L. 

Chinsura, L. 

Rangoon, A 

Bombay, A. 

Batavia, L. 

Astrachan, S. 

Mahratta, A. 

Theopolis, A. 

25* 


M.  S, 
B.M. 
B.  M. 
M.S. 
.U.  B. 
B.M. 
M.S. 
M.  S. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
B.C. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
B.M. 
M.S. 
B.M. 
M.S. 


1806. 
1806. 
1806. 
1806. 
1807. 
1807. 
1807. 
1807. 
1807. 
1808. 
1808. 
1808. 
1809. 
1809. 
1809. 
1809. 
1810. 
1810. 
1810. 
1810. 
1810. 
1810. 
1811. 
1811. 
1811. 
1812. 
1812. 
1812. 
1812. 
1812. 
1812. 
1812. 


..L.M.  S.  1812. 


B.M. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
M.S. 
B.B. 
B.C. 
M.S. 
M.  S. 
B.C. 
B.C. 


1813. 
1813. 
1813. 
1813. 
1813. 
1813. 
1814. 
1814. 
1814. 
1814. 


Mauritius,  or  Isle 

of  France,  .... 

Java, 

Amboyna, 

Madras, 

Jamaica, 

Amboyna, 

Surat, 

Malta, 

Greece, 

Meerut, 

Malacca, , 

Bethany, 

Orenburg,  

Astrachan, 

Kurnaul, 

Free-town,         ) 

(W.  Africa,)  $  ' 

Free-town, 

Ceylon, 

Caffraria, 

Benares, 

Chunar, , 

Dacca, 

Digah, 

Haweis-town, 

Calcutta, 

Jamaica, . 

Monghyr, 

Raiotea, 

Batticotta, 

Cherokees, 

Burdwan, 

Hayti, 

Benares, 

Cottayam, 

Tellicherry, 

Boschesfield.  ) 

(S.  Africa,)  $  " 

Cottayam, 

Putawatomies,  .  . 

Cherokees, 

Calcutta, 

Allahabad, 

Bencoolen, 

Valley  towns,.. . . , 

Choctaws, i 

New  Holland, 

Wyandott  and  > 

Sandusky,..  J 

Madagascar, 

Hardily. 

Allepie, 

Ceylon,  


L.  M.  S.  1814. 


..L.M.S. 
..L.  M.  S. 
..CM.  S. 

.E.B.M. 
..E.B.M. 

.L.M.S. 
..C.  M.  S. 
,. C.M.S. 
..C.M.S. 

.L.M.S. 
..L.M.S. 
..S.M.S. 
..S.M.S. 

.C.M.S. 


1814. 
1814. 

1814. 
1814. 
1814. 
1«15. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 
1815. 


W.  M.  S.  1816. 


.C.M.S. 
.A.  B.C. 
.L.M.S. 
.E.B.M. 
.C.M.S. 
.E.B.M. 
.E.B.M. 
.L.M.S. 
.L.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 
.E.B.M. 
.L.M.S. 
.A.  B.C. 
.A.  B.C. 
.C.M.S. 
.W.M.  S. 
.C.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 


1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1816. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 


.L.  M.  S.  1817. 


.L.M.S. 
.A.  B.B. 
.A.  B.  B. 

E.B.M. 
.E.B.M. 

E.B.M. 
.A.  B.B. 
.A.  B.C. 
.C.M.S. 


1817. 
1817. 
1817. 
1817. 

1818. 
1818. 
1818. 
1818. 
1818. 


.A.  B.B.  1818. 


.L.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 
.C.M.S. 


1818. 
1818. 
1818. 
1818. 


294 


MISSIONARY    STATIONS. 


...CM.  S. 

...C.M.S. 

...A.B.B. 

...C.M.S. 
...L.M.  S. 

..E.B.M. 
...L.M.S. 
...L.M.S. 
...L.M.S. 

..C.M.S. 

..C.M.S. 

..E.B.M. 

..E.B.M. 
...A.  B.C. 

..A.  B.  C. 

..L.M.S. 


Nellore,  . . . 
Bullom,  (W 
Africa,)  . . 
Cherokees,. 
New  Zealand,. 
Binder's  Point, 
Doorgapore,  . . 

Parre, 

Singapore,  .... 

Penang, 

Mayaveram,. . . 

Bombay, 

Sumatra, 

Ajemere, 

Syria, 

Greece, 

Bangalore,. . . . 

Sandwich  Islands, ..A.  B.  C. 

Belgaum, A.  B.  C. 

Arkansas  Chero.,  . .  A.  B.  C. 
Van  Diemen's  Land,W.M.S. 

Benares, L.  M.  S. 

Calcutta, G.  P   S. 

Polamcotta, C.  M.  S. 

Borabora,  (Soci-  ) 

ety  Islands,)  .  ) 

Monrovia, A.  B.  B. 

Ava, A.  B.  B. 

Crisma, S.  M.  S. 

Bathurst, C.  M.  S. 

Beltollah, C.  K.  S. 

Chummie, G.  M.  S. 

Tuscaroras, U.  F.  M. 

Chickasaws, A.  B.  C. 

Quilon, L.M.S. 

Negapatam, W.  M.  S. 

Trincomalee, W.  M.  S. 

Chittagong, A.B.B. 

Orissa, E.  G.  B. 

Cuddapah, L.  M.  S. 

Corfu, L.M.S. 

Cattaraugus,  ) 

(N.  ¥.)...$- 
Sandwich  Islands, ..L.  M.  S. 

Malta, A.  B.  C. 

Cuttack, G.B.  M. 

Cotta, C.M.S. 

Friendly  Islands,..  W.  M.S. 

Maupite, L.M.  S. 

Tohoa, L.M.  S. 

Dresden,  (Germany ,)L.  J.  S. 
South  America, E.B.M. 


1818. 

1818. 

1818. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1819. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 
1820. 


.C.M.S.  1820. 

1820. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1821. 
1822. 
1822. 
1822. 


..U.F.M.  1822. 

1822 

1822. 
1622. 
1822. 
1822. 
1822. 
1822. 
1822. 
1822. 

Red  River,  (North  )p  M   „   .090 
WestAmer.)..  $  V-  Ml  b"  lb~^ 


Maupiti, L.  M.  S.  1822. 

Taha,  or  Otaha L.  M.  S.  1822. 

Chumie,  (S.  Afr.)  Gl.  M.  S.  1822. 
Lovedale,  (S.  Afr.)Gl.  M.  S.  1822. 

Honduras, E.B.M.  1822. 

South  America,.. .  .E.  B.  M.  1822. 

Delhi, E.B.M.  1822. 

Buenos  Ayres, A.  B.  C.  1823. 

Beyroot, A.  B.  C.  1823. 

Beerbhoom, E.  B.  M.  1823. 

New  Zealand,. . . .  W.  M.  S.  1823. 

Bogues-town, L.  M.  S.  1823. 

Sadras, N.  M.  S.  1823. 

Gorruckpore, C.M.S.  1823. 

Combaconum, C.  M.  S.  1823. 

Creeks, A.  B.  B.  1823. 

Karens,  (Burmah,). A.  B.  B.  1823. 

Jamaica, S.  M.  S.  1824. 

Jamaica, U.  B.  1824. 

Ottawas, A.  B.  B.  1824. 

Batticaloe, W.  M.  S.  1824. 

Shusha, G.  M.  S.  1824. 

Berhampore, L.  M.  S.  1824. 

Kidderpore, L.M.  S.  1625. 

Buenos  Ayres, A.  B.  C.  1625. 

Hidia, L.M.S.  1625. 

Combaconum, L.  M.  S.  1625. 

Caffraria, L.  M.  S.  1826. 

Lageba,  (Fegee  Is.)  L.  M.  S.  1826. 

Osages, U.  F.  M.  1826. 

Machinaw, U.  F.  M.  1826. 

Maumee, U.  F.  M.  1826. 

Akyab,  (Arracan,).E.  B.  M.  1826. 
Raivaivai  Islands,.  .L.  M.  S.  1826. 

.A.B.B.  1827. 

.L.M.S.  1827. 


Maulmain, 
Chittoor 
Butter  worth, 
(S.  Africa 

Salem, 

Green  Bay 
Benares,. . . 
Madras,. . . 
Liberia... . . 


;>} 


,.W.  M.  S.  1827. 


..L. 
,.A. 

.E. 
..G 

.G. 


Khodon,  (Siberia,). L, 


M.S. 
B.C. 
B.  M. 
.  P.  S. 
M.S. 
M.S. 


ra-  ) 
•  5 


Neyoor,  (Tra 

vancore,) 
Stockbridge 

Indians, 

Syra, 

Abyssinia,  .... 

Bombay, 

Ojibwas,  [Chip-  )       . 

pewas,] 5  " ' 

Gowhatte  (Asam,).E 


1827. 
1827. 
1827. 

1827. 
1827. 
1823. 


.  L.  M.  S.  1828. 


A.  B.  C.  1828. 


...C. 
..C. 

...S. 


M.S. 
M.S. 
M.S. 

B.B. 

B.  M. 


1828. 
1828. 
1828. 

1828. 

1829- 


MISSIONARY    STATIONS. 


295 


Greece, P.E.  B 

Habai  Islands,. ..  .W.  M.  S 
The  Bushmen,. 
Coimbatore,  . . 


Bagdat, . 

China, 

Calcutta, 

Chippewa,  .... 
Shawanoes,  . . . 

Liberia, 

Tavoy, 

South  Africa,.. 

Boujah, i 

Shawnees,  .... 
Delawares,. . . . 
Dclawares,  .... 
Constantinople, 
Western  Cherokees,A.  B.  B. 

France, A.  B.  B. 

Kickapoos, A.  B.  B. 

Delawares A.  B.  B. 

Creeks,...' A.  B.  C. 

Peorias  &.  Kaskaskias,M.  M 


L.  M.  S. 
L.  M.  S. 
,C.  M.S. 
.A.  B.C 
.S.M.S. 
,A.  B.  C. 
..M.  M. 
..M.M. 
•  A.  B.  B. 
E.  B.  M. 
C.  M.  S. 
A.B.B. 
A.B.B. 
..MM. 
A.B.  C. 


Otoe 

Siam, 

Armenians,.. 
Kickapoos,.. 
Oregon, .... 
Lodiana,  . . . . 
Chickasaws,. 
Siam 


.A.B.B. 
.A.  B.  B. 
..A.  B.C. 
...M.M. 
...M.M. 
.G.  A.  M. 
.A.B.B. 
..A.  B.C. 


Chinese,  (Bankok,).A.  B.  C. 

Nestorians, A.  B.  C. 

Madura, A.  B.  C. 

Singapore, A.  B.  C. 

Pawnee  Indians, . . .  A.  B.  C. 
Chinese,  (Bankok,) .  A.  B.  B. 
Kyouk  Phyoo,  >        A  B  B 
(Arracan,)     J 

West  Africa, A.  B.  C. 

South  Africa, A.  B.  C. 

Chinese,  (Batavia,).P.  E.  B. 

Abernaquis, A.  B.C. 

Kansas, M.M. 


1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1830. 
1831. 
1831. 
1831. 
1831. 
1831. 
1831. 
1832. 
1832. 
1832. 
1832. 
1832. 
1832. 
1833. 
1833. 
1833. 
1833. 
1833. 
1833. 
1833. 
1834. 
1834. 
1834. 
1834. 
1834. 
1834. 
1834. 

1834. 

1835. 
1835. 
1835. 
1835. 
1835. 


Hayti, 

Germans, . . . 
Omahas,. .. . 
Mahometan, . 

Madras, 

Java, 

Borneo, 


.A.B.B. 
•  A.B.B. 
.A.B.B. 
..A.  B.C. 
.A.  B.C. 
.A.B.  C. 
..A.B.  C. 


Peguans,  (Burmah,)  A.  B.  B. 
Africa,  (C.  Palmas,)  P.  E.  B. 

Persia, P.  E.  B. 

Rocky  Mount.  Ind.A.  B.  C. 


Asam, 

Teloogoos, i 

Greece, 

Chinese,  (Sin-  ) 
gapore.) ....  5 

Allahabad, 

Sabbathu, 

Saharanpore,.. . . , 

South  Africa, 

Mergui, 

Ottawas, 

Omahas, 

Pawnees,. 


.A.B.B. 
.A.B.B. 
.A.B.B. 


1835. 
1835. 
1835. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 
1836. 


,  C.  M.  S.  1836. 


.G.  A.M.  1836. 
.  G.  A.  M.  1836. 
.G.A.  M.  1836. 
,.C.  M.  S.  1837. 
..A.B.B.  1837. 
..A.B.B.  1837. 
..A.  B.  B.  1837. 
..A.B.  B.  1837. 
Chinese,  (Macao,) . .  A.  B.  B.  1837. 
"   1837. 


Iowa,. 
Chinese,  (Sin-  ) 


G.  A.  M 
G.  A.  M. 


gapore,) 

Crete, 

Jalna,  (Mahratta,) 
Nez  Perces,  ) 

(Oregon,)  5  *  " 
Kayuges,  (Oregon,)  A.  B.  C. 
Dindegal, A.  B.  C. 


1837. 

1837. 
1837. 


Texas, 

Putawatomies. . . . 
Texas, , 

Sheragunga, 

Teroomumgolum, . 
Terussurranum,. . . 
Puttawatomies,. . . 

Otoes, , 

Chinese, (Singap.) , 


.P.  E.B. 
.A.B.  C. 

.A.  B.C.  1837. 


1837. 
1837. 
1837. 
1838. 

1838. 
1838. 
1838. 
1838. 
1838. 
1838. 
1839. 


..M.M. 
...M.M. 
.P.  E.B. 
.A.  B.C. 
.A.  B.C. 
.A.  B.C. 
...M.M. 
.A.B.B. 
.A.B.B. 


GLOSSARY. 


To  avoid  swelling  this  Glossary  unnecessarily,  such  words  as  occur  but  once, 
are  explained  in  the  body  of  the  work.  To  make  it  more  useful,  some  words 
are  added,  which  do  not  occur  in  the  preceding  pages,  but  are  often  found 
in  works  on  India.     The  following  mode  of  using  the  vowels  is  adopted  :  — 

in  run. 

. .  rule. 

a     ....     tar.  i     ....     pine.  ou     house. 

a     ....     fall.  o     ....     not.  ai     ....  aisle. 


ban. 

e    as  in     here. 

u 

bane. 

i     ....     pin. 

u 

far. 

i     ....     pine. 

ou 

fall. 

o     ....     not. 
6     ....     note. 

ai 

Where  no  accent  is  marked,  the  syllables  are  to  be  pronounced  with  equal 
force. 


A-bac'-us,  (called  by  the  Chinese,  Swan-pwan,)  an  instrument  for 
numerical  calculation. 

Ab-dar,  a  Hindu  servant  who  cools  and  takes  care  of  water. 

A-daw-let,  justice  ;  equity  ;  a  court  of  justice,  civil  or  criminal. 

A'-gar  a'-gar,  a  species  of  sea-weed,  (fucus  saccarinus,)  of  which  the 
Chinese  make  a  gelatinous  sweetmeat,  and  also  a  glue  which 
insects  do  not  attack. 

A-gil-lo-cha,  or  A-gil-a  wood,  the  same  as  eagle  wood,  and  lign  or  lignum 
aloes;  a  half-rotten,  unctuous  wood,  which  in  burning  emits  a 
fragrance  much  valued  in  the  East  as  a  perfume. 

Am-ba-lam-bos,  natives  of  the  region  of  Majunga,  in  Madagascar. 

A-nam,  literally,  "  south  country."  The  whole  of  south-eastern  Siam, 
Camboja,  and  Cochin-China,  is  sometimes  called  Anam.  Some 
maps  erroneously  set  down  a  separate  country  under  this  name. 

An-na,  a  Bengal  silver  coin,  the  sixteenth  part  of  a  rupee,  (about  three 
cents.) 

An-ti-lou-ches,  a  mixed  race  of  Arabs  and  natives,  in  the  Island  of 
Madagascar,  chiefly  found  near  Majunga. 

A-re'-ca,  the  betel-nut  tree,  a  species  of  palm.  The  betel-leaf  is  betel- 
piper,  which  is  the  same  genus  as  the  piper  nigrum  of  Linnaeus. 

Ar'-rack,  an  intoxicating  liquor,  generally  made  from  rice. 


298  GLOSS  ART. 

Ar-ee,  an  Arracan  weight  of  about  twenty-five  pounds. 

As-say-woon,  a  Burman  paymaster  or  general. 

A-twen-woon,  a  Burman  minister  of  state. 

A-vCL'-ta-ra,  descents  of  the   Deity  in  various  shapes,  incarnations; 

those  of  Rama  and  Krishnu  are  the  most  remarkable. 
Ay-ah,  a  lady's  or  child's  maid. 

B. 

Ba-boOy  a  Hindu  gentleman. 

Ba-har',  a  measure  equal  to  three  piculs. 

Bal-a-chong.     Same  as   Gnapee. 

Ba-lu,  a  Boodhist  warder  or  guardian.     See  picture,  vol.  i.  page  132. 

Bang,  an  intoxicating  drug,  prepared,  in  India,  from  the  flowers  and 

juice  of  the   hemp  plant ;  to  which  opium  is  sometimes  added. 
Ban'-gles,  ornamental  rings  for  the  wrists  or  ankles  ;  made  of  various 

metals,  or  precious  stones,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  owner. 
Ban-giiy  boxes,  tin  cases  for  carrying  clothes,  &c,  on  journeys,  made 

with  reference  to  being  borne  at  the  ends  of  a  pole.     See  picture 

of  palankeen  travelling,  vol.  ii.  p.  59. 
Ban-ian,  a  Hindu  merchant. 
Bas-ket,  a  Burman  measure  containing  58|  pounds  of  clean  rice,  or 

one  bushel. 
Bat-ta,  deficiency,  discount,  allowance  to  troops  in  the  field. 
Ba-zar,  a  market,  or  place  of  shops. 
Be-da-gat,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Burmans. 
Be-ga,  or  Biggah,  a  land  measure  equal,  in  Bengal,  to  about  a  third  of 

an  acre,  but  varying  in  different  provinces ;  the  common  ryotty 

bega,  in   Bengal,  contains  about  sixteen  hundred  square  yards. 
Be-gum,  or  Begaum,  an  East  Indian  lady,  princess,  woman  of  high 

rank. 
Ben-zoin,  or  Benjamin,  the  commercial  name  for  frankincense. 
Betel-leaf,  the  leaf  of  a  species  of  pepper,    (the  piper   betel)   which 

is  masticated  along  with  the  areca  or  betel-nut  and  lime. 
Be-zoar,  an  oval  concretion  of  resin  and  bile,  found  in  the  glands 

and  gall-bladders  of  several  animals. 
Bhee'-ste,  a  Hindu  water-carrier.     See  picture,  vol.  ii.  p.  14. 
Biche-de-mer,  dried  sea-slugs,  or  tripang. 
Big-gah.     See  Bega. 
Bob'-d-gee,  a  Hindu  cook. 
Bon'-zes,  a  Japanese  name  for  priests. 
Boo-hhoo,  a  Karen  prophet. 
Bou'-le-a,  a  small  Bengal  pleasure-boat. 
Brah-min-y  goose,  the  anas  rasarca. 
Brin-jdls,  the  solarium  longum,  a  species  of  egg  plant. 
Bud-ge-ro,  a  large  Bengal  pleasure-boat. 
Bu-gis,  (pronounced   Boo-geese,)  inhabitants   of  Bony   and   Celebes. 

They  are  the   universal  carriers  of  the  Archipelago,  and  noted 

for  enterprise  and  trust-worthiness. 


GLOSSARY.  299 

Bund,  an  embankment. 

Bun'-ga-low,  a  Hindu  country-house,  or  cottage,  erected  by  Europeans 
in  Bengal,  and  well  suited  to  the  climate.  It  is  constructed  of 
wood,  bamboos,  mats  and  thatch ;  and  may  be  completed  in  a  short 
time  and  at  a  moderate  expense. 

Bun-kdl,  a  Malay  weight,  equal  to  832  gr.  troy. 


Cdf-fre,  an  unbeliever,  Abyssinian  or  negro. 

Ca-li,  or  Ctd-ci,  the  tenth  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  in  the  shape  of  a  horse 

with  a  human  head  ;  still  expected. 
Cam-pong,  a  Malay  term  for  an  enclosure  or  collection  of  houses. 
Cand,  or  Can-da-reen1 ,  a  Chinese  piece  of  money,  equal  to  ten  cash,  or 

about  a  penny  sterling. 
Can-dy.     The  Bombay  candy  weighs  560  pounds. 
Car-an-che,  a  Hindu  hackney-coach. 
Car-da-muns,  or  Cardamoms,  (amomum  cardamomum)  a  spice  much 

used  in  India. 
Cash,  a  Madras  coin,  80  of  which  make  1  fanam.    It  is  a  Tamul 

word. 
Cash,  a  Chinese  coin,  composed  of  tu-ten-ag  and  copper,  a  thousand 

of  which  are  equal  to  one  tael.     They  call  it  Le.     It  has  a  square 

hole  in  the  centre  for  the  convenience  of  being  strung  on  a  twine, 

and  is  cast,  not  struck  with  a  die. 
Cat-a-ma-ran1 ,  a  small  raft.     See  description,  vol.  ii.  page  48. 
Cat-ty,   a   Chinese   weight   of  1|    pounds,  which  they   call  kin.     84 

catties  make  1  cwt.     1  pound  avoirdupois  is  equal  to  $  of  a  catty. 
Chac-ra-bur-ty,  a  title  formerly  bestowed  on  the  Hindu  emperors  of 

India. 
Chank,  the  conch  shell,  (voluta  gravis.) 
Char-vd-cas,  or  Shrawuks,  a  sect  of  Jains. 
Chat-ta,  a  Hindu  earthen  pot. 
Chat-ty,  a  Hindu  umbrella 
Chil-lies,  red  peppers. 

Chin-na,  the  lathyrus  aphaca,  a  plant  of  the  pea  or  vetch  kind. 
Chit-ak,  a  British-Indian  weight  of  1  oz.  17  dwt.  12  gr. 
Chob-dar,  a  Hindu  servant,  who  runs  before  a  carriage. 
Chob'-waw,  a  tributary  prince. 
Chok'-key,  a  Hindu  toll  or  custom-house. 
Cho-ke-dar' ,  a  watchman,  or  custom-house  officer. 
ChoV-try,  a  Hindu  caravansera,  or  empty  house  for  travellers. 
Chop,  a  Chinese  permit,  or  stamp. 
Chop'-per,  thatch. 

Chop-sticks,  Chinese  implements  for  eating. 
Chow'-ry,  a  brush  of  feathers,  grass,  &c.,  or  the  tail  of  a  Thibet  cow, 

(the  bos  grunniens,)  used  to  drive  away  flies. 


300  GLOSS  ART. 

Chuck-ra,  a  sort  of  quoit  or  missile  discus,  always  placed  in  the  hand 

of  Vishnu. 
Chu'-liah,  a  native  of  the  Coromandel  or  Malabar  coast. 
Chu-nam',  lime,  used  in  stucco,  for  coating,  &c. 
Chup-ras'-se,  a  messenger. 
Coir,  (pronounced  kire,)  a  species  of  cordage,  made  from  the  fibres  of 

the  coco-nut  husk. 
Corn-pound,  a  yard  ;  corruption  of  the    Portuguese   word   campania. 
Com-prd-dor' ,  a  Chinese  steward  or  provider. 
Coo'-ly,  a  common  porter  or  laborer. 
Coon,  the  mixture  of  betel-leaf,  areca-nut,  and  lime,  chewed  by  the 

Burmans  and  Siamese. 
Corge,  a  measure  of  40  baskets.     In  dry  goods,  it  means  20  pieces  of 

any  thing. 
Coss,  or  Koss,  about  a  mile  and  a  half,  but  varying  in  different  parts 

of  India.     It  is  usually  reckoned  two  miles,  but  is  no  where  so 

much. 
Cov-(L-dy-coo-ley,  a  banguy-bearer  in  the  Carnatic.  , 

Cov-id,  or  Chili,  a  Chinese  measure  of  various  lengths,  according  to  the 

goods  measured.     The  common  covid,  used  in  measuring  ships, 

&c.,  is  about  14§  inches. 
Cow'-ry,  the  shell  of  a  very  small  muscle,  (cypraa  moneta  of  Lin.)  of 

which  8000  are  equivalent  to  a  dollar  at  Calcutta,  and  10,000  at 

Bankok ;    but   the    value   varies   exceedingly  at   different  times. 

They  are  collected  on  the  Malabar  coast,  and  especially  round  the 

Maldive  Islands. 
Cris.     See  Krees. 

Coy'-an,  equal  to  40  piculs,  or  4080  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
Crore.     A  crore  of  rupees  is  100  lacs,  or  ten  millions  of  rupees. 
Cu-bebs,  the  small  spicy  berry  of  the  piper  cubeba. 
Cum-e-la,  a  dried   fish,  prepared    in   large  quantities  at  the  Maldive 

Islands.     It  is  probably  the  boneta. 
Cum'-shaw,  a  present.     At  Canton,  custom  has  made  some  cumshaws 

matter  of  right. 
Curry,  a  stew  of  fowl,  fish,  or  meat,  with  plenty  of  gravy,  and  eaten 

with   boiled  rice.      More  strictly,  the    gravy  itself  is  the  curry. 

Hence    they  say,  "  curried    fowl,"  &c.     This  gravy,  or  curry, 

is  made  in  various  ways,  but  generally  of  sweet  oil,  red  pepper, 

ginger,  garlic,  and  turmeric. 
Cutch,  (called  also  Gambier,  and  Terra  Japonica)  the  inspissated  juice 

of  certain  acacias  and  mimosas.      It  is  chewed  in  small  quantities 

with  betel.     The  coarser  kinds  are  used  in  tanning. 
Cutch-a1,  mud  for  building  inferior  houses. 
Cutch'-er-y,  a  Hindu  hall  of  justice. 

D. 

Dah,  a  Burman  knife  or  chopper.     It  used  also  as  a  sword. 
Daing,  a  Burman  measure  of  about  two  miles. 


GLOSSARY.  301 

Dam'-ar,  a  species  of  pitch,  exuded  from  several  sorts  of  trees  in  the 

East,  and  used  instead  of  pitch  for  ships,  decks,  torches,  &c. 
Dam- a- that1 ,  the  Burman  civil  code. 
Dan'-dy,  a  Bengal  boatman. 

Dawk,  or  Ddk,  a  Hindu  post ;  or  mail  conveyance. 
Day-a,  or  Day-ak,  one  of  the  original  inhabitants  of  Borneo. 
De-coit',  a  gang-robber. 

Den-nee',  or  M-tap,  a  thatch  made  of  palm-leaves. 
Dep'-d,  a  Malay  measure,  equal  to  two  yards. 
D'ho'-ny,  a  Coromandel  coasting- vessel,  of  singular  construction. 
Din'-gey,  or  Ding-he,  a  Bengal  ferry-boat;  with  two  oars,  and  a  small 

house  on  the  stern. 
Din'-gey  JVal-la,  a  Bengal  ferryman. 
Dir'-gey,  a  Bengal  tailor. 

Do'-bey,  a  Bengal  washerman.     See  picture,  vol.  ii.  p.  16. 
Doit,  a  Dutch  East  India  coin,  the  360th  part  of  a  dollar. 
Dong,  a  Burman  measure  of  about  six  acres. 
Do-ry-an.  or  Du-ry-an,  (durio  zebinthinus)  a   highly-valued  fruit,  the 

size  of  a  man's  head,  resembling  the  jack,  of  which  a  cut  is  given 

vol.  i.  p.  151. 
Drag-on  s-blood,  the  concrete  juice   of  the   calamus  rotang,  a  large 

ratan ;  made  especially  in  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 
Dur-wdn1,  a  Bengal  porter  and  watchman. 

E. 

En'-gy  or  Eng-hee,  a  Burman  jacket  or  short  gown  of  muslin. 


Fd-keer1,  a  Mahometan  devotee  or  religious  mendicant. 

Fa-nam',  a  Madras  coin,   in   value  a  fraction    more    than   an    anna. 

Twelve  fanams  make  one  rupee. 
Fir-mdn,  a  royal  order  or  mandate. 

G. 

Gal-li-vat,  a  large  boat  of  about  seventy  tons,  rowed  with  forty  or 
more  oars. 

Gam-bier.     See  Cutch. 

Gan-ja,  an  intoxicating  drug,  procured  from  the  hemp  seed  and  flower. 

Gan-tang,  the  800th  part  of  a  coyan,  or  about  five  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Ga-ree,  a  small  Bengal  wagon  or  coach. 

Ga-ree-wal-la,  a  Bengal  coachman  or  driver. 

Gen-too,  a  name  derived  from  the  Portuguese  gentio,  (which  signifies 
gentile  in  the  scriptural  sense.)     Not  used  by  Indians. 

Ghaut,  a  pass  through  a  mountain  ;  but  generally  applied  to  an  exten- 
sive chain  of  hills. 

Ghaut,  stairs  descending  to  a  river. 
vol.  ii.  26 


302  GLOSSARY. 

Ghee,  butter  clarified  by  boiling. 

Ghur-ry,  a  Hindu  fortification. 

Gna-pee,  a  condiment  for  rice,  made  by  Burmans  and  Siamese,  &c., 
of  half-salted  fish,  shrimps,  &c,  pounded  to  the  consistency  of 
mortar.     The  smell  is  very  repulsive  to  Europeans. 

Go-down,  a  factory  or  warehouse,  from  the  Malay  word  gadong. 

Go'-la,  (Hindu,)  a  public  granary. 

Goom-ty,  winding;  the  name  of  many  rivers  in  Hindustan. 

Goo-roo,  among  the  Hindus,  a  spiritual  guide. 

Go-saings,  religious  mendicants  who  wander  about  Hindustan,  gen- 
erally in  companies. 

Goun-boung,  a  Burman  turban 

Grab,  a  square-rigged  Arab  coasting-vessel,  having  a  very  projecting 
stem,  and  no  bowsprit.  It  has  two  masts,  of  which  the  fore- 
mast is  principal. 

Gram,  a  round  grain,  the  size  of  maize,  used  in  Bengal  as  provender 
for  horses,  elephants,  &c.  There  are  many  varieties,  such  as 
the  red,  black,  green,  &-c. 

Gri-qua,  (pronounced  gree'-ka,)  a  mixed  race  in  South  Africa,  sprung 
from  the  intercourse  of  Dutch  settlers  with  native  women.  The 
Dutch  call  them  bastards ;  but  the  English,  disliking  that  name, 
call  them  Griquas. 

Gv.n-ge,  a  granary  or  depot.  In  gunges,  the  chief  commodities  sold 
are  grain,  and  the  necessaries  of  life  ;  and  generally  by  wholesale. 
They  often  include  bazars,  where  these  articles  are  sold  by  retail. 
It  rs  a  very  common  termination  of  names  in  Bengal  and  some 
of  the  adjacent  provinces,  and  generally  applied  to  a  place  where 
there  is  water  carriage. 

Gun-nies,  bags  made  of  a  coarse  cotton  fabric ;  a  species  of  sackcloth. 

Guy-wal-la,  a  herdman  or  cow-keeper. 

H. 

Hac'-ka-ry,  a  street  cart  in  Bengal. 

Had'-jee,  a  Mussulman  who  has  made  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and 

there  performed  certain  ceremonies. 
Ha-ram,  a  separate  apartment  for  females. 
Has-ta,  a  Malay  measure,  equal  to  a  cubit,  or  eighteen  inches.    Four 

hastas  make  one  depa. 
Hav-il-ddr' ,  a  sergeant  of  sepoys. 
Hop-po,  a  Chinese  overseer  of  commerce. 
How'-da,  a  seat  on  an  elephant's  back. 
Hur-k&'-ru,  a  Hindu  errand-boy,  or  messenger. 

1. 

Indo-Briton,  a  person  born  in  India,  one  of  whose  parents  is  a  European. 
In-dra,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  god  of  thunder ;  a  personification  of 

the  sky  ;  the  chief  of  the  Devatas  and  Suras. 
In'-jee,  a  Burman  jacket. 


GL088ARY.  303 


J. 


Jag-ge-ry,  dark,  coarse  sugar,  made  of  the  juice  of  palms. 

Jag-hire,  (Hindu,)  an  assignment  of  the  government  share  of  the 
produce  of  a  portion  of  land  to  an  individual,  either  personal  or 
for  the  support  of  a  public  establishment,  particularly  of  a  mili- 
tary nature.     The  district  so  assigned. 

Jains,  a  sect  of  Boodhists  in  Upper  India,  particularly  numerous  in 
Gujerat,  Rajpootana,  and  Malwa. 

Jec-cuns.     Same  as  Samangs,  which  see. 

Jeel,  a  shallow  lake,  or  morass. 

Jet-ty,  a  wharf,  or  quay. 

Jin,  a  demon. 

Jog-hee,  a  Hindu  devotee. 

Jos,  the  Chinese  Boodh. 

Jos-sticks,  in  China,  small  reeds,  covered  with  the  dust  of  odoriferous 
woods,  and  burned  before  idols. 

Jum-ba,  a  Malay  measure  of  just  four  yards. 

Jun-gle,  land  covered  for  the  most  part  with  forest  trees,  brush-wood, 
creeping  plants,  and  coarse,  rank,  reedy  vegetation,  but  not 
wholly  uninhabited.  The  term  is  used,  in  some  cases,  as  equiva- 
lent to  the  word  country,  as  distinguished  from  villages. 

Junk,  a  Chinese  ship.     See  picture,  vol.  ii.  p.  140. 

K. 

Kan'-su-ma,  a  Hindu  butler  or  steward. 

Kit-mut-gar1 ,  a  head  table  servant.     (Hindu.) 

Klam,  a  Siamese  coin,  value  about  one  cent. 

Kling,  the  Malay  name  for  a  Kalinga,  or  Teloogoo  man. 

Ko,  Burman  title  for  an  elderly  man. 

Ko-lan' ,  the  name  of  a  class  of  sectaries  in  Burmah. 

Koss.     See  Coss. 

Ko-vil,  a  Hindu  shrine  or  place  of  worship. 

Krees,  or  Kris,  (pronounced  creese,)  a  Malay  dagger. 

Ku-la',  or  Cola,  (Burman,)  a  foreigner. 

Kyoung,  a  Burman  monastery. 


Lac,  one  hundred  thousand. 

Lap-pet,  Burman  name  for  tea.  The  decoction  they  call  "  tea-water." 
Las-car,  a  European  term  applied  to  native  sailors,  called  also  ca-lash'-e. 
Lichi,   (pronounced   lee-chee,)   the   scytala  lichti,  a   favorite    Chinese 

fruit,  about  the  size  of  an  apricot. 
Ling-am,  an  obscene  object  of  Hindu  worship. 
Lot-dau,  the  Burman  hall  of  the  supreme  court;  applied  also  to  the 

council  itself. 
Lout,  a  Malay  word,  signifying  the  sea. 


304 


M. 


Ma,  Burman  title  of  respect  for  a  middle-aged  woman. 

Ma,  or  May,  title  of  respect  for  an  old  woman. 

Mace,  an  imaginary  Chinese  coin  equal  to  ten  cands,  or  the  tenth 
part  of  a  tael,  or  fifty-eight  grains  troy. 

Ma-dris-sa,  a  college  for  instruction  in  Mahometan  law. 

Ma-ha,  great. 

Maha-Raja,  a  great  prince. 

Maik,  (pronounced  mike,)  a  Burman  measure,  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
the  hand  with  the  thumb  extended. 

Ma-lay-d'-la,  or  Ma-lay-d-lim.     Same  as  Malabar. 

Man-da-reen,  a  Portuguese  word,  from  mandar,  to  command ;  applied 
to  Chinese  officers  of  various  grades.  The  Chinese  word  is 
Quart. 

Man-go-steen,  a  delicious  kind  of  fruit.     See  vol.  i.  p.  152. 

Man-grove,  in  botany,  the  rhizophora  gymnorhiza.  It  abounds  chiefly 
where  the  fresh  water  of"  streams  and  rivers  intermixes  with 
that  of  the  ocean.  One  species  extends  along  the  sea-shore, 
with  its  roots  growing  entirely  in  salt  water. 

Man-tras,  charms,  incantations,  prayers,  invocations. 

Mat,  a  Burman  weight,  equal  to  62£  grains  troy. 

Maund,  properly  man,  a  Bengal  weight,  now  established  at  100  pounds 
troy,  or  82  pounds  avoirdupois.  In  selling  different  articles,  the 
weight  is  different,  or  used  to  be.  Thus  there  is  a  factory  maund, 
of  74  pounds  10  ounces  avoirdupois;  a  bazar  maund  of  82  pounds 
avoirdupois ;  and  a  salt  maund,  2£  per  cent,  heavier  than  the 
bazar  maund. 

May-woon,  Burman  governor  of  a  province. 

Me,  Burman  title  for  miss  or  young  girl. 

Mee'-ta,  or  Me'-t'her,  a  Hindu  sweeper. 

Me-trti'-ne,  a  Hindu  female  sweeper. 

Mo-fus-sil,  the  Hindustanee  word  for  "  country"  or  "  interior,*'  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  metropolis. 

Mo'-hur,  a  British-Indian  gold  coin,  value  of  15  rupees,  weighing  180 
grains  troy. 

Mol-ley,  a  Hindu  gardener. 

Moon-she,  a  Mussulman  professor  of  languages. 

Moon-sif,  a  native  judge  or  justice,  whose  decisions  are  limited  to  suits 
for  personal  property,  not  exceeding  fifty  rupees. 

Moung,  a  Burman  title  of  respect  to  middle-aged  men. 

Mua,  Karen  term  for  middle-aged  women,  married  or  single. 

Muf-ti,  the  Mahometan  law  officer,  who  declares  the  sentence. 

Mug,  a  native  of  Arracan. 

Mus-dl'-che,  a  scullion,  a  torch-bearer. 

Mus-nud,  a  throne,  a  chair  of  state. 

Myen-sa-gye,  or  Mensagyee,  a  Burman  deputy  governor. 

Myu-sa-gye,  a  Burman  mayor  or  chief  of  a  city. 


GLOSSARY.  305 


N. 


Na-bob,  (pronounced  nawaub,)  deputy  or  viceroy  under  the  Mogul  or 
prince. 

Nac-an-gye,  reporter  or  secretary  to  the  Burman  lotdau. 

Nac-o-dar1 ,  the  captain  of  an  Arab  vessel. 

Nagur,  Nagore,  JYuggur,  and  JYugara,  a  town  or  city;  the  termina- 
tion of  many  East-Indian  names. 

Na-pu'-e,  Karen  object  of  worship. 

Nat,  a  spirit  of  the  air ;  a  Burman  mythological  being,  of  a  superior 
and  happy  order. 

Naw,  or  Nail,  Karen  term  for  miss  or  young  girl. 

JYic-ban,  (sometimes  pronounced  nike-ban.)  absorption,  annihilation. 
The  supreme  and  ultimate  hope  of  the  Boodhistic  religion. 

Nir-va-na,  (Sunscrit,)  in  metaphysics,  a  profound  calm;  signifying  also 
extinct.  The  notion  attached  to  it  by  the  Hindus  is  that  of  perfect 
apathy  ;  a  condition  of  unmixed,  tranquil  happiness  or  ecstasy.  A 
state  of  imperturbable  apathy  is  the  ultimate  bliss  to  which  the  fol- 
lowers of  Brahma  aspire — a  state  which  can  hardly  be  said  to 
differ  from  the  eternal  sleep  or  annihilation  of  the  Boodhists. 

Nud-dy,  a  river,  the  termination  of  many  names. 

Nul-lrt,  an  arm  of  the  sea;  a  natural  canal  or  small  branch  of  a  river  ; 
also  a  streamlet,  rivulet,  or  water-course. 

O. 

Oo,  an  old  man's  title  of  respect.     (Burman.) 

Or-long,  a  Malay  measure  of  80  yards. 

Or-pi-ment,  a  yellow  mineral,  from  which  the  article  called  "  king's 

yellow"  is  prepared.     It  is  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  arsenic. 
Os-wals,  a  sect  of  Jain    heretics,  who  eat  at  night,  contrary  to  the 

Jain  orthodox  usage. 

P. 

Pad-dy,  rice  not  divested  of  the  husk. 

Pa-go-da,  a  name  applied  by  Europeans  to  pagan  temples,  and  places 

of  worship.     See  explanation,  vol.  i.  p.  ^51. 
Pa-go-da,  a  gold  coin  of  the  Madras  presidency,  called  varaha  by  the 

Hindus,  and  boon  by  the  Mahometans.     The  star  pagoda  is  worth 

eight  shillings  sterling,  or  $1.85,  or  three  and  a  half  Company 

rupees. 
Pai,  a  Siamese  coin,  value  two  cents. 
Pak,  a  Siamese  word  signifying  mouth,  debouchure. 
Pdl-kee,  Bengal  name  for  palankeen. 
Pdnch-xcay,  a  Bengal  four-oared  boat  for  passengers. 
Pa-pii'-a,  a  negro  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 
Par-a-mat' ,  a  Burman  dissenter  from  Boodhism. 
Par-but-ties,  mountaineers,  hill  people. 
Pa'-ri-ah,  or  Pariar,  a  term  used   in  India  by  Europeans  to  designate 

the  outcasts  of  the  Hindu  tribes,  and  also  any  thing  vile. 
26* 


306  GLOSSARY. 

Par-see,  a  descendant  of  the  Guebres,  or  fire-worshippers,  driven  from 

Persia  by  Mahometan  persecution,  in  the  eighth  century. 
Pa'-te,  literally  uncle,  a  Karen  term,  rather  more  respectful  than  Saw. 
Pecottu,  a  machine  for  drawing  water.     See  picture,  vol.  ii.  p.  62. 
Pee-pul-tree,  in  botany,  the  jicus  religiosa. 
Pe-nang,  the  Malay  name  of  betel-nut. 
Pen-in',  a  Burman  boat-steerer. 
Peon,  (pronounced  jmne,)  a  Hindu  constable. 
Per-gun-na,  a  small  district  or  township. 
Pes-so,  a  Burman  waist-cloth. 

Pet-tuh,  a  town  or  suburb  adjoining  a  fort;  an  extra-mural  suburb 
P'hra,  god,  lord,  or  noble  ;  used  by  Burmans  and  Siamese  in  speaking 

to  a  person  with  great  respect. 
Pi'-a-sath,   the  Burmese    name  for  the  spire   of  a  palace  or  pagoda, 

denoting  royalty  or  sac  redness. 
Pice,  a  small  copper  coin,  the  sixty-fourth  part  of  a  rupee. 
Pic'-ul,  133J  lbs.     A  Chinese  picul  is  divided  into  100  catties,  or  1600 

tacls.     The  Chinese  call  it  tan. 
Pie,  the  third  part  of  a  pice  ;  about  200  make  a  rupee,  or  -/o*  of  a  cent. 
Poi-ta,  the  thread  worn  over  a  Brahmin's  shoulder,  to  show  his  sacred 

character. 
Pon-ghce' ,  a  Burman  priest  of  the   higher  orders.     The  term  is  given 

by  courtesy  to  all  the  regular  priests. 
Pore,  or  Poor,  a  town,  place,  or  residence ;  the  termination  of  many 

names  in  Bengal  and  the  upper  provinces. 
Pra-cha-dee,  or  Pr(t,  a  pagoda,  temple,  &c. 
Prow,  or  Prahu,  a  Malay  boat  or  vessel. 
Pug-gies,  a  village  tribe,  whose  business  it  is  to  trace  thieves  by  their 

footsteps. 
Pum-ple-nose,  the  shaddock,  (citrus  decumanus,)  a  species  of  orange. 
Pun'-dit,  a  learned  Brahmin. 
Pun'-ka,  a  large  frame,  covered  with  painted  canvass,  suspended  from 

the  ceiling.     A  cord  passes  through  a  partition,  and  the  servant, 

sitting  in  an  outer  room,  keeps  it  in  motion  like  a  fan ;  a  fan. 
Pu-ran-a,  certain  Hindu  mythological  poems. 

Put-chuck',  the  roots  of  a  medical  plant,  greatly  valued    in   China. 
Pway-za',  a  money-changer.     (Hindu.) 

Q. 

Qual-la,  a  Malay  word  signifying  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

R. 

Ra-han',  a  name  sometimes  given  to  Burman  priests  of  distinction. 
Ra-ja,  king,  prince,  chieftain,  nobleman  ;  a  title  in  ancient  times  given 

only  to  the  military  caste. 
Raj-bung' -sies,  a  tribe  of  mountaineers  in  Arracan  and  vicinity. 
Raj-poots,  (from  rajaputra,  the  offspring  of  a  king,)  a  name  which, 


GLOSSARY.  307 

strictly  speaking,  ought  to  be  limited  to  the  higher  classes  of 
the  military  tribe,  but  which  is  now  assumed  on  very  slender 
pretences. 

Ran-ny,  (corruption  of  rajni,)  a  queen,  princess,  the  wife  of  a  raja. 

Rhuum,  a  hall  of  justice,  or  a  magistrate's  court,  (pronounced  by  the 
Burmans,  yong.) 

Roo-ee,  a  fish  of  Bengal,  the  rohit  cyprinus. 

Ru-pee,  silver  coin  of  British  India.  The  Sicca  rupee  is  47  cents  3£ 
mills.  The  new,  or  Company  rupee,  weighs  180  grains  troy, 
or  one  tola,  has  one  twelfth  alloy,  and  is  worth  44£  cents.  It 
is  equal  to  the  Madras,  Bombay,  Arcot,  Furukabad,  and  Sonat 
rupees,   and   to   fifteen  sixteenths   of  the    Sicca   rupee. 

Rut'h,  (pronounced  rut,)  a  carriage  on  two  low  wheels,  drawn  by 
bullocks. 

Ry-ot,  or  Riot,  a  Bengal  peasant,  cultivator,  or  subject. 

s. 

Sago-tree,  (stigu,  Malay,)  in  botany,  the  palma  farinij 'era. 

Sail,  or  Sahib,  (pronounced  sibe,)  a  respectful  appellation  in  Hindu- 
stan ;  literally,  lord,  or  master. 

Sa-lwmJ ,  a  Hindu  salutation  of  respect ;  also  used  as  an  act  of  worship. 

Sam-angs' ,  negroes  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  mixed  with  Malays. 

Sitm-pan,  a  Chinese  skiff,  or  batteau. 

Sam-sams,  Mahometan  aborigines  of  part  of  Malaya. 

Sd-ny-as'-sies,  Hindu  devotees  and  mendicants. 

Sap-an'  icood,  a  wood  employed  for  dyeing  a  fine  red  or  deep  orange ; 
in  botany,  the  causal pinia  sappan. 

Saw,  Karen  term  of  respect,  equivalent  to  "  Mr." 

Se-bun-dy,  an  irregular  native  soldier,  or  local  militiaman,  generally 
employed   in    the    service   of  the    revenue   and   police. 

Seer,  a  British-Indian  weight,  equal  to  21bs.  6oz.,  and  nearly  equal  to 
the  French  kilogramme. 

Seids,  descendants  of  Mahomet,  through  his  nephew  Ali  and  his 
daughter  Fatima. 

Sepoy,  or  sepahi,  (Persian  and  Turkish,)  a  native  infantry  soldier 
in  the  British  service.     The  sepahies  of  the  Turks  are  cavalry. 

Serai,  a  Hindu  caravanserai  or  choultry,  thus  named  by  the  Mahom- 
etans. 

Ser-d-dau-gye' ,  a  Burman  secretary  or  government  writer. 

Se-rang',  a  sort  of  mate  among  lascars. 

Ser-e-dau',  a  Burman  secretary  to  a  great  man. 

Shd-bun-der,  a  master  attendant,  or  harbor-master,  and  generally  the 
king's  agent  and  merchant. 

Shas-tras,  or  Sastras,  an  inspired  or  revealed  book  ;  also  any  book  of 
instruction,  particularly  such  as  contain  revealed  ordinances. 

Shad-dock,  the  pumplenose,  a  huge,  bitter  orange. 

Shea,  Shias,  or  Shiites,  a  sect  of  Mussulmans,  followers  of  Ali. 

Sher-eef,  or  Sherriffe,  a  descendant  of  Mahomet  through  Hassan.  See 
Seids. 


308  GLOSSARY. 

Shee'-kd,  the  obeisance  made  by  Burmans  to  an  idol.  The  palms  of  the 
hands  are  placed  together,  and  solemnly  raised  to  the  forehead. 
According  to  their  feelings,  the  head  is  bowed  down  at  the  same 
time,  sometimes  quite  to  the  earth. 

Shi-as.     See  Sheas. 

Shin-bin,  a  teak  plank  or  beam,  three  or  four  inches  thick. 

Shoo-dras,  (pronounced  su-dras,)  a  low  caste. 

Shroff,  a  Hindu  money-changer,  or  banker. 

Slirub-ddr ,  a  Hindu  butler. 

Shijans,  or  Shans,  inhabitants  of  the  Laos  country,  a  region  enclosed 
between  China,  Siam,  Burmah,  and  Asam. 

Singh,  a  lion ;  a  distinctive  appellation  of  the  khetries,  or  military 
caste,  now  assumed  by  many  barbarous  tribes  converted  by  the 
Brahmins. 

Sir-car,  a  Hindu  clerk  or  writer. 

Sir-dar,  a  chief,  captain,  leader. 

Si-va,  or  Mahadeva,  the  third  person  of  the  Hindu  triad,  in  the  char- 
acter of  destroyer ;  he  is  a  personification  of  time. 

Som-mo-na-Co'-dom,  the  priest  Gaudama.  ' 

Son-7iites,  or  Soonee,  a  sect  of  Mussulmans,  who  revere  equally  the 
four  successors  of  Mahomet,  while  the  Shias,  Sheas,  or  Shiites 
reject  the  first  three  as  usurpers,  and  follow  Ali. 

Sou-ba-dar' ,  a  viceroy  or  governor  of  a  large  province  ;  also  the  title  of 
a  native  sepoy  officer,  below  an  ensign,  though  the  highest  rank 
he  can  attain. 

Srd-wuks,  or  Chaicacas,  the  laity  of  the  Jain  sect. 

Star  -pagoda,  a  Madras  coin,  equal  to  3£  rupees,  or  $1,71. 

Su-cu,  a  nominal  Malay  coin  of  6  fanams,  or  60  doits. 

Su-cun'-ne,  a  Bengal  boat-steerer. 

Sud-der,  the  chief  seat  or  head-quarters  of  government,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  mofussil,  or  interior  of  the  country. 

Sud-der- Ameen,  the  highest  native  judge  of  a  Hindu  court. 

Sud-der  De-wa-mj  A-daxo-let,  the  highest  native  court. 

Su-dra,  the  fourth  caste  among  the  Hindus,  comprehending  mechan- 
ics and  laborers.     The  subdivisions  of  this  caste  are  innumerable. 

Sum-pit,  a  long,  slender  reed,  or  bamboo,  through  which  the  Malays 
blow  arrows,  in  war  and  the  chase. 

Sur-dar,  a  head  bearer.     (Hindu.) 

Su-ri-ans,  the  Hindu  name  for  the  Nestorians,  or  Christians  of  St. 
Thome. 

Sut-ties,  self-burning  of  widows. 

Swan-pwan,  the  Chinese  abacus  or  calculating  machine. 

Syce,  a  Hindu  hostler,  or  groom. 

Sy-cee',  (properly  se-ze,)  a  Chinese  term  for  silver  of  a  certain  purity. 

T. 

Ta'-el,  (pronounced  tale,)  a  Chinese  piece  of  money,  equal  to  about  6 
shillings  sterling,  or  $1,43;  but  its  value  varies,  according  to  the 
plenty  or  scarcity  of  silver.     In  weighing,  it  is  the  sixteenth  of  a 


GLOSSARY.  309 

picul.  By  usage,  the  tael  of  commerce  is  583£,  and  that  of  money 
579£  grains  troy.     The  Chinese  call  it  hang. 

Taing,  a  Burinan  measure  of  2  miles  and  194  yards. 

Tank,  an  artificial  pond  of  water.     Some  tanks  are  very  large. 

Tan-jong,  a  Malay  word  signifying  a  point,  cape,  or  head  of  land. 

Tan-na,  (often  spelled  thanna.)  a  police  station;  also  a  military  post. 

Tan-na-dar,  the  keeper  or  commandant  of  a  tanna. 

Tat'-ty,  a  mat  curtain.     (Hindu.) 

Tee,  an  umbrella,  surmounting  Boodhist  pagodas  ;  ordinarily  made  of 
sheet  iron,  wrought  into  open-work,  and  gilded.  Round  the  rim, 
small  bells  are  suspended,  to  the  clappers  of  which  hang,  by  short 
chains,  sheet-iron  leaves,  also  gilded.  The  wind,  moving  the 
pendent  leaves,  strikes  the  clappers  against  the  bells,  and  keeps 
up  a  pleasant  chime.     See  picture  of  Tavoy. 

Te-mine' ,  a  Burman  woman's  skirt  or  frock. 

Tha-then-a-byng ,  Burman  supreme  pontiff. 

Thugs,  (pronounced  tug,)  a  notorious  class  of  gang-robbers  and  mur- 
derers, in  the  upper  provinces  of  Hindustan. 

Tic-aV .  A  Siamese  tical  is  about  60  cents.  A  Burman  weight  equal 
to  252  grains  troy.  Thirteen  Burman  ticals  equal  fifteen  Com- 
pany rupees. 

Tif-Jin,  a  slight  midday  repast ;  a  lunch. 

Tin'-dal,  a  petty  officer  among  lascars. 

Todl-dy,  the  juice  of  the  borassus  flabelliformis,  (palmyra-tree.) 

Tod'-dy-tree,  a  species  of  palm,  yielding  a  eopious  sap,  (toddy,)  which,  if 
drank  fresh,  is  nutritious,  but  after  fermentation  becomes  highly 
intoxicating.     The  inspissated  juice  is  jaggery. 

Tom-bun,  an  article  of  Eastern  commerce  ;  native  copper,  mixed  with 
a  little  gold. 

Ton-jons,  a  species  of  sedan  chair. 

Topas,  an  Indian-Portuguese. 

Tope,  a  Hindu  grove  ;  a  Coromandel  vessel. 

Tri-pang',  the  Malay  term  for  Biche-de-mer. 

Tsat-o-ay',  a  golden  necklace  of  peculiar  construction,  worn  only  by 
the  Burman  monarch  and  the  highest  nobility,  and  indicating 
rank  by  the  number  of  its  chains. 

Tu'-an,  sir,  or  gentleman.     (Malay.) 

Tu-tcn-dg' .  This  name  seems  differently  applied,  sometimes  to  the 
mixture  of  copper  and  zinc  of  which  the  Chinese  "  cash  "  are 
made,  and  sometimes  to  the  white  copper  of  China. 

U. 

U'-ze-na,  a  Burman  measure  of  twelve  miles. 

V. 

Vai-sy-a,    (vulgarly    pronounced  byce,)   the  third  caste   among  the 

Hindus,  comprehending  merchants,  traders,  and  cultivators. 
Vd-keel,  an  ambassador,  agent,  or  attorney. 


310  GLOSSARY. 

Ved,  or  Ve-da,  science,  knowledge  ;  the  sacred  books  of  the  Brahmini- 
cal  Hindus,  four  in  number,  Rig,  Sama,  Yajur,  and  Atharvan. 

Ve-dan-ta,  a  summary  and  exposition  of  the  Veda. 

Ve-ran'-da,  a  portico. 

Viss,  a  Burman  weight  of  3y6jj°o-  pounds.  This  is  the  English 
name ;  the  Burmans  call  it  piak-tha. 

w. 

Wat,  a  Siamese  term  for  a  sacred  place,  within  which  are  pagodas, 

monasteries,  idols,  tanks,  &c. 
Wee,  a  Karen   wizard  or  juggler,  less  respected  than  a  Boo-khoo. 
Woon-douk',  a  Burman  officer,  next  below  a  woongyee. 
Woon-gyee' ,  a  Burman  minister  of  state. 

Y. 

Yez-a-that',  a  written  collection  of  Burman  law  decisions. 
Yo-gee,  (same  as  Jogee,)  a  Hindu  devotee.  , 

Yong,  or  Rlioom,  a  Burman  court-house,  or  hall  of  justice. 


Zay'-at,  a  Burman  caravanserai,  or  public  house,  where  travellers 
repose,  and  meetings  are  held. 

Zem-in-dar,  a  great  renter  of  land  from  government,  who  underlets  to 
tenants,  who  again  let  to  others.  He  is  a  trader  in  produce  on  a 
large  scale.  The  zemindar  system  prevails  in  many  parts  of 
British  India,  but  is  a  system  exceedingly  burdensome  to  the 
peasantry. 

Zem-in-dar' ,  a  great  landholder.     (Hindu.) 

Zem-in-dar' -y,  an  estate  belonging  to  or  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
zemindar. 

Zil-lah,  a  large  district. 


INDEX. 


Absurdities  of  Hindu  literature,  ii. 
25. 

Abject  forms  of  politeness  in  Siam,  ii. 
114;   117. 

Abors,  ii.  211. 

Acajou.     See  Casliew. 

Accession  of  present  king  of  Bur- 
in all,  i.  142. 

Additional  labors  of  missionaries,  ii.221. 

Ahoms,  ii.  212. 

Akas,  ii.  214. 

Akyab,  situation,  i.  120:  commerce, 
population,  etc.  121. 

Albatross,  (diomeda  exulans,)  i.  24;  25. 

Alms  deeds,  Boodhistical  scale  of,  249. 

Alchemy,  fervent  pursuit  of,  i.  236. 

Alompra.  commences  revolt,  i.  135  : 
becomes  king,  136. 

Alphabet,  Roman,  to  be  preferred,  ii. 
263. 

Amber  mines  in  Burmah,  ii.  176. 

Amount  accomplished  by  missions,  ii. 
232. 

Amusements,  Burman,  i.  202. 

,  Siamese,  ii.  126. 

Anatto,  (bixa  orcllana,)  i.  165. 

Andaman  Islands,  (Insulce  Bonce  For- 
tune?.,) i.  33. 

Anglo-Chinese  College  at  Malacca,  ii. 
93. 

Annoyances  in  coasting-vessels,  i.  53. 

Anthropophagi,  i.  33. 

Archipelago  of  Arracan,  i.  129. 

Architectural  skill  of  Burmans,  i.  180. 

Arings,  ii.  208. 

Arm,  singular  position  of,  in  sitting,  i. 
185;  ii.  118. 

Army,  Burman,  i.  228  :  character  of 
troops,  229  :  British  army  in  India, 
ii.79;  290:_of  Siam,  126. 

Arracan,  i.  125. 

Arrival  at  Amherst,  i.  35. 

Arungs,  i.  129. 


Artificial  irrigation  in  the  Carnatic,  ii. 

62. 
Asamese,  ii.  210. 
Ascending  the  Hoogly,  ii.  31. 

Irrawaddy,  i.  85. 

Assayers  of  precious  metals,  i.  207. 
Astronomy,  Burman,  i.  235. 
•,  Hindu,  ii.  25. 


Attap,  material  of,  i.  154. 

A  urea  Chersonensis,  i.  29. 

Ava,  first  sight  of,  i.  95  :  distance  from 
Rangoon,  96  :  ground  plot,  97  :  sa- 
cred edifices,  98  :  no  charitable  in- 
stitutions, 98  :  magnificent  monaste- 
ries, 98 :  pagodas,  99  :  number  of 
priests,  99  :  palace,  99  :  gentleman's 
carriage,  100  :  population,  100  :  man- 
ufactures, 101  :  market,  101  :  prices 
of  living,  101  :  visits  to  the  great, 
102:  sitting  "  a  la  mode,"  103: 
mathematical  argument,  103  :  Mea- 
wade  woongyee,  103  :  Surrawa 
prince,  105  :  Thathenabyng,  or  su- 
preme pontiff,  105 :  garden,  106  : 
visit  from  Dupha  Gam,  106  :  cli- 
mate, 107  :  commencement  of  mis- 
sionary efforts,  107  :  Dr.  Price,  108  : 
advantages  for  tract  distribution, 
109:  Roman  Catholics,  111  :  king's 
barge,  113  :  populousness  of  the  re- 
gion, 115  :  departure  from,  115. 

B. 

Balachong,  i.  224. 

Ball  of  fire  on  mast  head,  i.  52. 

Balu  Island,  i.  56. 

Bamboo,  (arwulo  bambos,)  i.  166. 

Bamoo,  ii.  177. 

Banana,  (nmsa  sapientum,)  i.  154. 

Banca,  ii.  181. 

Bankok,  floating  houses,  ii.  115  :  popu- 
lation, 120:  climate,  121:  sacred 
edifices,  122 :  fruits,  129 :  mission 
premises,  134. 


312 


Bannian,  or  pipal,  (Jicus  religiosa,)  i 
160. 

-  ,  genuine,  (Jicus  Bengalensis,) 

i.  160. 

Baptism  at  Ko  Chet  Thing's  village, 
i.  64. 

Bedagat,  i.  243. 

Bells,  mode  of  casting,  in  Burmah, 
i.  209  :  immense  size,  209. 

Benevolent  Institution  at  Calcutta, 
ii.  19. 

Bengalee  airs,  ii.  38. 

tracts,  ii.  234. 

Betel,  (areca  catechu,)  i.  154  :  mode  of 
chewing,  185  :  picture  of  the  tree, 
ii.  134. 

Bheestie,  or  water-carrier,  ii.  14. 

Bible  class  at  sea,  i.  15. 

Biblical  literature  indebted  to  mission- 
aries, ii.  234. 

Bijnees,  ii.  210. 

Bhookoo,  or  Karen  prophet,  i.  54. 

Biche  de  mer,  i.  224. 

Bike.     See  Mergui. 

Birth  of  Gaudama,  i.  134. 

Bishop's  College  at  Calcutta,  ii.  20. 

Black  pepper  indigenous  in  Burmah, 
i.  171. 

Boarded  by  a  slaver,  ii.  170. 

Boardman's  grave,  i.  132. 

Boats  on  the  Irrawaddy,  i.  84. 

Bong,  ii.  202. 

Booby,  (pelicanus  sulci.)  i.  21. 

Boodh,  meaning  of  the  term,  i.  239  : 
the  next  Boodh,  243. 

Boodhism,  first  taught  at  Paghan,  i. 
94  :  declining  in  Arracan,  128 : 
when  introduced  into  Burmah,  134: 
prevalence  in  the  world,  239 : 
antiquity,  240:  remarks  upon  the 
system,  270. 

Books,  palm-leaf,  i.  234. 

Bootah,  i.  58. 

Booteas,  ii.  214. 

Bor-abors,  ii.  212. 

Bor-kantees,  ii.  213. 

Brahminism,  antiquity,  i.  240. 

character,  ii.  7G. 

Brahmins,  ii.  78. 

Brass,  Burman  manufacture  of,  i.  209. 

British  Indian  society,  ii.  111. 

possessions  in  India,  and  trea- 
ties, ii.  289  ;  291. 

•  armv  in  India,  ii.  79  ;  ~90. 


Bromha  Sobha,   ii.  30:    fruitlessness 
of,  32. 

Buffalo  of  Burmah,  Siam,and  China, 

i.  173. 
Bungalow  preaching,  at  Calcutta,  ii.36. 
Burmah  ;   different     names,    i.    134 : 


boundaries,  134  :  seats  of  govern- 
ment, 134 ;  135  :  history  of,  135  :  at- 
tacked by  Chinese,  136  :  war  with 
the  English,  140  :  makes  peace  with 
the  English,  141  :  features  of  coun- 
try, 143  :  climate,  144 :  seasons,  144: 
mountains,  145  :  minerals,  145  :  gold 
and  silver  mines,  145  :  rivers,  150  : 
soil,  150  :  fruits  and  timbers,  151  : 
dye-woods,  166  :  tillage,  167 :  wa- 

fes  of  labor,  168  :  wild  animals,  172  : 
omestic  animals,  173  :  ornithology, 
174  :.  reptiles,  175  :  fishes,  175  :  in- 
sects, 176  :  population,  178. 
Burmans;  ship-building,  i.  75:  ener- 
gy, 81  :  boatmen,  90  :  good  temper, 
90  :  herdsmen,  94:  curiosity  at  see- 
ing a  white  man,  95  :  ox-cart.  96  : 
gentleman's  carriage,  100 :  king's 
barge,  113:  villages,  117:  chronol- 
ogy, 134 :  common  era,  135  :  form 
and  features,  178  :  buildings,  179  : 
food,  181:  dress,  182:  ornaments, 
183 :  manners  and  customs,  184 : 
character,  187  :  condition  of  women, 

193  :     marriage,    194 :    polygamy, 

194  :  divorce,  195  :  diseases,  195  : 
medical  practice,  197 :  midwifery, 
198 :  funerals,  199  :  amusements, 
202  :  musical  instruments,  203  :  man- 
ufactures, 206  :  government,  211  : 
orders  of  nobility,  212 :  grades  of 
community,  212  :  magistracy,  213  : 
laws,  216  :  division  of  propert}-,  221 : 
revenue,  222 :  commerce,  223  :  cur- 
rency, 227  :  army,  228  :  navy,  229  : 
slavery,  230  :  division  of  time,  231  : 
weights  and  measures,  232 :  lan- 
guage, 233  :  literature,  234  :  degree 
of  civilization,  236  :  religion,  239. 

C. 

Calantan,  ii.  106. 

Calcutta,  landing  at,  ii.  11  :  English 
houses,  12  :  native  town,  13  :  Bhees- 
tie, 14  :  washerman,  16  :  charitable 
institutions,  18 :  education  commit- 
tee, 22  :  colleges,  23  :  native  news- 
papers, 28  :  school-book  society,  28: 
religious  edifices,  29  :  Bromha  Csob- 
ha,  30:  tract  society,  234. 

Candidates  for  the  Burman  crown, 
i.  140. 

Canoes,  dexterous  mode  of  excava- 
ting, i.  206. 

Canton,  appearance  of,  ii.  145  :  popu- 
lation, 146  :  foreign  factories,  146  : 
walks  in  suburbs,  147  :  streets,  147  : 
shops,  148  :    trades,  149 :  beggars, 


313 


150  :  place  of  execution,  151  :  hong- 
merchants'  residence,  153 ;  temples, 
154 :  priests  and  nuns,  155  :  state 
of  morals  among  foreigners,  158  : 
benevolent  institutions,  159  :  hospi- 
tal, 161. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  arrival  at,  ii.  1G8  : 
situation,  streets,  population,  168 : 
clergymen,  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, 169. 

Cape  weather,  i.  24. 

Capital  punishment,  methods  of,  i.  218. 

Caravans  of  Shyans,  i.  92  :  from  Chi- 
na. 225  :  from  Lao,  ii.  177  ;  225  : 
to  Thibet,  176. 

Card-playing,  rare  in  the  East,  i.  203. 

Cashew,  (anarcardium  occidenlale ,) 
i.  156. 

Catamarans,  ii.  48. 

Caves  on  the  Dagaing  and  Salwen 
Rivers,  i.  61. 

Cedar,  abundant  in  Munipore,  i.  163. 

Celestial  regions,  i.  245. 

Chakmas,  ii.  208. 

Champooing,  Burman  mode  of,  i.  197. 

Change  of  feeling  in  regard  to  mis- 
sions among  Europeans  in  India, 
ii.  34. 

Character  of  Brahmins  and  Brahmin- 
ism,  ii.  76  :  Siamese,  129. 

Charitable  institutions  of  Calcutta, 
ii.  18  ;  35. 

Charms,  inserted  under  skin,  i.  186. 

Cheroots,  how  made,  i.  186. 

Cheduba,  i.  124. 

Chess,  Eastern  mode  of,  i.  203. 

Chewing  betels,  i.  135. 

Children,  mode  of  carrying,  i.  185: 
treatment  of,  in  Burmah,  189  :  rev- 
erence to  parents,  190. 

Chilly,  or  red  pepper,  great  consump- 
tion in  Burmah,  i.  181. 

China,  outer  pilots,  ii.  142  :  river  boats, 
144:  jos,  145;  158:  populousness 
of,  144  :  small-footed  women,  151  : 
tombs,  152:  temple,  154:  pagoda, 
156  :  sects,  157  :  opium  trade,  159  : 
missions,  160:  missions  without  the 
empire,  175  :  versions  of  Scripture, 
182  :  tracts,  183 :  written  and  spok- 
en language,  184:  mode  of  printing, 
185 :  difficulties  of  the  language, 
186  :  characters,  186  :  helps  in  stud- 
ying the  language,  187 :  how  far 
open  to  missions,  166  :  authors  up- 
on. 188  :  without  excuse  for  its 
idolatry,  189. 

Chinese  procession  at  Maulmain,  i. 
59:  residents  at  Umerapoora,  114: 
at  Sagaing,  112:     attack  Burmah  I 

vol.  ii.  27 


unsuccessfully,  136 :  geography,  ii. 
149. 

Chin-India,  i.  133. 

Chitpore  schools,  ii.  19. 

Chittagong,  location,  i.  118:  popula- 
tion, &c.  119  :  revenue,  119. 

Christ  the  pattern  for  missionaries, 
ii.267. 

Christian  villages  in  Bengal,  ii.  41. 

Christianity  obviously  spreading  in 
Hindustan,  ii.  42. 

Chronology  of  Burmah,  i.  236. 

Churning,  Bengal  mode  of,  ii.  47. 

Cinnamon,  (/aurus  cinnamomum,)  i. 
158. 

Civilization,  degree  of,  in  Burmah, 
i.  236. 

compatible  with  cheap- 
ness, ii.  266. 

Clarionet,  Burman,  i.  205. 

Cleaning  cotton,  mode  of,  i.  208. 

Clearness  of  the  tropical  atmosphere, 
i.  22,  24. 

Climate  of  Ava,  i.  107  :  Burmah,  144  : 
Bankok,  ii.  121. 

Cock-fighting,  i.  203. 

Coco-nut,  (cocos  nucifera,)  i.  152. 

Coal  found  in  Burmah,  i.  148. 

Coins  of  Siam,  ii.  128. 

Coir.     See  Coya. 

Colleges  in  Bengal,  ii.  22 :  character 
of,  25. 

Collateral  labors  of  missionaries,  ii. 
220. 

Colman,  Mr.  i.  120. 

Combaconum,  ii.  63. 

Comet,  i.  18,  22. 

Comforts  of  East  India  coasters,  ii.  82. 

Commerce  of  Tavoy,  i.  40:  of  Mer- 
gui,  48 :  of  Maulmain,  65 :  of 
Rangoon,  74 :  of  Akyab,  121  : 
of  Kyouk  Phyoo,  122;  123:  of 
Burmah,  223  :  Siam,  ii.  127. 

Committee  of  education,  ii.  22  :  policy 
changed,  25. 

Company  at  sea,  i.  22,  25,  26. 

Comparison  between  the  number  of 
missionaries  and  that  of  ministers  at 
home,  ii.  286. 

Comprehensiveness  of  religious  sym- 
pathy, i.  13. 

Concentration  of  effort,  ii.  283. 

Conjuring  practised  by  medical  men 
in  Burmah,  i.  197. 

Converts  to  Christianity,  ii.  240. 

Convict  ship,  i.  18. 

Coon,  how  compounded,  i.  185. 

Coral  strands,  i.  130. 

Cork-tree  of  Burmah,  i.  164. 

Cosmetic  of  Burmans,  i.  184 


314 


Cosmogony  of  the  Bedagat,  i.  243. 

Cossyan,  ii.  206. 

Costume  of  Burmans,  i.  183:  of  Siam- 
ese, ii.  126  :  of  Chinese,  143. 

Cost  of  Oriental  printing,  ii.  262. 

Cotton,  kinds  raised  in  Burmah,  i.  168  : 
seeds  used  for  food,  169 :  amount 
exported,  224. 

Courts  of  justice,  Maulmain,  i.  72. 

Cox's  bazar,  Chittagong,  i.  120. 

Coya,  or  Coir,  materia!  of,  i.  152. 

Cradle,  Burman  and  Siamese,  i.  185. 

Crossing  the  line,  i.  20. 

Cruscool  River,  i.  120. 

Cuddalore,  ii.  61. 

Currency,  Burman,  i.  227. 

,  Siamese,  ii.  128. 

Custard  apple,  (annona  squamosa,)  i. 
156. 

Cutch-tree,  (mimosa  catechu,)  i.  161. 

D. 

Damathat,i.  216. 

Dancing,  Burman,  i.  202 :  deemed  a 
drudgery,  203. 

Dead  bodies  in  the  Hoogly,  ii.  11. 

Decorous  and  hospitable  treatment, 
i.  39. 

Departure  from  United  States,  i.  13  : 
for  Tavoy  and  Mergui,  38  :  from 
Maulmain,  73  :  from  Rangoon  for 
Ava,  84:  from  Ava,  115:  from  Cal- 
cutta, 118  :  from  Arracan,  131  :  from 
Madras,  ii.  81  :  from  Malacca,  94  : 
from  Singapore,  112:  from  Siam, 
141  :  from  China,  167:  from  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  170. 

D'hanoos,  ii.  202. 

Difference  between  jungle  and  forest, 
i.  143. 

Difficulties  of  direct  preaching,  ii.  270. 

Disadvantages  of  modem  missiona- 
ries, ii.  222. 

Discourses  of  Gaudama,  i.  250. 

Disinterestedness  of  missionaries,  as 
exemplified  by  Colman,  i.  120. 

Disputations  undesirable,  ii.  271% 

Division  of  labor,  ii.  282. 

of  property  in  Burmah,  i.  221. 

Divorce,  i.  195. 

Doctrines  of  Boodhism.  i.  247. 

Domestic  animals,  i.  172. 

Doorga  Pooja.  festival,  ii.  17. 

Doubling  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  i.  27. 

Downward  tendency  of  idolatry,  ii. 
224. 

Drama,  Burman,  i.  202 

Driving  away  the  devil,  i.  52. 

Drums,  Burman,  i.  204. 


Duflas,  or  Duplas,  ii.  214. 
Dupha  Gam,  visit  from,  i.  106. 
Duryan,  (durio  zebethinus,)  i.  150. 
Dyeing,  Burman  process,  i.  208. 
Dye-stuffs  of  Burmah,  i.  166. 

E. 

Eagle  wood,  (aquilaria  agallochum,) 
i.  164. 

Earthen  ware,  Burman,  i.  206. 

Earth-oil  wells    on  the  Irrawaddy,  i. 
91. 

Ebony,  (diospyms  ebenum,)  i.  161. 

Eccabat  Kulahs,  ii.  202. 

Economy  in  missionary  operations  in- 
dispensable, ii.  267. 

Edible  roots  of  Burmah,  i.  159. 

Education,  rudiments  of,  widely  dif- 
fused in  Burmah,  i.  235. 

of  native  children  by- mis- 


sionaries, ii.  250. 

of  native  assistants,  ii.  278. 

expectations  from,  ii.  272. 

Effect     of    missions     on     Europeans 

abroad,  ii.  240. 

on  the  churches  at 


home,  ii.  244. 
Efforts  for  sailors,  i.  19. 
Elephant,  awkward  present  of,  ii.  1 19. 
Embalming,  Burman  mode  of,  i.  199. 
Employment  of  time,  i.  16. 
Encounter   between   a  whale    and   a 

thresher,  i.  27. 
Encouragements  among  the   Karens, 

i.  46. 

in    the    missions    at 


large,  ii.  17  1. 
English  chapel  at  Maulmain,  i.  35. 

influence  on  Burmah,  i.  71. 

language  extending  in  Ben- 


gal, ii.  27. 

army  in  Hindustan,  ii.  79. 

-,  value  of,  to  native  assistants, 


ii.  279. 
Engyees,  ii.  203. 
Enormous    shark,  i.  28. 
Epoch  of  Anjina,  i.  134. 
Era,  Burman,  i.  231. 
Erroneous  labors  of  missionaries,ii.  221. 
European  life  in  India,  ii.  112. 

morals  in  India  improved,  ii. 


240. 

Evening  walks  at  Maulmain,  i.  67. 
Excellence  of  Burman  boatmen,  i.  90. 
Excursions  into    interior   of  Burmah, 

i.  60. 
Expenses  of  my  mission,  ii.  172. 
Expert  mode  of  climbing,  i.  95. 
Exports  of  Burmah,  i.  224, 


315 


Exports  of  Siam,  ii.  128. 
Extortions  from  the  Karens,  i.  80. 
of  Burman  rulers,  213. 


Fabric  of  idolatry  shaken,  ii.  239. 

Fan-palm,  represented  in  landscape 
of  Tavoy. 

Farther  India,  i.  133. 

Fear  of  robbers,  i.  117. 

Festival,  annual,  at  Saugor  Island, 
ii.  8. 

Festivities  of  the  Burman  new  year, 
i.  58. 

First  Sabbath  in  Burmah,  i.  35. 

sight  of  idolaters,  i.  31. 

Protestant  church  in  Siam,  ii.  138. 

Fishes  of  Burmah,  i.  175. 

Floating  houses  at  Bankok,  ii.  115. 

Flying  fish,  i.  21. 

Foot-ball,  novel  mode  of,  i.  203. 

Friendly  lizards,  i.  53. 

Fruits  of  Burmah,  i.  150  :  value  com- 
pared with  those  of  our  country, 
159. 

Fund  for  education  in  Bengal,  ii.  22. 

Funerals,  Burman,  i.  198. 

,  Hindu,  ii.  16. 

G. 

Gamboge,  (garcinia  caviboja,)  i.  165. 

Garden  reach,  on  the  Hoogly  River, 
ii.  10. 

Garden  vegetables  in  Burmah,  i.  159. 

Garrows,  or  Garros,  ii.  206. 

Gaudama,  birth,  i.  134 :  parentage, 
241 :  Burman  representation,  242  : 
death,  242  :  discourses,  250  :  im- 
pressions of  his  foot,  254 :  Chinese 
representation,  ii.  158. 

General  Assembly's  school  at  Calcut- 
ta, ii.  18. 

Gentoos,  or  Telogoos,  ii.  56. 

Gilding,  excellence  of  Burman,  i.  207. 

Glass,  not  made  in  Burmah,  i.  210. 

Gnapee,  how  made,  i.  224. 

Gold  and  silver  mines  of  Burmah, 
i.  145. 

Good  humor  of  Siamese,  ii.  116. 

Gong,  composition  of,  and  mode  of 
playing,  i.  204. 

Gorkas,  ii.  210. 

Grafting  not  practised  by  Burmans, 
i.  157. 

Gratitude  of  Karen  Christians,  i.  46. 

— — ^—  rare  with  Burmans,  i.  190. 

— — —  destroyed  by  Boodhism,  27 J. 

Gravity,  Burman,  i.  190. 


Great  pagoda  at  Rangoon,  i.  75. 

Guava,  (psidium  pomiferum,)  i.  155. 

Guitar,  Burman,  i.  204. 

Gunga  Saugor,  ii.  8. 

Gunpowder,   process    of  making,    in 

Burmah,  i.  208. 
Gutzlaff,  ii   164. 


H. 

Harbors  of  Burmah,  i.  223. 
Hardships    of  Judson    and  others  at 

Ava,  l.  140. 
Harp,  Burman,  i.  205. 
Harpooning  a  porpoise,  i.  24. 
Heber's  death,  ii.  68  :  grave,  ib. 
Hells,  Burman,  i.  246. 
Higher  classes  to  be  regarded,  ii.  285. 
Hindu  astronomy,  ii.  25. 

chemistry,  ii.  26. 

character,  ii.  77. 

College  at  Calcutta,  ii.  23. 

literature,  specimen  of,  ii.  25. 

edifices  in  Calcutta,  ii.  29. 

gentleman's  carriages,  ii.  50. 


History  of  Burmah,  i.  135. 
of  Siam,  ii.  124. 


Hither  and  Farther  India,  i.  133. 

Hniking,  or  Burman  champooing,  i. 
197. 

Home  expenses  of  missionary  opera- 
tions, ii.  231. 

Hoogly  (or  Mahomet  Muhsin's)  Col- 
lege, ii.  24. 

Hoogly  River,  ii.  7:  Hindu  venera- 
tion of,  9  :  scenery,  9. 

Horses,  breed  of,  in  Burmah,  i.  173. 

Hospitality  of  the  Burmans,  i.  188. 

Hostility  of  Indian  governments  to 
missionary  efforts,  ii.  228. 

Houses  in  Burmah,  construction,  cost, 
and  durability,  i.  179 :  rank  indica- 
ted by  the  roof,  180. 


I. 

Idolaters,  first  sight  of,  i.  31. 

Idolatry  supported  by  British  govern- 
ment, ii.  72:  countenanced  in  vari- 
ous modes,  73. 

Illustrations  of  Scripture,  John  13.10, 
i.  184.:  2  Kings  19.26,  173:  Deu- 
teronomy 32.5,  ii.  21 ;  52  :  Revela- 
tions 5.1,  i.  234:  Psalms  68.5,  and 
Jeremiah  8.17,  ii.  51  :  1  Kings 
18.46,  ii.  52  :  Proverbs  21.1,  ii.  63. 

Impressions  of  Gaudama's  foot,  i.  89; 
255. 

Incentives  to  increased  missionary 
exertion,  ii.  173. 


316 


India,  derivation  of  the  term,  i.  133. 
Indian  Archipelago,  i.  134. 

corn  in  Burmah,  i.  170. 

Female  Orphans'  Refuge,  ii.  20. 

Portuguese,   the  class  defined, 

ii.  96. 

Indigo,  wild,  in  Burmah,  i.  171. 

Inquisitiveness  of  Burmans,  i.  190. 

Insects  of  Burmah,  i.  176. 

Institutes  of  Menu,  i.  216. 

Interesting  case  of  inquiry,  i.  81. 

Iron  ore,  Burman  mode  of  smelting, 
i.  209. 

Itineracies,  ii.  273. 

Irrawaddy,  voyage  up,  i.  84  :  boats, 
84  :  my  boat,  85  :  high  stage  of  wa- 
ter, 8G  :  tract  distribution  upon,  96  : 
mode  of  fishing,  87  :  change  of  land- 
scape, 89 :  astonishing  number  of 
boats,  89:  boatmen,  90:  earth-oil 
wells,  91  :  perils  from  squalls,  96  : 
robbers,  9b :  descending  voyage, 
115  :    sources,  148. 

Irrigation  in  Burmah,  i.  169. 

Islamabad.     See  Chiltagong. 


Jack,  (artocarpus  integrifolia,)  i.  151. 

Jaggery,  how  made,  i.  155. 

Jewelry,  Burman,  i.  206. 

Joomeas,  ii.  208. 

Johore,  ii.  104. 

Judson,  Mr.,  personal  appearance,  i.  56: 
residence,  72  :  sufferings  at  Ava,  140. 

Judson's,  Mrs.,  grave,  i.  36. 

Jungle,  different  from  forest,  i.  143. 

Junk  Ceylon,  seized  by  Burmans, 
i.  138. 

Justice,  administration  of,  at  Maul- 
main,  i.  72. 

Jynteah,  ii.  206. 

K. 

Kachar,  ii.  205. 

Kadoos,  ii.  202. 

Kahpah,  i.  46. 

Kahs,  ii.  200. 

Kah-Kyens,  ii.  204. 

Kalinga,  or  Telinga,  ii.  56. 

Kantees,  or  Khantees,  ii.  205  ;  212. 

Karen,  churches,  i.  46  ;  ii.  193  :  books, 
i.  47  :  Christians,  43  ;  language  re- 
duced to  writing,  43  :  modes  of  liv- 
ing, ii.  194:  religion,  196. 

Karennees,  ii.  201. 

Kashew.     See  Cashew. 

Keda,  or  Queda,  ii.  102. 

Kedgeree,  i.  32. 


Khantees,  or  Kantees,  ii.  205. 

Kirauts,  ii.  210. 

Kissing,  singular  mode  of,  i.  185. 

Klings,  Kahngas,  or  Gentoos,  ii.  56. 

Kolnas,  ii.  212. 

Kookies,  or  Kunghis,  ii.  209. 

Kubos,  ii.  210. 

Kulladine  River,  i.  120;  126. 

Kumaons,  or  Kumoons,  ii.  209. 

Kunungs,  ii.  213. 

Kyendween  River,  i.  149. 

Kyens,  i.  129 ;  ii.  203. 

Kyouk  Phyoo,  i.  122. 

Kyoungs,  i.  261. 

L. 

Labor,  price  of,  in  Burmah,  i.  168. 

Lac,  from  what  produced,  i.  166. 

Lackered  ware,  superiority  of  Burman, 
and  mode  of  manufacture,  i.  206. 

Lalongs,  ii.  207. 

Lamps,  classical  model  of.  i.  206. 

Language  of  Burmans,  i.  233. 

Languages  reduced  to  writing  by 
missionaries,  ii.  233. 

yet  without  the  Scriptures, 

ii.  262. 

Lao,  or  Shyan  country,  ii.  198. 

Lapchas,  or  Sikhims,  ii.  214. 

Lawas,  ii.  201. 

Laws  of  Burmah,  i.  218. 

Laymen  wanted  in  the  missionary  field, 
ii.  287. 

Leper  hospital  at  Calcutta,  ii.  22. 

Leprosy,  i.  196. 

Letters  from  Karen  pupils,  i.  45. 

Lignum  aloes,  or  Eagle-wood,  i.  164. 

Ligore,  ii.  106. 

Lintin,  ii.  143. 

Lion,  curious  representation  of,  i.  253. 

Literature,  Burman,  i.  234:  Hindu, 
ii.  25  :  Chinese,  149;  189  :  of  pagans 
generally,  215 :  bestowed  by  mis- 
sionaries, 234. 

Literary  institutions  in  Burmah,  i.  235. 

Lives  lost  in  scientific  enterprises, 
ii.  230. 

Lizards,  service  of,  i.  53  . 
varieties,  i.  177. 


Longevity  of  Burmans,  i.  195. 
Loom,  construction  and  mode  of  using 

in  Burmah,  i.  208. 
Lying,  universal  with  Burmans,  i.  191. 

M. 

Macao,  aspect,  condition,  and  sight, 
ii.  162 :  history,  163 :  concert  of 
prayer,  165  :  hospital,  166. 


317 


Mackerel  fishing,  i.  14. 

Madras,  exposed  harbor,  ii.  48  :  land- 
ing, 49  :  esplanade,  60  :  population, 
51 :   temperature,  53  :   missions,  54. 

Magellan  clouds,  i.  22. 

Mahogany,  found  near  Ava,  i.  162. 

Mahometan  College,  or  Madressa, 
ii.  23. 

Malacca,  ii.  95:  missionaries,  97  :  col- 
lege, 98. 

Mango,  {mangifera  indica,)  i.  152. 

Mangosteen,  i.  151. 

Marble  quarries  near  Ava,  i.  102. 

Marian,  (mangifera  oppositifolia,)  i. 
155. 

Marriage,  when  contracted,  i.  194 : 
how  solemnized,  194. 

Martiniere  at  Calcutta,  ii.  22. 

Mata  village  and  church,  i.  41. 

Maubee,  i.  80. 

Maulmain,  i.  64:  evening  walks,  67: 
establishment  of  the  mission,  68 : 
printing-office,  69  :  schools,  70  :  let- 
ter from  a  pupil,  70. 

Malay  peninsula,  ii.  101  :  negro  tribes 
of,  102 :  missions,  109 :  language 
and  translations,  110. 

Malays,  origin  and  history,  ii.  100  :  re- 
ligion and  character,  107. 

Measure  of  missionary  success,  ii. 
217. 

Measures  of  Burmah,  i.  232,  233. 

Meawade,  woongyee  at  Ava,  i.  103. 

3Iechanical  facilities  at  missionary 
stations,  ii.  236. 

Medical  College  of  Bengal,  ii.  24. 

missionaries,  ii.  161  ;  263. 

men  in  Burmah,  i.  197. 

Meekeers,  or  Mikirs,  ii.  211. 

Meerees,  or  Miris,  ii.  211. 

Meinam  River,  ii.  113. 

Mekara  prince,  at  Ava,  i.  102. 

Menankabo,  ii.  100. 

Menderagyee,  ascends  the  throne,  i. 
137:  religious  zeal,  138:  perse- 
cutes the  priests,  138. 

Mengoon  pagoda,  i.  113:  when  com- 
menced, 138. 

Mergui,  city  of,  i.  48  :  population,  49  : 
conquered  by  Burmans,  136. 

Merit,  Boodhistical,  i.  249. 

Midwifery,  singular  practice  of,  i.  198. 

Military  force  of  Siamese,  ii.  126. 

Mineral  riches  of  Burmah,  i.  145. 

Ministers,  supply  of,  in  England,  ii. 
286. 

Mishmees,  ii.  212. 

Misrule  of  Burman  officers,  i.  213. 

Missionary  conference  at   Maulmain, 

27* 


Missionary  field  in  and  around  Bur- 
mah, ii.  192. 

physicians,  ii.  263. 


Mission  press  at  Maulmain,  i.  69  :  Cal- 
cutta, ii.  36  :  at  Madras,  54  :  Ban- 
kok,  133:  Macao,  163. 

Missions  to  the  Chinese,  ii.  175. 

Missionaries  to  be  sent  in  pairs,  Ii.  281- 

Mode  of  eating  in  Burmah,  i.  182. 

Modern  languages  of  Hindustan,  ii.  80. 

Mogoung,  ii.  176. 

Mogoung  River,  i.  150. 

Muhurrum,  a  Mussulman  festival,  i.  59. 

Mokesobo,  i.  135. 

Monarch  of  Burmah,  i.  211. 

Monay,  ii.  225. 

Morality  of  Boodhism,  i.  248. 

Moravians  at  Nicobar,  i.  30. 

■,widows  and  children,  ii.  268. 


Mosques  in  Calcutta,  ii.  29. 
Mosquitoes  at  Rangoon,  i.  177. 
Mother  Carey's  chickens,  [procellaria 

-pelagic a,)  i.  21. 
Moungmagoung,  i.  38. 
Mountains  of  Burmah,  i.  145. 
Mroongs,  i.  129  ;  ii.  209. 
Mrs.  Judson's  grave,  i.  36. 
Mrs.  Sigourney's  lines  on  Mrs.  Jud- 

son,  i.  37. 
Mrs.  Wilson's  schools,  Calcutta,  ii.  20. 
Mugs,  i.  127. 
Munipore,  ii.  205. 
Music,  Burman,  203. 

,  Bengalee,  ii.  30 ;  38. 

Mussulman  edifices  in  Calcutta,  ii.  29. 

Muttucks,  ii.  213. 

Myetnga  River,  i.  114;  150. 

N. 

Nagas,  ii.  207. 

Namdogyeepra,  king   of  Burmah,   i. 

136. 
Nankin   or  red  cotton  of  Burmah,  i. 

168. 
Native  assistants,  education  of,  ii.  278. 
Nat  worship,  i.  258. 
Navy,  Burman,   i.   229 :   Siamese,  ii. 

127 :  Chinese,  145. 
Newspapers  in  Calcutta,  ii.  29. 
Newville,  i.  58. 
Nicobar  Islands,  i.  30. 
Noble  serpentine  of  Burmah,  i.  145. 
Nobles,  Burman,  i.  211. 
Novel  mode  of  fishing  on  Irrawaddy, 

i.  87. 
Number  of  converts  in  Burmah,  i.  131 : 

in  Madras,    ii.  54 :     on  the  Malay 

peninsula,   93;   99:   Bankok,    136: 

Macao,  165  :  in  the  world,  243. 


318 


Number  of  missionaries  in  the  world, 

ii.  218. 
heathen   who    can    read, 

ii.  257. 
Nunsun   ascends  the  throne    of  Bur- 

mah,  i.  138. 

O. 

Oak,  various   species    in  Burmah,  i. 

163. 
Oath,  singular  form  of,  i.  216. 
Ocean  thoughts,  i.  15. 
Olives,  common  at  Mergui,  i.  157. 
Ordained  pastors  necessary,  ii.  275. 
Ordeal,  trial  by,  i.  217. 
Oriental  alphabets,  ii.  261. 
Ornamental  structures  round  pagodas, 

i.  253 ;  254. 
Ornithology  of  Burmah,  i.  174. 
Outcasts,  Burman,  i.  212. 


Pagan  literature,  the  grand  prop  of 
pagan  religions,  ii.  215. 

Paghan,  ruins  of,  i.  92  :  reverence  for, 
93:  Boodhism  first  taught  here,  94. 

Pagoda,  great  Shoodagon,  at  Ran- 
goon, i.  75  :  Shoomadoo,  at  Pegu, 
83  :  splendid,  at  Prome,  87  :  new,  at 
Ava,  142  :  general  model  of,  251  : 
worship,  256  :  form  in  Hindustan, 
ii.  69  :   in  China,  156. 

Pagoda  slaves,  i.  77. 

Pahang,  ii.  105. 

Paknam,  ii.  113. 

Palankeen  travelling  in  India,  ii.  59. 

Pali  language,  i.  234. 

Palmyra,  or  toddy-tree,  i.  95 ;  155. 

Paloungs,  ii.  204. 

Panya,  seat  of  Burman  government, 
i.  135  :  utterly  destroyed,  137. 

Papaya,  (carica  jyapaja,)  i.  152. 

Paper,  Burman  manufacture  of,  i.  210. 

Parting  regrets,  i.  131  ;  ii.  141. 

Patani,  ii.  106. 

Patronage  of  idolatry  by  British  gov- 
ernment, ii.  72. 

Pearls,  procured  at  Mergui,  i.  147. 

Pecotta,  or  mode  of  irrigation  near 
Madras,  ii.  62. 

Peekah,  i.  46. 

Pegu,  city  of,  ii.  83:  the  province 
never  regarded  as  conquered,  135. 

Peguan  dynasty,  i.  135. 

Peguans,  ii.  192. 

Pegu  River,  i.  82. 

Perak.ii.  103. 

Periodicals  in  Bengal,  ii.  29. 


Periodicals  supported  by  missionaries, 
ii.  259. 

Personal  appearance  of  Siamese,  ii. 
125. 

Persecutions  at  Madagascar,  ii.  241. 

Petrifactions  on  the  Irrawaddy,  i.  91 : 
varieties  of,  147  :  probably  antedi- 
luvian, 148. 

Petroleum  wells,  i.  91  :  gross  annual 
produce,  147. 

Petty  monsoon,  ii.  167. 

Physicians,  missionary,  ii.  263. 

Phwoons,  ii.  205. 

Piety  of  the  Karens,  i.  43. 

in  the  churches  at  home,  ii.  288. 

Pine,  in  Burman  mountains,  i.  163. 

Pipal.     See  Bannian,  i.  160. 

Places  of  worship  in  Calcutta,  ii.  36. 

Plaintain,  (musa  paradisiacal,)  i.  153. 

Plan  for  preparing  Chinese  missiona- 
ries, ii.  182.  , 

Political  relations  of  E.  I.  Company, 
ii.  290. 

Pondicherry,  ii.  61. 

Pongyees,  not  a  separate  caste,  i.  259  : 
rules  for,  260:  dress,  261. 

Ponliana,  ii.  180. 

Population  ;  Tenasserim  provinces,  i. 
38  ;  ii.  192  :  Arracan,  38  :  Mergui,  49  : 
Rangoon,  74  :  Burmah,  178  :  Cal- 
cutta, ii.  33 :  Madras,  51  :  Singa- 
pore, 88  :  Bankok,  120:  Siam,  125  : 
Canton,  146  :  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
168  :  Yunnan,  178  :  Karen,  193. 

Populousness  of  region  round  Ava, 
i.  115. 

Portuguese  men-of-war,  (holocuria 
physalis,)  i.  26. 

Posture  of  Siamese  lady,  ii.  118. 

Poverty  of  heathen  languages,  ii.  223. 

Prayer,  Boodhistical  mode  of,  i.  256. 

Preaching  to  an  assembly  of  mission- 
aries, i.  55;  ii.  138. 

to  resident  foreigners,  ii.  258. 

■,  difficulties  of,  in  the  East,  ii. 


270. 


-,  a  primary  duty,  ii.  270. 


Premature  tejoicing,  i.  116. 
Preparatory    labors    of   missionaries, 

ii.  220. 
Preparis  and  Narcondam  Islands,  i.  34. 
Present  activity  of  slave  trade,  ii.  171. 
Press,  benefits  of,  to  Burmah,  i.  238. 
Price,  Dr.,  i.  108. 
Price  of  a  Burman  house,  i.  179 :  of 

passages  in  India,  ii.  83. 
Prices  of  living-  at  Maulmain,  i.  65  :  at 

Rangoon,   75:     at    Ava,    101:     at 

Akyab,  121 :    at  Calcutta,   ii.  34 ; 

at  Bankok,  129. 


319 


Pride  of  Burmans,  i.  191. 

Priesthood,  Burman,  i.  259  :  rules  of, 
260:  dress,  261  :  morality,  261  :  mode 
of  preaching,  262 :  daily  support, 
263  :  number,  264  :  hierarchy,  264  : 
funeral  rites,  265 :  political  influ- 
ence, 268. 

Priestesses,  Burman,  i.  268. 

Printing-offices ;  Maulmain,  i.  69 : 
Calcutta,  ii.  36  :  Serampore,  45 : 
Singapore,  94 :  Bankok,  133  :  31a- 
cao,  163  :   Sudiya,  176. 

Private  names  of  Burman  sovereigns, 
i.  137. 

Process  of  dyeing  in  Burmah,  i.  208. 

Progressive  poverty  of  Hindustan, 
ii.  78. 

Prome,  i.  86  :  spendid  pagoda,  87  : 
leper  village  88 :  occupied  by  the 
British,  141. 

Provincial  administration  in  Burmah, 
i.  214. 

Pumplenose,  or  shaddock,  (citrus  de- 
cummana,)  i.  157. 

Punishments  in  Burmah,  i.  218. 

Purity  of  missionaries,  i.  131. 

Q. 

Qualifications  of  native  assistants,  ii. 

276. 
Que,  or  Quays,  ii.  202. 

R. 

Rainy  season  in  Burmah,  i.  144. 

Rajbungsies,  ii.  208. 

Ram  Mohun  Roy ;  his  specimen  of 
Hindu  literature,  ii.  25  :  his  institu- 
tion in  Calcutta,  30. 

Ramree,  i.  124. 

Rangoon,  location,  i.  74  :  population, 
74  :  commerce,  74  :  prices  of  provis- 
ion. 75  :  ship-building  at,  75  ;  206  : 
great  pagoda,  75:  persecution  at, 
79 :  departure  from,  84 :  return  to, 
116:  departure  for  Chittagong,  118. 

Ratans,  varieties  in  Burmah,  i.  166. 

Religion  of  Burmah,  i.  239. 

Religious  edifices  in  Calcutta,  ii.  29. 

improvement  of  the  seamen, 

i.  34. 

Remarkable  caves,  i.  61. 

phenomenon,  ii.  170. 

Remarks  upon  Boodhism,  i.  270. 

Reptiles  of  Burmah,  i.  175. 

Return  to  the  United  States,  ii.  172. 

Revenue  of  Chittagong,  i.  119:  of 
Arracan,  128  :  East  India  Compa- 
ny, ii.  80. 


Rice,  preferred  food   in    Burmah,   i. 

168. 

,  raised  on  uplands,  i.  169. 

,  mode  of  cleaning  shown,  i.  177. 

,  price  of,  at  Rangoon,  i.  75  :  at 

Ava,  101  :  at  Akyab,  121. 
Rivers  of  Burmah,  t.  148  ;  150. 
Rockets,  immense  size  of,  in  Burmah, 

i.  209. 
Roman  alphabet  to  be  preferred,  ii. 

260. 

Catholics,  at  Ava,  i.  Ill  :   in 


Siam,  ii.  139. 
Rumbo,  ii.  105. 


S. 


Sabbath  neglected  in  Calcutta,  ii.  35. 

Sacrifices  of  heathen  converts,  ii.  241. 

Sagaing,  population  of,  i.  112:  eligi- 
ble location  for  a  mission,  112: 
made  the  metropolis,  136. 

Sailors,  efforts  for,    i.  18. 

Sakya  systems,  i.  243 :  how  reprodu- 
ced, 245  :  existing  from  eternity,  247. 

Salaries  of  civilians  in  India,  ii.  79. 
missionaries,  ii.  269. 


Salengore,  ii.  104. 

Salt,  exported  from  Chittagong.  i.  119. 

— — ,  manufactured  in  Burmah,  i.  210. 

Salt  licks  near  Ava,  i.  1 13. 

Salwen  or  Martaban  River,  excursion 
upon,  i.  60  :  sources  and  course,  149. 

Sambas,  ii.  180. 

Sandoway,  i.  124. 

Sandwich  Islands,  recent  revivals  at, 
ii.  242. 

Sapan-wood,  (cces-alpinia  sappan,)  i. 
161. 

Saugor  Island,  ii.  8. 

Saul  or  Soondrv  tree,  i.  157. 

Scenery  of  the  Burman  coast,  i.  38. 

Schools,  missionary  benefits  of,  ii. 
287  :  how  far  to  be  depended  upon, 
249. 

Scorpion,  ii.  7. 

Seasons  in  Burmah,  on  the  coast,  i.  51  : 
between  tide  water  and  the  moun- 
tains, 144 :  at  Madras,  ii.  53 :  at 
Singapore,  85:  at  Bankok,  121. 

Seats    of  government    in   Burmah,   i. 

Sects,  Boodhistical,  i.  269. 

,  Brahminieal,  ii.  50. 

Self-denial  in  unexpected  forms,  ii. 
270. 

Selongs,  i.  51  ;  ii.  201. 

Serampore,  ii.  43  :  college,  44  :  grave- 
yard, 45  :  disinterestedness  of  the 
missionaries,  46. 


320 


Seringham,  ii.  69. 

Servants,  numbers  of;  in  Calcutta,  ii. 
12. 

Setang  River,  i.  149. 

Shaddock,  or  Pumplenose,  i.  157. 

Shark,  enormous,  harpooned,  i.  29. 

Shark's  fins,  uses  of,  i.  224. 

Shenbuyen  ascends  the  throne,  i.  136. 

Ship-building  at  Rangoon,  i.  206. 

Shoomadoo  pagoda  at  Pegu,  i.  83. 

Shwaykyetyet  pagoda,  i.  114. 

Shyan  chobwaus,  i.  104. 

■  country,  ii.  198. 

Shyans,  invade  Burmah,  i.  135. 

,  various  tribes  of,  ii.  199. 

Siam,  overrun  by  Alompra,  i.  136  : 
river  of,  ii.  113:  floating  houses, 
115:  nobles,  117:  history  of,  124: 
population,  125:  army,  126:  com- 
merce, 127  :  money,  128  :  missions, 
132. 

Siamese,  great  men.ii.  118  :  idol,  123: 
personal  appearance,  125:  costume 
and  amusements,  126  :  character, 
129 :  degree  of  civilization,  130 : 
language,  131. 

Siamese  Shyans,  i.  50. 

Silk  cotton-tree,  (bombax  ceiha,)  i.  161. 

Silk,  general  use  of,  by  Burmans,  i. 
183. 

Silver,  qualities  of,  i.  227. 

Singapore ;  situation,  ii.  84  :  harbor, 
85  :  climate,  86  :  productions,  87  : 
population,  88  :  missionary  opera- 
tions, 93. 

Singphoos,  ii.  204,  213. 

Slaver,  ii.  170. 

Slavery,  Burman  law  of,  i.  219  :  prev- 
alence of,  229  :  in  Arracan,  128  :  in 
the  Camatic,  ii.  71  :  among  the  Ma- 
lays, 108  :  in  Siam,  130. 

Slaves  of  the  pagoda,  i.  77. 

Slave  trade,  still  active,  ii.  171. 

Small-pox,  Burman  mode  of  treat- 
ment, i.  198. 

Smoking,  universal  in  Burmah,  i.  186. 

Snake-charmers,  ii.  50. 

Society  in  Calcutta,  ii.  34. 

Solemn  inquiry,  ii.  174. 

SomonaKodom,  ii.  123. 

Sparseness  of  population  in  Arracan, 
i.  130. 

Squalls  at  sea,  i.  20. 

Standing  army  in  India,  ii.  79  ;  291. 

Stale  of  religion  in  Calcutta,  ii.  35. 

Stations  not  to  be  interrupted,  ii.  280. 

St.  Helena,  ii.  170. 

Style  of  building  in  Siam,  ii.  122. 

of   living    to    be    adopted    by 

missionaries,  ii.  265. 


Stocks,  punishment  of,  i.  217. 
Storm  off  Tavoy  Point,  i.  52. 
Storm  petrel,   (procellaria  pelagica,) 

i.  21. 
Strait  of  Malacca,  ii.  83. 
Structure  of  heathen  society,  ii.  227. 
Sudiya,  ii.  176. 
Sufferings  of  British  army  in  Rangoon, 

i.  140. 
Sugar,  largely  manufactured  at  Ume- 

rapoora,  i.  115. 
Sugar-cane,    a    product   of  Burmah, 

i.  171. 
Suitable  presents  for  Karens,  i.  42. 
Sunscrit  College,  ii.  23. 
Superstitions  of  the  Burmese,  i.  257. 
Support  of  widows  and  children,  ii.  268. 
Surrawa  prince  at  Ava,  i.  105. 
System  of  the  universe,  Burman,  i.  244. 
Swartz,  ii.  65  :  grave  of,  67. 


Tabasheer,  from  what  made,  i.  166. 

Tahmlah,  i.  46. 

Talings.     See  Peguans. 

Tamarind,  (tamarindus  indicus,)  i.  154. 

Tambiran,  a  distinguished  convert, 
ii.  54. 

Tamul  tracts  and  books,  ii.  234. 

Tanjore,  ii.  64:  Christian  villages,  66  : 
missionaries,  67. 

Tavoy  ;  town  and  suburbs,  i.  40  :  prov- 
ince, 40  :  dialect,  41  :  missionaries 
at,  41 :  Karens,  41  :  conquered  by 
Alompra,  136. 

Tattooing,  mode  of,  and  reasons,  i. 
186. 

Taxes  at  Chittagong,  i.  119. 

at  Akyab,  i.  127. 

Teak,  (fectona  grandis,)  i.  159. 

Tea  plant  of  Burmah,  i.  170. 

,  cultivated  by  Poloungs,  ii.  204. 

Teeth,  custom  and  mode  of  blacking, 
i.  135. 

Telinga,  ii.  56. 

Teloogoos.ii.  55  :  missions  among, 57  t 
translations,  58. 

Temperance,  universal  in  Burmah, 
i.  189. 

Tenasserim,  river  and  city,  i.  51. 

provinces,  administration 


of  justice  in,  i.  72. 

Tenure  of  property  in  Burmah,  i.  221. 

Testimony  to  purity  of  missionaries,  l. 
131  :  to  the  usefulness  of  their  ser- 
vices, ii.  173. 

Thatch,  material  of,  i.  154. 

Thathenabyng,  or  supreme  pontiff  at 
Ava,  i.  105. 


321 


The  Hopia  tree,  1.  37. 

Thingan,  (hopia  odorata,)  i.  160. 

Tical,  i.  2285  232. 

Tillage,  mode  of,  in  Bnrmali,  i.  167. 

Timber-trees  of  Burmah,  i.  159. 

Time,  Burman  division  of,  i.  231. 

Tipperah,  or  Tripura,  ii.  207. 

Tobacco,  wild  in  Burmah,  i.  158. 

,  cultivated,  i.  169. 

Toddy-tree,  i.  95  ;  155. 

Toleration,dcgree  of,  in  Burmah,  i.  269. 

Toung  Byouk  Gahe,  i.  46. 

Toungthoos,  ii.  200. 

Tour  among  Karen  villages,  i.  57. 

Tract  distribution  at  Kewnew,  i.  84. 

Tracts  and  practical  works  for  hea- 
then, ii.  234 :  translated  from  the 
English,  256. 

Trade  winds,  i.  23. 

Trades,  Burman,  i.  210. 

Trading  vessels  on  the  Irrawaddy,  1. 
226. 

Tranquebar,  ii.  61. 

Translations,  into  Karen  language, 
i.  47  :  into  Malay,  ii.  110  :  number, 
233:  into  Burman,  234:  value  of, 
255. 

Travelling  in  India  by  land,  ii.  59. 

Trial  by  ordeal,  i.  217. 

Tribes  in  and  around  Burmah,  ii.  191. 

Trichinopoly,  ii.  68. 

Tringano,  ii.  105. 

Tristran  d'Acunha,  i.  24. 

Tropical  and  aquatic  novelties,  i.  21. 

Tsaloay,  badge  of  official  rank,  i. 
212. 

Tswahs,  ii.  200. 

Tunes,  Oriental,  ii.  38. 

U. 

Umerapoora  ;  location,  i.  114  :  Chi- 
nese residents,  114:  sugar  manufac- 
ture, 115:  when  founded,  137:  a 
suitable  station  for  a  Chinese  mis- 
sion, ii.  178. 

I  ^cleanliness  of  Burmans,  i.  192. 


Vaccination  not  successful  in  Burmah, 

i.  195. 
Variety  of  Burman  fruits,  i.  159  :  value 

compared  with  those  of  our  countrv, 

159. 


Vegetable    productions.    Burmah,    i. 

150. 
Versions  of  Scripture  in  Chinese,  ii. 

182. 
Violin,  Burman,  i.  205. 
Visits  to  the  great  at  Ava,  1.  102. 
at  Bankok.  ii.  117 


to  hong  merchant,  ii.  153. 

Vocal  music  of  Bengal,  ii.  31. 

Voyage  to  India,  i.  13:  on  tin-  coast 
of  Mergui,  48:   to  Calcutta,  ii.  7 
to  Madras,  48  :    to  Singapore,  ;j] 
to  Malacca,  94:    to  Bankok,   112 
to  China,  142  :  to  the  United  States, 
167. 


W. 

Wages,  rate  of,  in  Burmah,  i.  168. 

Wahs,  ii.  200. 

Walk  over  the  Tavoy  Mountains,  i.  39. 

War  between  Burmah  and  the  Eng- 
lish, i.  140. 

Washing,  singular  mode  of.  ii.  Hi. 

Water  festival  of  the  Burmans,  i.  59. 

Wats,  or  sacred  places  in  Siam,  ii. 
122. 

Wayland's,  (Pres.)  opinion,  ii.  271. 

Wedding  procession,  Calcutta,  ii.  !  !•. 

Weights  and  measures,  Burman,  i.  232. 

Whampoa,  ii.  143. 

White  elephant  of  Burmah,  i.  223. 

Wild  animals  of  Burmah,  i.  172. 

Witches,  Burman  fear  of,  i.  258. 

Wives  of  missionaries,  usefulness  of, 
ii.  219. 

Women,  condition  of,  in  Burmah,  i. 
193. 

Wood-oil  made  from  Theetsay,  i.  162  : 
used  in  gilding,  207. 

Worship,  Boodhistical,  i.  255. 

Worship-days,  Burman,  i.  231. 

Written  code  of  Burmah,  i.  216. 

Y. 

Yaws,  or  Jos,  ii.  202. 
Yaynangoung,  i.  91. 

Z. 

Zayats,  provided  for  strangers,  i.  188. 
•,  description  of,  i.  252. 


Zemmai,  or  Changmy,  ii.  179. 


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